Abraham Lincoln - Wikipedia

Abraham Lincoln - Wikipedia
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President of the United States from 1861 to 1865
"President Lincoln" redirects here. For the troopship, see
USS
President Lincoln
For other uses, see
Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation)
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Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln in 1863
16th
President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1861 – April 15, 1865
Vice President
Hannibal Hamlin
(1861–1865)
Andrew Johnson
(Mar–Apr 1865)
Preceded by
James Buchanan
Succeeded by
Andrew Johnson
Member of the
U.S. House of Representatives
from
Illinois
's
7th
district
In office
March 4, 1847 – March 3, 1849
Preceded by
John Henry
Succeeded by
Thomas L. Harris
Member of the
Illinois House of Representatives
from
Sangamon County
In office
December 1, 1834 – December 4, 1842
Preceded by
Achilles Morris
Personal details
Born
1809-02-12
February 12, 1809
LaRue County, Kentucky
, U.S.
Died
April 15, 1865
(1865-04-15)
(aged 56)
Washington, D.C., U.S.
Manner of death
Assassination by gunshot
Resting place
Lincoln Tomb
Party
Whig
(before 1856)
Republican
(after 1856)
Other political
affiliations
National Union
(1864–1865)
Height
6 ft 4 in (193 cm)
Spouse
Mary Todd
m.
1842
Relatives
Lincoln family
Occupation
Politician
lawyer
Signature
Nickname
"Honest Abe"
Military service
Allegiance
United States
Branch/service
Illinois Militia
Years of service
April–July 1832
Rank
Captain
Private
Battles/wars
Black Hawk War
(see
Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War
Abraham Lincoln
(February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th
president of the United States
, serving from 1861 until
his assassination
in 1865. He led the United States through the
American Civil War
, defeating the
Confederate States
and playing a major role in the
abolition of slavery
Born in
a one-room log cabin
in Kentucky, Lincoln was raised on the
frontier
. He was
self-educated
and became a lawyer,
Illinois
state
legislator
, and
U.S. representative
. Angered by the
Kansas–Nebraska Act
of 1854, which opened the territories to slavery, he became a leader of the new
Republican Party
. He reached a national audience in the
1858 Senate campaign debates
against
Stephen A. Douglas
. Lincoln won the
1860 presidential election
, becoming the first Republican president. His victory prompted a majority of the slave states to begin to
secede
and form the Confederate States. A month after Lincoln assumed the presidency, Confederate forces
attacked Fort Sumter
, starting the Civil War.
As a
moderate Republican
, Lincoln had to navigate conflicting political opinions from contentious factions during the war effort. He closely supervised the Union's strategy and tactics, including the selection of generals and the implementation of a
naval blockade
of Southern ports. He suspended the writ of
habeas corpus
in April 1861, an action that Chief Justice
Roger Taney
found in
Ex parte Merryman
that only Congress could do, and he averted war with
Britain
by defusing the
Trent
Affair
. On January 1, 1863, he issued the
Emancipation Proclamation
, which declared the slaves in the states "in rebellion" to be free. On November 19, 1863, he delivered the
Gettysburg Address
, which became one of the most famous speeches in American history. He promoted the
Thirteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution
, which, in 1865, abolished
chattel slavery
. Following his
re-election in 1864
, he sought to heal the war-torn nation through
Reconstruction
On April 14, 1865, five days after the
Confederate surrender at Appomattox
, Lincoln was attending a play at
Ford's Theatre
in
Washington, D.C.
, when he was fatally shot by
John Wilkes Booth
, a Confederate sympathizer. The first U.S. president to be assassinated, Lincoln is remembered as a
martyr
and a national hero for his wartime leadership and for his efforts to preserve the
Union
and abolish slavery. He
is consistently ranked
in both popular and scholarly polls as among the greatest presidents in
American history
This article is part of
a series about
Abraham Lincoln
Personal
Early life and career
Family
Health
Religious views
Sexuality
Patent
Artifacts and relics
Photographs
Black Hawk War
Political
Spot Resolutions
Political career, 1849–1861
Baltimore Plot
Douglas debates
Views on slavery
16th President of the United States
Presidency
Transition
Inaugurations
first
second
Tenure
American Civil War
The Union
Proclamation 80
Emancipation Proclamation
Ten percent plan
13th Amendment
Reconstruction
Presidential campaigns
1860
election
convention
1864
election
convention
Speeches and works
Inaugural speeches
first
second
State of the Union
1861
1862
1863
1864
Lyceum
Peoria
Lost Speech
House Divided
Cooper Union
Farewell address
Gettysburg
Poetry
The Suicide's Soliloquy
Bixby letter
McCullough letter
Assassination
Baltimore Plot
State funeral
Tomb
Catafalque
Flags
Hearse
Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences
Legacy
Historical reputation
Memorials
Depictions
Lincoln's Birthday
Ghost
Bibliography
Topical guide
Family and childhood
Early life
Main article:
Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln
Further information:
Lincoln family
Born in
a one-room log cabin
in Kentucky on February 12, 1809, Abraham Lincoln was raised on
Sinking Spring Farm
near
Hodgenville, Kentucky
The second child of
Thomas Lincoln
and
Nancy Hanks Lincoln
, he was a descendant of
Samuel Lincoln
, an Englishman who emigrated to
Massachusetts
in 1637
(Abraham Lincoln said that Samuel Lincoln "came from Norwich, England, in 1638"
) and of the
Harrison family of Virginia
His paternal grandfather and namesake,
Captain Abraham Lincoln
, moved the family from
Virginia
to Kentucky. The captain was killed in
a Native American raid
in 1786.
The family settled in
Hardin County, Kentucky
, in the early 1800s.
Nancy is widely assumed to have been the daughter of Lucy Hanks.
Thomas and Nancy married on June 12, 1806, and moved to
Elizabethtown, Kentucky
10
They had three children: Sarah, Abraham, and Thomas Jr., who died as an infant.
11
Lincoln's father bought multiple farms in Kentucky but could not get clear
property titles
to any, losing hundreds of acres in legal disputes.
12
In 1816, the family moved to
Indiana
, where land titles were more reliable.
13
They settled on a forested plot in
Little Pigeon Creek Community
14
In Kentucky and Indiana, Thomas worked as a farmer, cabinetmaker, and carpenter.
15
At various times, he owned farms, livestock, and town lots, appraised estates, and served on county patrols. Thomas and Nancy were members of a
Separate Baptist Church
, a pious evangelical group whose members largely opposed slavery.
16
Overcoming financial challenges, Thomas obtained
clear title
to 80 acres (32 ha) in Little Pigeon Creek Community in 1827.
17
On October 5, 1818, Nancy died from
milk sickness
, leaving 11-year-old Sarah in charge of the household, which included her father, 9-year-old Abraham, and Nancy's 19-year-old orphan cousin, Dennis Hanks.
18
Thomas married
Sarah Bush Johnston
, a widow with three children of her own, on December 2, 1819.
Abraham became close to his stepmother and called her "Mama".
19
On January 20, 1828, Lincoln's sister died in childbirth, devastating him.
20
Education and move to Illinois
Lincoln was largely self-educated.
21
His formal schooling was from
itinerant teachers
. It included two short stints in Kentucky, where he learned to read, but probably not to write. After moving to Indiana at age seven, he attended school only sporadically, for a total of less than 12 months by age 15.
22
Nevertheless, he was an avid reader and retained a lifelong interest in learning.
23
When Lincoln was a teenager his father relied heavily on him for farmwork and for supplementary income, hiring the boy out to area farmers and pocketing the money, as was the custom at the time.
24
When he was somewhat older, Lincoln and some friends took a job carrying goods by
flatboat
to
New Orleans
, Louisiana, where the
slave markets
, according to the historian
Michael Burlingame
, "would leave an indelible impression on him.... It was the first time, but not the last, that he would be repelled while observing slavery firsthand."
25
In March 1830, fearing another milk-sickness outbreak, several members of the extended Lincoln family, including Abraham, moved west to Illinois and settled in
Macon County
26
Abraham became increasingly distant from Thomas, in part due to his father's lack of interest in education;
27
he would later refuse to attend his father's deathbed or funeral in 1851.
Marriage and children
Further information:
Lincoln family
Health of Abraham Lincoln
, and
Sexuality of Abraham Lincoln
Mary Todd Lincoln
with
Willie
and
Tad
Some historians, such as Michael Burlingame, identify Lincoln's first romantic interest as
Ann Rutledge
, a young woman also from Kentucky whom he met when he moved to
New Salem, Illinois
28
Lewis Gannett
disputes that the evidence supports a romantic relationship between the two.
29
David Herbert Donald
states that "How that friendship [between Lincoln and Rutledge] developed into a romance cannot be reconstructed from the record".
30
Rutledge died on August 25, 1835, of
typhoid fever
. Lincoln took her death very hard, sinking into a serious depression and contemplating suicide.
31
32
In the early 1830s, Lincoln met
Mary Owens
from Kentucky.
33
Late in 1836, Lincoln agreed to a match with Owens if she returned to New Salem. Owens arrived that November and he courted her, but they both had second thoughts. On August 16, 1837, he wrote Owens a letter saying he would not blame her if she ended the relationship, and she declined to marry him.
34
In 1839, Lincoln met
Mary Todd
in
Springfield, Illinois
, and the following year they became engaged.
35
She was a daughter of
Robert Smith Todd
, a wealthy lawyer and businessman in
Lexington, Kentucky
36
Lincoln initially broke off the engagement in early 1841, but the two were reconciled and married on November 4, 1842.
37
In 1844, the couple bought
a house
in Springfield near his law office.
38
The marriage was turbulent; Mary was verbally abusive and at times physically violent towards her husband.
39
They had four sons. The eldest,
Robert Todd Lincoln
, was born in 1843, and was the only child to live to maturity.
Edward Baker "Eddie" Lincoln
, born in 1846, died February 1, 1850, probably of
tuberculosis
. Lincoln's third son,
William Wallace "Willie" Lincoln
, was born on December 21, 1850, and died of a fever at the
White House
on February 20, 1862. The youngest,
Thomas "Tad" Lincoln
, was born on April 4, 1853, and died of
edema
at age 18 on July 16, 1871.
40
Lincoln loved children,
41
and the Lincolns were not considered to be strict with their own.
42
The deaths of Eddie and Willie had profound effects on both parents. Lincoln suffered from "
melancholy
", a condition now thought to be
clinical depression
32
Early vocations and militia service
Further information:
Early life and career of Abraham Lincoln
and
Abraham Lincoln in the Black Hawk War
In 1831, Lincoln's father moved the family to
a new homestead
in
Coles County, Illinois
, after which Abraham struck out on his own.
43
He made his home in
New Salem, Illinois
, for six years.
44
During 1831 and 1832, Lincoln worked at a general store in New Salem.
45
He gained a reputation for strength and courage after winning a
wrestling
match with the leader of a group of ruffians known as the Clary's Grove boys.
46
In 1832, he declared his candidacy for the
Illinois House of Representatives
, though he interrupted his campaign to serve as a captain in the
Illinois Militia
during the
Black Hawk War
45
He was elected the captain of his militia company but did not see combat.
47
In his political campaigning, Lincoln advocated for navigational improvements on the
Sangamon River
48
He drew crowds as a
raconteur
, but he lacked name recognition, powerful friends, and money, and he lost the election.
49
When Lincoln returned home from the war, he planned to become a
blacksmith
but instead purchased a New Salem general store in partnership with William Berry. Because a license was required to sell customers alcoholic beverages, Berry obtained bartending licenses for Lincoln and himself, and in 1833 the
Lincoln–Berry General Store
became a
tavern
as well.
50
Burlingame wrote that Berry was "an undisciplined, hard-drinking fellow", and Lincoln "was too soft-hearted to deny anyone credit".
51
Although the economy was booming, the business struggled and went into debt, prompting Lincoln to sell his share.
50
Lincoln served as New Salem's
postmaster
and later as
county surveyor
, but he continued his voracious reading and decided to become a lawyer.
52
Rather than studying in the office of an established attorney, as was customary, Lincoln
read law
on his own, borrowing legal texts, including
Blackstone
's
Commentaries
and
Chitty
's
Pleadings
, from attorney
John Todd Stuart
53
He later said of his legal education that he "studied with nobody."
54
He was bestowed an honorary degree of Doctor of Laws by
Columbia University
in 1861.
55
Early political offices and prairie lawyer
Illinois state legislature (1834–1842)
Lincoln's home
in
Springfield, Illinois
, where he resided from 1844 until becoming president in 1861
In Lincoln's second state house campaign in 1834, as a supporter of
Whig Party
leader
Henry Clay
, he finished second among thirteen candidates running for four places.
56
Lincoln echoed Clay's support for the
American Colonization Society
, which advocated
abolition
in conjunction with settling freed slaves in
Liberia
57
The Whigs also favored economic modernization in banking, tariffs to fund
internal improvements
such as railroads, and urbanization.
58
Lincoln served four terms in the Illinois House of Representatives for
Sangamon County
59
In this role, he championed construction of the
Illinois and Michigan Canal
60
Lincoln voted to expand suffrage beyond White landowners to all White men.
61
He supported the chartering of the Illinois State Bank,
62
and also led a successful campaign for moving the state capital from
Vandalia
to Springfield.
63
On January 27, 1838, Lincoln delivered
an address at the Lyceum
in Springfield, after the murder of the anti-slavery newspaper editor
Elijah Parish Lovejoy
. In this ostensibly non-partisan speech, Lincoln attacked
Stephen A. Douglas
and the
Democratic Party
, who the Whigs argued were supporting "mobocracy". His speech also attacked anti-abolitionism and racial bigotry.
64
He was criticized in the press for a planned
duel
with
James Shields
, whom he had ridiculed in letters published under the name "Aunt Rebecca". Although the duel did not take place, Burlingame noted that "the affair embarrassed Lincoln terribly".
65
U.S. House of Representatives (1847–1849)
A daguerreotype of Lincoln, taken around 1847, the earliest known photograph of him
66
In 1843, Lincoln sought the Whig nomination for
Illinois's 7th district seat
in the
U.S. House of Representatives
John J. Hardin
was the winning candidate, though Lincoln convinced the party convention to limit Hardin to one term.
67
Lincoln not only gained the nomination in 1846, but also won the election.
68
The only Whig in the Illinois delegation, he was assigned to the
Committee on Post Office and Post Roads
and the
Committee on Expenditures in the War Department
69
Lincoln teamed with
Joshua R. Giddings
on a bill to abolish slavery in the
District of Columbia
, but dropped the bill when it failed to attract support from most other Whigs.
70
71
Lincoln spoke against the
Mexican–American War
(1846–1848), for which he said President
James K. Polk
had "some strong motive ... to involve the two countries in a war, and trusting to escape scrutiny, by fixing the public gaze upon the exceeding brightness of military glory—that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood".
72
He supported the
Wilmot Proviso
, a failed 1846 proposal to ban slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico.
73
Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had begun the war by "invading the territory of the State of Texas ... and shedding the blood of our citizens on our own soil".
74
In his 1847 "
spot resolutions
", Lincoln rhetorically demanded that Polk tell Congress the exact "spot" where this occurred, but the Polk administration did not respond.
75
His approach and rhetoric cost Lincoln political support in his district, and newspapers derisively nicknamed him "spotty Lincoln".
Lincoln had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House.
76
At the
1848 Whig National Convention
, he initially supported Henry Clay and was among the leaders of the Illinois delegation backing Clay, voting for him on the early ballots. When it became clear that Clay could not secure the nomination, Lincoln joined other Whigs in shifting support to
Zachary Taylor
, who won the party's nomination and the presidency in 1848.
77
After Taylor won, Lincoln hoped in vain to be appointed commissioner of the
United States General Land Office
78
The administration offered to appoint him secretary of the
Oregon Territory
instead.
79
This would have disrupted his legal and political career in Illinois, so he declined and resumed his law practice.
80
Prairie lawyer
See also:
List of cases involving Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln was
admitted to the Illinois bar
on September 9, 1836.
81
He moved to Springfield and began to practice law under
John T. Stuart
, Mary Todd's cousin.
82
He partnered for several years with
Stephen T. Logan
and, in 1844, began
his practice
with
William Herndon
83
In his Springfield practice, according to Donald, Lincoln handled "virtually every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer".
84
He dealt with many transportation cases in the midst of the nation's western expansion, particularly river barge conflicts under the new railroad bridges. In 1849 he received
a patent for a flotation device
for the movement of
riverboats
in shallow water
85
and Lincoln initially favored riverboat legal interests, but he represented whoever hired him.
86
He represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in
Hurd v. Rock Island Bridge Company
, a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge.
87
His patent was never commercialized, but it made Lincoln the only president to hold a patent.
85
Lincoln appeared before the
Illinois Supreme Court
in 411 cases.
88
From 1853 to 1860, one of his largest clients was the
Illinois Central Railroad
, which Lincoln successfully sued to recover his legal fees.
89
Lincoln represented William "Duff" Armstrong in his 1858 trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker.
90
The case is famous for Lincoln's use of a fact established by
judicial notice
to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness. After a witness testified to seeing the crime in the moonlight, Lincoln produced a
Farmers' Almanac
showing the Moon was at a low angle, drastically reducing visibility. Armstrong was acquitted.
91
In an 1859 murder case, he defended "Peachy" Quinn Harrison, the grandson of
Peter Cartwright
, Lincoln's political opponent.
92
Harrison was charged with the murder of Greek Crafton who, according to Cartwright, said as he lay dying that he had "brought it upon myself" and that he forgave Harrison.
93
Lincoln angrily protested the judge's initial decision to exclude Cartwright's claim as
hearsay
. Lincoln argued that the testimony involved a
dying declaration
and so was not subject to the hearsay rule. Instead of holding Lincoln in
contempt of court
as expected, the judge, a Democrat, admitted the testimony into evidence, resulting in Harrison's acquittal.
94
Republican politics (1854–1860)
Main article:
Political career of Abraham Lincoln (1849–1861)
Emergence as Republican leader
Further information:
Slave states and free states
and
Abraham Lincoln and slavery
Lincoln in 1858, the year of
his debates
with
Stephen Douglas
over slavery
The
Compromise of 1850
failed to alleviate tensions over slavery between the slave-holding South and the free North.
95
As the slavery debate in the
Nebraska
and
Kansas
territories became particularly acrimonious, Illinois Senator Stephen A. Douglas proposed
popular sovereignty
as a compromise; the measure would allow the electorate of each territory to decide the status of slavery. The legislation alarmed many Northerners, who sought to prevent the spread of slavery, but Douglas's
Kansas–Nebraska Act
narrowly passed Congress in May 1854.
96
Lincoln's
Peoria Speech
of October 1854, in which he declared his opposition to slavery,
97
was one of an estimated 175 speeches he delivered in the next six years on the topic of excluding slavery from the territories.
Lincoln's attacks on the Kansas–Nebraska Act marked his return to political life.
98
Nationally, the Whigs were irreparably split by the Kansas–Nebraska Act and other ineffective efforts to compromise on the slavery issue. Reflecting on the demise of his party, Lincoln wrote in 1855, "I think I am a whig; but others say there are no whigs, and that I am an abolitionist.... I now do no more than oppose the
extension
of slavery."
99
The new
Republican Party
was formed as a northern party dedicated to anti-slavery, drawing from the anti-slavery wing of the
Whig
Party and combining
Free Soil
Liberty
, and anti-slavery Democratic Party members.
100
Lincoln resisted early Republican entreaties, fearing that the new party would become a platform for extreme abolitionists.
101
Lincoln held out hope for rejuvenating the Whigs, though he lamented his party's growing closeness with the nativist
Know Nothing
movement.
102
In 1854, Lincoln was elected to the Illinois legislature, but before the term began he declined to take his seat so that he would be eligible to run in the upcoming U.S. Senate election.
103
At that time, senators were elected by state legislatures. After leading in the first six rounds of voting, Lincoln was unable to obtain a majority. Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for
Lyman Trumbull
, an anti-slavery Democrat who had received few votes in the earlier ballots. Lincoln's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull's anti-slavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate,
Joel Aldrich Matteson
104
1856 campaign
Violent political confrontations in Kansas
continued, and opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act remained strong throughout the North. As the
1856 elections
approached, Lincoln joined the Republicans and attended the
Bloomington Convention
, where the
Illinois Republican Party
was established. The convention platform endorsed Congress's right to regulate slavery in the territories and backed the admission of Kansas as a free state. Lincoln gave the
final speech
of the convention, calling for the preservation of the Union.
105
At the June
1856 Republican National Convention
, Lincoln received support to run as vice president, but the party put forward a ticket of
John C. Frémont
and
William Dayton
, which Lincoln supported throughout Illinois. The Democrats nominated
James Buchanan
and the Know Nothings nominated
Millard Fillmore
106
Buchanan prevailed, while Republican
William Henry Bissell
won election as Governor of Illinois, and Lincoln became a leading Republican in Illinois.
107
Dred Scott v. Sandford
Main article:
Dred Scott v. Sandford
Dred Scott
was a slave whose master took him from a slave state to a territory that was free as a result of the
Missouri Compromise
. After Scott was returned to the slave state, he petitioned a federal court for his freedom. His petition was denied in
Dred Scott v. Sandford
(1857).
109
Supreme Court Chief Justice
Roger B. Taney
wrote in his opinion that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional because it infringed on slave owners' property rights by prohibiting them from bringing their slaves into the territories. While many Democrats hoped that
Dred Scott
would end the dispute over slavery in the territories, the decision sparked further outrage in the North.
110
Lincoln denounced it as the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the
Slave Power
111
He argued that the decision was at variance with the
Declaration of Independence
, which stated that "all men are created equal ... with certain unalienable rights", among them "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness".
112
Lincoln–Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech
Main articles:
Lincoln–Douglas debates
and
Cooper Union speech
Abraham Lincoln
, a portrait by
Mathew Brady
taken February 27, 1860, the day of Lincoln's
Cooper Union speech
in New York City.
In 1858, Douglas was up for re-election in the U.S. Senate, and Lincoln hoped to defeat him. Many in the party felt that a former Whig should be nominated in 1858, and Lincoln's 1856 campaigning and support of Trumbull had earned him a favor.
113
For the first time, Illinois Republicans held a convention to agree upon a Senate candidate, and Lincoln won the nomination with little opposition.
114
Lincoln accepted the nomination with great enthusiasm and zeal. After his nomination he delivered his
House Divided Speech
"A house divided against itself cannot stand." I believe this government cannot endure, permanently half
slave
and half
free
. I do not expect the Union to be
dissolved
—I do not expect the house to
fall
—but I
do
expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.
115
The speech created a stark image of the danger of disunion.
116
When informed of Lincoln's nomination, Douglas stated, "[Lincoln] is the strong man of the party ... and if I beat him, my victory will be hardly won."
117
The Senate campaign featured
seven debates
between Lincoln and Douglas; they had an atmosphere akin to a prizefight and drew thousands.
118
Lincoln warned that the Slave Power was threatening the values of republicanism, and he accused Douglas of distorting Jefferson's premise that
all men are created equal
. In his
Freeport Doctrine
, Douglas argued that, despite the
Dred Scott
decision, which he claimed to support, local settlers, under
popular sovereignty
, should be free to choose whether to allow slavery in their territory. He accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists.
119
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats, and the legislature re-elected Douglas. However, Lincoln's articulation of the issues had given him a national political presence.
120
In the aftermath of the 1858 election, newspapers frequently mentioned Lincoln as a potential Republican presidential candidate. While Lincoln was popular in the
Midwest
, he lacked support in the Northeast and was unsure whether to seek the office.
121
In January 1860, Lincoln told a group of political allies that he would accept the presidential nomination if offered and, in the following months,
William O. Stoddard
's
Central Illinois Gazette
, the
Chicago Press & Tribune
, and other local papers endorsed his candidacy.
122
In February 1860,
Henry Ward Beecher
invited Lincoln to address his congregation at
Plymouth Church
in Brooklyn, New York. Lincoln agreed, but the venue shifted to
Cooper Union
in Manhattan.
123
In his
speech at Cooper Union
, which he gave on February 27, Lincoln argued that the
Founding Fathers
had little use for popular sovereignty, and that in the
Northwest Ordinance
they had restricted slavery in the territories;
124
he insisted that morality required opposition to slavery and rejected any "groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong".
125
Many in the audience thought he appeared awkward and even ugly.
126
But Lincoln demonstrated intellectual leadership, which brought him into contention for the presidency. Journalist
Noah Brooks
reported, "No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience".
127
Historian David Herbert Donald described the speech as "a superb political move for an unannounced presidential aspirant."
128
In response to an inquiry about his ambitions, Lincoln said, "The taste
is
in my mouth a little".
129
1860 presidential election
Main article:
1860 United States presidential election
The Rail Candidate
, a critical
Currier and Ives
illustration, which depicted Lincoln's platform in the
1860 presidential campaign
as being held up by a slave and Horace Greeley
On May 9–10, 1860, the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in
Decatur
130
Exploiting his embellished frontier legend of clearing land and splitting fence rails, Lincoln's supporters promoted him as "The Rail Candidate".
131
On May 18 at the
Republican National Convention
in Chicago, Lincoln won the nomination on the third ballot.
A former Democrat,
Hannibal Hamlin
of Maine, was nominated for vice president to
balance the ticket
132
Throughout the 1850s, Lincoln had doubted the prospects of civil war, and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession.
133
When Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats, delegates from the Southern slave states elected incumbent Vice President
John C. Breckinridge
as their candidate.
134
A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the
Constitutional Union Party
and nominated
John Bell
of Tennessee. Lincoln and Douglas competed for votes in the North, while Bell and Breckinridge found support primarily in the South.
113
A nationwide militaristic Republican youth organization, the
Wide Awakes
, "turned it into one of the most excited elections in American history" and "triggered massive popular enthusiasm", according to the political historian Jon Grinspan.
135
People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln and rallied supporters for him.
136
As Douglas and the other candidates campaigned, Lincoln gave no speeches, relying on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party. Republican speakers emphasized Lincoln's childhood poverty to demonstrate the power of "free labor", which allowed a common farm boy to work his way to the top by his own efforts.
137
Though he did not make public appearances, many sought to visit and write to Lincoln. In the runup to the election, he took an office in the
Illinois state capitol
to deal with the influx of attention. He also hired
John George Nicolay
as his personal secretary, who would remain in that role during the presidency.
138
On November 6, 1860, Lincoln was elected as the first Republican president. His victory was entirely due to his support in the North and West. No ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states.
139
Lincoln received 1,866,452 votes, or 39.8 percent of the total in a four-way race, carrying the free Northern states, as well as California and Oregon, and winning the electoral vote decisively.
140
Presidency (1861–1865)
Main article:
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
First term
Secession and inauguration
Main article:
Presidential transition of Abraham Lincoln
Further information:
Secession winter
and
Baltimore Plot
Lincoln's first inaugural
at the
United States Capitol
on March 4, 1861, with the
Capitol dome
above the rotunda still under construction.
Headlines in
The New York Times
following Lincoln's first inauguration portended imminent hostilities.
After Lincoln's election, secessionists implemented plans to leave the Union before he took office in March 1861.
141
On December 20, 1860, South Carolina adopted an ordinance of secession; by February 1, 1861, Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had followed.
142
Six of these states declared themselves to be a sovereign nation, the
Confederate States of America
, selecting
Jefferson Davis
as its provisional president.
143
The upper South and border states (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) initially rejected the secessionist appeal.
144
President Buchanan and President-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy, declaring secession illegal.
145
On February 11, 1861, Lincoln gave a particularly emotional
farewell address
upon leaving Springfield for Washington.
146
Lincoln and the Republicans rejected the proposed
Crittenden Compromise
as contrary to the party's platform of free-soil in the
territories
147
Lincoln said, "I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right".
148
Lincoln supported the
Corwin Amendment
to the
U.S. Constitution
, which would have protected slavery in states where it already existed. The amendment passed Congress and was awaiting ratification by the required three-fourths of the states when Southern states began to secede.
149
On March 4, 1861, in his
first inaugural address
, Lincoln said that, because he held "such a provision to now be implied constitutional law, I have no objection to its being made express, and irrevocable".
150
Lincoln was mocked by opposition papers falsely claiming that he sneaked into Washington in disguise after the 1860 election.
Due to secessionist plots, careful attention was paid to Lincoln's security and the train he took to Washington. The president-elect evaded suspected
assassins in Baltimore
. He traveled in disguise, wearing a soft felt hat instead of his customary
stovepipe hat
and draping an overcoat over his shoulders while hunching to conceal his height. On February 23, 1861, he arrived in Washington, D.C., which was placed under military guard. Many in the opposition press criticized his secretive journey; opposition newspapers mocked Lincoln with caricatures showing him sneaking into the capital.
151
Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South, proclaiming once again that he had no inclination to abolish slavery in the Southern states:
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States, that by the accession of a Republican Administration, their property, and their peace, and personal security, are to be endangered. There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension. Indeed, the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed, and been open to their inspection. It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you. I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that "I have no purpose, directly or indirectly, to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists. I believe I have no lawful right to do so, and I have no inclination to do so."
First inaugural address
, 4 March 1861
152
The president ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South: "We are not enemies, but friends.... The mystic chords of memory, stretching from every battle-field, and patriot grave, to every living heart and hearthstone ... will yet swell the chorus of the Union, when again touched ... by the better angels of our nature".
153
According to Donald, the failure of the
Peace Conference of 1861
to attract the attendance of seven of the Confederate states signaled that legislative compromise was not a practical expectation.
154
Personnel
Main articles:
Presidency of Abraham Lincoln § Foreign policy
, and
Diplomacy of the American Civil War
Lincoln cabinet
155
Office
Name
Term
President
Abraham Lincoln
1861–1865
Vice President
Hannibal Hamlin
1861–1865
Andrew Johnson
1865
Secretary of State
William H. Seward
1861–1865
Secretary of the Treasury
Salmon P. Chase
1861–1864
William P. Fessenden
1864–1865
Hugh McCulloch
1865
Secretary of War
Simon Cameron
1861–1862
Edwin M. Stanton
1862–1865
Attorney General
Edward Bates
1861–1864
James Speed
1864–1865
Postmaster General
Montgomery Blair
1861–1864
William Dennison Jr.
1864–1865
Secretary of the Navy
Gideon Welles
1861–1865
Secretary of the Interior
Caleb Blood Smith
1861–1862
John Palmer Usher
1863–1865
In selecting his cabinet, Lincoln chose the men he found the most competent, even when they had been his opponents for the presidency. Lincoln commented on his thought process, "We need the strongest men of the party in the Cabinet. We needed to hold our own people together. I had looked the party over and concluded that these were the very strongest men. Then I had no right to deprive the country of their services."
156
Doris Kearns Goodwin
described the group in her 2005 biography of Lincoln as a "
team of rivals
".
157
Lincoln named his main political opponent,
William H. Seward
, as Secretary of State.
158
Lincoln made five appointments to the Supreme Court.
Noah Haynes Swayne
, a prominent corporate lawyer from Ohio, replaced
John McLean
after the latter's death in April 1861. Like McLean, Swayne opposed slavery.
159
Samuel Freeman Miller
, who replaced
Peter V. Daniel
, was an avowed abolitionist and received widespread support from Iowa politicians.
160
David Davis
was Lincoln's campaign manager in 1860 and had served as a judge in the Illinois court circuit where Lincoln practiced.
161
Democrat
Stephen Johnson Field
, a previous California Supreme Court justice, provided geographic and political balance.
162
After the death of
Roger B. Taney
, Lincoln appointed his former secretary of the treasury,
Salmon P. Chase
, to replace Taney as chief justice. Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist who would support Reconstruction legislation and that his appointment would unite the Republican Party.
163
Commander-in-Chief
Portrait of Lincoln
c.
1862
In early April 1861,
Major Robert Anderson
, commander of
Fort Sumter
in Charleston, South Carolina, advised that he was nearly out of food. After considerable debate, Lincoln decided to send provisions; according to Michael Burlingame, he "could not be sure that his decision would precipitate a war, though he had good reason to believe that it might".
164
On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces
fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter
, starting the
American Civil War
165
Donald concludes:
His repeated efforts to avoid collision ... showed that he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood. But he had also vowed not to surrender the forts.... The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the Confederates to fire the first shot.
166
The April 12 and 13 attack on Fort Sumter rallied the Northern public to see military action against the South as necessary to defend the nation.
167
On April 15,
Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen
to recapture forts, protect Washington, and preserve the Union. This call forced states to choose whether to secede or to support the Union. North Carolina, Virginia, Tennessee, and Arkansas seceded. As the Northern states sent regiments south, on April 19 Baltimore mobs in control of the rail links
attacked Union troops
who were changing trains. Local leaders' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital and the Army responded by
arresting local Maryland officials
. Lincoln suspended the writ of
habeas corpus
, allowing arrests without formal charges.
168
John Merryman
, a Maryland officer arrested for hindering U.S. troop movements, successfully petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice Taney to issue
a writ of
habeas corpus
. In an opinion titled
Ex parte Merryman
, Taney, not ruling on behalf of the Supreme Court, wrote that the Constitution authorized only Congress and not the president to suspend habeas corpus. But Lincoln engaged in
nonacquiescence
and persisted with the policy of suspension in select areas.
169
Under various suspensions, 15,000 civilians were detained without trial; several, including the anti-war Democrat
Clement L. Vallandigham
, were tried in military courts for "treasonable" actions, which was condemned as an attack on free speech.
170
Early Union military strategy
Main articles:
Eastern theater of the American Civil War
and
Western theater of the American Civil War
Further information:
Trans-Mississippi theater of the American Civil War
and
Lower seaboard theater of the American Civil War
Lincoln took executive control of the war and shaped the
Union
military strategy. He responded to the unprecedented political and military crisis as
commander-in-chief
by exercising unprecedented authority. He expanded his war powers, imposed a
naval blockade
on Confederate ports, disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress, suspended
habeas corpus
, and arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers. Lincoln gained the support of Congress and the northern public for these actions. Lincoln also had to reinforce Union sympathies in the border slave states and keep the war from becoming an international conflict.
171
It was clear from the outset that bipartisan support was essential to success, and that any compromise alienated factions in both political parties. Copperheads (anti-war Democrats) criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on slavery; the
Radical Republicans
, who demanded harsh treatment against secession, criticized him for moving too slowly to abolish slavery.
172
On August 6, 1861, Lincoln signed the
Confiscation Act
, which authorized judicial proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederates. The law had little practical effect, but it signaled political support for abolishing slavery.
173
Running the Machine
, an 1864 political cartoon satirizing Lincoln and his administration, including
William Fessenden
Edwin Stanton
William H. Seward
, and
Gideon Welles
Lincoln's war strategy had two priorities: ensuring that Washington was well defended and conducting an aggressive war effort for a prompt, decisive victory.
Twice a week, Lincoln met with his cabinet. Occasionally, Lincoln's wife, Mary, prevailed on him to take a carriage ride, concerned that he was working too hard.
175
Early in the war, Lincoln selected civilian generals from varied political and ethnic backgrounds "to secure their and their constituents' support for the war effort and ensure that the war became a national struggle".
176
In January 1862, after complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department, Lincoln replaced
Simon Cameron
as
secretary of war
with
Edwin Stanton
177
Stanton worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than did any other senior official. According to Stanton's biographers
Benjamin P. Thomas
and
Harold Hyman
, "Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together".
178
Lincoln saw the importance of
Vicksburg
for control of the
Mississippi River
valley and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy's army, rather than merely capturing territory.
179
In directing the Union's war strategy, Lincoln valued the advice of
Winfield Scott
, even after his retirement as
Commanding General of the United States Army
. In 1861 Scott proposed the
Anaconda Plan
, which relied on port blockades and advancing down the Mississippi to subdue the South. In June 1862, Lincoln made an unannounced visit to
West Point
, where he spent five hours consulting with Scott regarding the handling of the war.
180
Internationally, Lincoln wanted to forestall foreign military aid to the Confederacy.
181
He relied on his combative Secretary of State William Seward while working closely with
Senate Foreign Relations Committee
chairman
Charles Sumner
182
In 1861 the U.S. Navy illegally intercepted a British mail ship, the
RMS Trent
, on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys. Although the North celebrated the seizure, Britain protested vehemently, and the
Trent Affair
threatened war between the Americans and the British. Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats.
183
McClellan
Lincoln meeting with
Union Army
officers on October 3, 1862, following the
Battle of Antietam
, including left to right: Col.
Delos Sackett
; 4. Gen.
George W. Morell
; 5.
Alexander S. Webb
, Chief of Staff, V Corps; 6. McClellan;. 8.
Jonathan Letterman
; 10. Lincoln; 11.
Henry J. Hunt
; 12.
Fitz John Porter
; 15.
Andrew A. Humphreys
; 16. Capt.
George Armstrong Custer
Main article:
George B. McClellan
After the Union rout at
Bull Run
and Winfield Scott's retirement, Lincoln appointed
George B. McClellan
general-in-chief.
184
Early in the war, McClellan created defenses for Washington that were almost impregnable: 48 forts and
batteries
, with 480 guns manned by 7,200 artillerists.
185
He spent months planning his Virginia
Peninsula Campaign
. McClellan's slow progress and excessive precautions frustrated Lincoln. McClellan, in turn, blamed the failure of the campaign on Lincoln's cautiousness in having reserved troops for the capital.
186
In 1862, Lincoln removed McClellan as general-in-chief; he elevated Henry Halleck to the post and appointed
John Pope
as head of the new
Army of Virginia
187
In the summer of 1862 Pope was soundly defeated at the
Second Battle of Bull Run
, forcing him to retreat to Washington. Soon after, the Army of Virginia was disbanded.
188
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan's failure to reinforce Pope, Lincoln restored him to command of all forces around Washington, which included both the
Army of the Potomac
and the remains of the Army of Virginia.
189
Two days later,
Robert E. Lee
's forces crossed the
Potomac River
into Maryland, leading to the
Battle of Antietam
190
This battle, a Union victory, was among the bloodiest in American history.
191
A crisis of command occurred for Lincoln when McClellan then resisted the president's demand that he pursue Lee's withdrawing army, while
Don Carlos Buell
likewise refused orders to move the
Army of the Ohio
against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee. Lincoln replaced Buell with
William Rosecrans
and McClellan with
Ambrose Burnside
; according to Donald, this was a "shrewd" political move as they were non-partisan—unlike McClellan, a Democrat.
192
Against presidential advice, Burnside launched an offensive across the
Rappahannock River
and was
defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg
in December.
193
Facing low morale and discontent among the troops, Lincoln replaced Burnside with
Joseph Hooker
194
Hooker endured heavy casualties at the
Battle of Chancellorsville
in May, then resigned in June and was replaced by
George Meade
195
Meade followed Lee north into Pennsylvania and defeated him in the
Gettysburg campaign
but then failed to effectively block Lee's orderly retreat to Virginia, despite Lincoln's demands. At the same time,
Ulysses S. Grant
captured Vicksburg and gained control of the Mississippi River.
196
In May 1863, Lincoln issued the
Lieber Code
, which governed wartime conduct of the Union Army, defining command responsibility for war crimes and crimes against humanity.
197
Emancipation Proclamation
Main articles:
Abraham Lincoln and slavery
and
Emancipation Proclamation
First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln
, an 1864 portrait by
Francis Bicknell Carpenter
(clickable image—use cursor to identify)
Two Union generals had issued emancipation orders in 1861 and 1862, but Lincoln overrode both: he found that the decision to emancipate was not within the generals' power, and that it might induce loyal border states to secede.
198
However, in June 1862, Congress passed an act banning slavery in all federal territories, which Lincoln signed.
199
In July, the
Confiscation Act of 1862
was enacted,
200
allowing the seizure of slaves from those disloyal to the United States. On July 22, 1862, Lincoln reviewed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet.
201
Senator
Willard Saulsbury Sr.
criticized the proclamation, stating that it "would light their author to dishonor through all future generations".
202
By contrast,
Horace Greeley
, editor of the
New-York Tribune
, in his public letter, "The Prayer of Twenty Millions", implored Lincoln to embrace emancipation.
203
In a public letter of August 22, 1862, Lincoln replied to Greeley that while he personally wished all men could be free, his first obligation as president was to preserve the Union:
204
My paramount object in this struggle
is
to save the Union, and is
not
either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing
any
slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing
all
the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that.
Buttressed by news of the recent Union victory at Antietam, on September 22, 1862, Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. On January 1, 1863, he issued the final version,
205
freeing the slaves in the ten states not then under Union control,
206
exempting areas under such control.
207
208
Lincoln commented on signing the Proclamation: "I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper."
209
On New Year's Eve in 1862, Black people – enslaved and free – gathered across the United States to hold Watch Night ceremonies for "Freedom's Eve", looking toward the promised fulfillment of the Proclamation.
210
With the abolition of slavery in the rebel states now a military objective, Union armies advancing south enabled thousands to escape bondage.
211
The Proclamation was immediately denounced by Copperheads, who advocated restoring the union by allowing slavery.
212
It was also seen as a betrayal of his promise to Southern Unionists not to tamper with slavery;
Emerson Etheridge
, then
Clerk of the House of Representatives
, joined an unsuccessful plot to give the Democrats and Southern Unionists control of the House.
213
As a result of the Proclamation, enlisting freedmen became official policy. In a letter to Tennessee military governor
Andrew Johnson
, Lincoln wrote, "The bare sight of fifty thousand armed, and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once".
214
Gettysburg Address (1863)
Main article:
Gettysburg Address
Gettysburg Address engraved in the
Lincoln Memorial
Lincoln gave the dedication for the
Gettysburg battlefield cemetery
on November 19, 1863.
215
He asserted that the nation was "conceived in liberty and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal", and that the deaths of the "brave men ... who struggled here" would not be in vain, but that the nation "shall have a new birth of freedom—and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth".
216
The address became the most quoted speech in American history.
217
Following Admiral
David Farragut
's
capture of New Orleans
in 1862, and after victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg, Lincoln proclaimed a national
Thanksgiving holiday
, to be celebrated on the final Thursday of November 1863.
218
Promoting Grant
Grant
's victories at the
Battle of Shiloh
and in the
Vicksburg campaign
impressed Lincoln. Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh, Lincoln said, "I can't spare this man. He fights."
219
Following Meade's failure to capture Lee's army after Gettysburg and after Grant's success at
Chattanooga
, Lincoln promoted Grant to commander of all Union armies.
Lincoln reacted to Union losses by mobilizing support throughout the North.
220
Union forces targeted infrastructure—plantations, railroads, and bridges—to weaken the South's morale and fighting ability.
221
While Lincoln sanctioned this approach, he emphasized the defeat of the Confederate armies over destruction for its own sake.
222
Grant's bloody
Overland Campaign
223
turned into a strategic success for the Union despite a number of setbacks. But the campaign was the bloodiest in American history: approximately 55,000 casualties on the Union side (including 7,600 deaths), compared to about 33,000 on the Confederate (including 4,200 deaths). Lee's losses, although lower in absolute numbers, were proportionately higher (over 50%) than Grant's (about 45%).
224
225
In early April, the Confederate government evacuated Richmond and Lincoln visited the conquered capital.
226
Amid the turmoil of military actions, on June 30, 1864, Lincoln signed into law the
Yosemite Grant
, which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as
Yosemite National Park
227
According to Rolf Diamant and Ethan Carr, "the Yosemite Grant was a direct consequence of the war ... an embodiment of the ongoing process of remaking government ... an intentional assertion of a steadfast belief in the eventual Union victory."
228
Fiscal and monetary policy
Main article:
Economic history of the United States Civil War
One-dollar "greenback"
Lincoln and Secretary of the Treasury Salmon Chase faced a challenge in funding a wartime economy. Congress quickly approved Lincoln's request to assemble an army, even increasing his proposed 400,000 soldiers to 500,000, but both Congress and Chase initially resisted raising taxes.
229
After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run, which collapsed the bond market, Congress passed the
Revenue Act of 1861
. This act imposed the first
U.S. federal income tax
, creating a flat tax of three percent on annual incomes above $800 ($28,700 in current dollars). The preference for taxation based on income rather than property reflected the increasing amount of wealth held in stocks and bonds; for example, Representative
Schuyler Colfax
declared during the debate, "I cannot go home and tell my constituents that I voted for a bill that would allow a man, a millionaire, who has put his entire property into stock, to be exempt from taxation, while a farmer who lives by his side must pay a tax".
230
As the average urban worker made approximately $600 per year, many were not required to pay income taxes.
231
Lincoln also signed increases to the
Morrill Tariff
, which had become law in the final months of Buchanan's tenure. These tariffs raised import duties considerably and were designed both to increase revenue and to help manufacturers offset the burden of new taxes.
233
Throughout the war, Congress debated whether to raise additional revenue primarily by increasing tariff rates, which most strongly affected rural areas, or by increasing
income taxes
, which most affected wealthier individuals; the latter view proved more popular.
234
The revenue measures of 1861 proved inadequate for funding the war, forcing Congress to take further action.
235
In February 1862, Congress passed the
Legal Tender Act
, which authorized the minting of $150 million in "
greenbacks
"—the first
banknotes
issued by the U.S. government since the end of the
American Revolution
. Greenbacks were not backed by gold or silver, but rather by the government's promise to honor their value. By the end of the war, $450 million worth of greenbacks were in circulation.
236
Congress also passed the Revenue Act of 1862, which established an
excise tax
affecting nearly every commodity, as well as the first national
inheritance tax
238
239
It also added a
progressive tax
structure to the federal income tax.
240
To collect these taxes, Congress created the Office of the
Commissioner of Internal Revenue
239
Despite the new revenue measures, funding the war remained challenging.
241
The government continued to issue greenbacks and borrow large amounts of money, and the U.S. national debt grew from $65 million in 1860 to over $2 billion in 1866.
242
The
Revenue Act of 1864
represented a compromise between those who favored a more progressive tax structure and those who favored a flat tax.
243
239
It established a five-percent tax on incomes above $600 and a ten-percent tax on incomes above $10,000, and it raised taxes on businesses.
239
In early 1865, Congress reduced the threshold for ten-percent taxation to incomes above $5000.
244
By the end of the war, the income tax constituted about one-fifth of the federal government's revenue,
239
though it was intended as a
temporary wartime measure
245
239
Lincoln also took action against wartime fraud, signing into law the
False Claims Act of 1863
. This statute imposed penalties for false claims and made it possible for private citizens to file false-claim (
qui tam
) lawsuits on behalf of the U.S. government and share in the recovery.
246
247
Hoping to stabilize the currency, Lincoln convinced Congress to pass the
National Banking Act
in 1863, established the
Office of the Comptroller of the Currency
to oversee "national banks," which were subject to federal, rather than state, regulation. In return for investing a third of their capital in federal bonds, national banks were authorized to issue federal banknotes.
248
After Congress imposed a tax on private banknotes in March 1865, federal banknotes became the dominant form of paper currency.
249
Other economic policies passed under Lincoln included the
1862 Homestead Act
, which made millions of acres of government-held land in the West available for purchase at low cost. The 1862
Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act
provided government grants for
agricultural colleges
in each state. The
Pacific Railway Acts
of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States'
first transcontinental railroad
, which was completed in 1869.
250
Foreign policy
Further information:
Diplomacy of the American Civil War
and
History of U.S. foreign policy, 1861–1897
Portrait of Lincoln on February 5, 1865
At the start of the war, Russia was the lone
great power
to support the Union, while the other European powers had varying degrees of sympathy for the Confederacy.
251
According to the historian Dean Mahin, Lincoln had "limited familiarity with diplomatic practices" but exerted "substantial influence on U.S. diplomacy" as the Union attempted to avoid war with Britain and France.
252
Lincoln appointed diplomats to try to persuade European nations not to recognize the Confederacy.
253
Lincoln's policy succeeded: all foreign nations were officially neutral throughout the Civil War, with none recognizing the Confederacy.
254
Some European leaders looked for ways to exploit the inability of the U.S. to enforce the
Monroe Doctrine
opposing European colonial intervention in the Americas: Spain invaded the
Dominican Republic
in 1861, while France established
a puppet regime
in Mexico.
255
However, many in Europe also hoped for a quick end to the war, both for humanitarian reasons and because of the economic disruption it caused.
256
The European aristocracy was "absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the American debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed", according to
Don H. Doyle
. Union diplomats initially had to explain that the United States was not committed to ending slavery, and instead they argued that secession was unconstitutional. Confederate spokesmen, on the other hand, were more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for independence, their commitment to free trade, and the essential role of cotton in the European economy.
257
However, the Confederacy's hope that cotton exports would compel European interference did not come to fruition, as Britain found alternative sources and maintained economic ties with the Union.
258
Though the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 did not immediately end the possibility of European intervention, it rallied European public opinion to the Union by adding abolition as a Union war goal. Any chance of a European intervention in the war ended with the Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg in July 1863, as European leaders came to believe that the Confederate cause was doomed.
259
Native Americans
Lincoln appointed
William P. Dole
as commissioner of the
Bureau of Indian Affairs
and made "extensive use of Indian Service positions to reward political supporters", according to the historian Thomas Britten.
260
261
Lincoln's policies largely focused on assimilation of Native Americans and diminishing tribal landholdings, consistent with those of his predecessors, but his direct involvement in Native American affairs was unclear.
261
His administration faced difficulties guarding Western settlers, railroads, and telegraph lines from Native American attacks.
262
Tensions arose with the
Dakota people
due to American treaty violations, unfair trading, and government practices that led to starvation.
263
In August 1862, the
Dakota War
broke out in Minnesota. Hundreds of settlers were killed and 30,000 were displaced from their homes.
264
Some feared incorrectly that it might represent a Confederate conspiracy to start a war on the Northwestern frontier.
265
Lincoln ordered thousands of paroled prisoners of war be sent to put down the uprising. When the Confederacy protested, Lincoln revoked the policy and none arrived in Minnesota.
266
Lincoln sent Pope as commander of the new
Department of the Northwest
267
Appointed as a state militia colonel,
Henry Hastings Sibley
eventually defeated the Dakota chief
Little Crow
at the
Battle of Wood Lake
268
war crimes trial
led by Sibley sentenced 303 Dakota warriors to death;
266
the legal scholar Carol Chomsky described the trial as "a study in military injustice" designed to "guarantee an unjust outcome".
263
Lincoln pardoned all but 39 of the condemned warriors, and, with one execution suspended, the remaining 38 were hanged in
the largest mass execution in U.S. history
263
Congressman
Alexander Ramsey
told Lincoln in 1864 that he would have received more re-election support in Minnesota had he executed all 303 warriors. Lincoln responded, "I could not afford to hang men for votes."
269
Lincoln called for reform of federal Indian policy but prioritized the war and Reconstruction. Changes were made in response to the
Sand Creek Massacre
of November 1864, prioritizing peaceful administration of Native affairs and condemning those encroaching on Native territory, but not until after Lincoln's death.
270
Second term
Lincoln's second inaugural address
at the nearly completed
U.S. Capitol
on March 4, 1865
Re-election
Main article:
1864 United States presidential election
Lincoln ran for re-election in 1864; the Democratic nominee was former general McClellan.
271
The Republican Party selected Andrew Johnson, a
War Democrat
, as Lincoln's running mate. To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans, Lincoln ran under the new label of the
National Union Party
272
Grant's bloody stalemates and Confederate victories such as the
Battle of the Crater
damaged Lincoln's re-election prospects, and many Republicans feared defeat.
273
Lincoln prepared a confidential memorandum pledging that, if he should lose the election, he would "co-operate with the President-elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterwards".
274
Victories at
Atlanta
in September and in the
Shenandoah Valley
in October turned public opinion, and Lincoln was re-elected with 55.1 percent of the popular vote as well as 212 electoral votes to McClellan's 21.
271
As Grant continued to weaken Lee's forces, efforts to discuss peace began. On February 3, 1865,
Alexander H. Stephens
, the Confederate vice president, and two other Confederate officials met with Lincoln and Seward at
Hampton Roads
. Lincoln refused to negotiate with the Confederacy as a coequal, and the only agreement reached at the meeting concerned the exchange of prisoners.
275
Lincoln's
second inauguration
took place on March 4, 1865; historian
Mark Noll
places his
second inaugural address
"among the small handful of semi-sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world"; it is inscribed in the
Lincoln Memorial
276
Lincoln closed his speech with these words:
With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan—to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations.
277
A month later, on April 9, Lee
surrendered to Grant at Appomattox
, signaling the end of the war.
278
It triggered a series of subsequent surrenders across the South—in
North Carolina
Alabama
, and the
trans-Mississippi Theater
—and finally at sea with the surrender of the
CSS
Shenandoah
in November 1865.
279
280
Reconstruction
Main article:
Reconstruction era
Reconstruction began before the war's end, as Lincoln and his associates considered the reintegration of the nation, and the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves. When a general asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates were to be treated, Lincoln replied, "Let 'em up easy";
281
he focused not on blame for the war but on rebuilding.
282
Determined to reunite the nation and not alienate the South, Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held. His
Amnesty Proclamation
of December 8, 1863, offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office and had not mistreated Union prisoners, if they signed an oath of allegiance. Lincoln led the moderates in Reconstruction policy and was opposed by the Radicals, under
Thaddeus Stevens
, Charles Sumner and
Benjamin Wade
, who otherwise remained Lincoln's allies.
283
As Southern states fell, they needed leaders while their administrations were being restored. In Tennessee and Arkansas, Lincoln appointed Andrew Johnson and
Frederick Steele
, respectively, as military governors.
284
In Louisiana, Lincoln ordered
Nathaniel P. Banks
to promote a plan that would reestablish statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed, but only if the reconstructed states abolished slavery. Democratic opponents accused Lincoln of using the plan to ensure his and the Republicans' political aspirations. The Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient and passed their own plan, the 1864
Wade–Davis Bill
, but Lincoln
pocket-vetoed
it. The Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat elected representatives from Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennessee.
285
An 1865 political cartoon,
The 'Rail Splitter' At Work Repairing the Union
, depicting Vice President
Andrew Johnson
, a former tailor, sewing with needle and thread, and Lincoln, the
rail splitter
, applying a rail leverage to repair the globe.
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation, Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery nationwide with a constitutional amendment. By December 1863 an amendment was brought to Congress.
286
The Senate passed it on April 8, 1864, but the first vote in the House of Representatives fell short of the required two-thirds majority. Passage became part of Lincoln's re-election platform, and after his re-election, the second attempt in the House passed on January 31, 1865.
287
After ratification by three-fourths of the states in December 1865, it became the
Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
, abolishing "slavery [and] involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime".
288
Lincoln announced a Reconstruction plan that involved short-term military administration, pending readmission under the control of southern Unionists. He also signed Senator Charles Sumner's
Freedmen's Bureau
bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate needs of former slaves. The law opened land for a lease of three years with the ability for the freedmen to purchase title. In signing it, according to the historian
Richard Carwardine
, Lincoln "acknowledged that the government had at least some responsibility for the material needs of millions of ex-slaves",
289
although it fell short of the "
forty acres and a mule
" that many slaves understood they would receive from confiscated property.
290
Eric Foner
argues that "Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation. He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land."
291
However, the Lincoln scholar
Phillip S. Paludan
suggests that at the end of his life Lincoln was moving towards a more radical position, particularly with regards to freedmen's rights.
292
Foner adds that, had Lincoln lived into the
Reconstruction era
, "It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage, along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death."
291
Assassination
Main article:
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
An illustration of
Lincoln's assassination
on April 14, 1865, in the presidential booth at
Ford's Theatre
, featuring (left to right): assassin
John Wilkes Booth
, Abraham Lincoln,
Mary Todd Lincoln
Clara Harris
, and
Henry Rathbone
John Wilkes Booth
was a well-known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland; although he never joined the Confederate army, he had contacts within the Confederate secret service.
293
After attending Lincoln's last public address, on April 11, 1865, in which Lincoln stated his preference that the franchise be conferred on some Black men, specifically "on the very intelligent, and on those who serve our cause as soldiers",
294
Booth plotted to assassinate the President.
295
When Booth learned of the Lincolns' intent to attend a play with Grant, he planned to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at
Ford's Theatre
296
Lincoln and his wife attended the play
Our American Cousin
on the evening of April 14. At the last minute, Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead.
297
At 10:15 pm, Booth entered Lincoln's theater box, crept up from behind, and fired at the back of Lincoln's head, mortally wounding him. Lincoln's guest, Major
Henry Rathbone
, momentarily grappled with Booth, but Booth stabbed him and escaped.
298
299
After being attended by
Charles Leale
and two other doctors, Lincoln was taken across the street to
Petersen House
. He remained in a coma for nine hours and died at 7:22 am on April 15.
300
Lincoln's body was wrapped in a flag and placed in a coffin, which was loaded into a hearse and escorted to the White House by Union soldiers.
301
Johnson was sworn in as president later that day.
302
Two weeks later, Booth was located, shot, and killed at a farm in Virginia by Sergeant
Boston Corbett
303
Funeral and burial
Main article:
State funeral of Abraham Lincoln
From April 19 to 20, Lincoln lay in state, first in the White House and then in the
Capitol rotunda
304
The caskets containing Lincoln's body and the body of his third son Willie then traveled for two weeks on a
funeral train
following a circuitous route from Washington D.C. to Springfield, Illinois, stopping at several cities for memorials attended by hundreds of thousands.
305
Many others gathered along the tracks as the train passed with bands, bonfires, and hymn singing or in silent grief.
306
Historians emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow, but noted that some who had hated Lincoln celebrated his death.
307
Walt Whitman
composed four elegies to Lincoln, including "
When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd
" and "
O Captain! My Captain!
".
308
Lincoln's body was buried at
Oak Ridge Cemetery
in Springfield and now lies within the
Lincoln Tomb
309
Philosophy and views
Abraham Lincoln
(1869)
Lincoln redefined the political philosophy of
republicanism in the United States
. Because the Declaration of Independence says that all men have an unalienable right to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness, he called it the "
sheet anchor
" of republicanism, at a time when the Constitution was the focus of most political discourse.
310
He presented the Declaration as establishing equality as a foundational principle for the United States, which had a significant impact on social and political movements in the US into the 20th century.
311
As a Whig activist, Lincoln was a spokesman for business interests, favoring high tariffs, banks, infrastructure improvements, and railroads, in opposition to
Jacksonian democrats
312
Nevertheless, Lincoln admired
Andrew Jackson
's steeliness and patriotism,
313
and adopted the Jacksonian "belief in the common man".
314
According to historian
Sean Wilentz
, "just as the Republican Party of the 1850s absorbed certain elements of Jacksonianism, so Lincoln, whose Whiggery had always been more egalitarian than that of other Whigs, found himself absorbing some of them as well."
315
Historian
William C. Harris
found that Lincoln's "reverence for the Founding Fathers, the Constitution, the laws under it, and the preservation of the Republic and its institutions strengthened his conservatism."
316
In Lincoln's first inaugural address, he denounced secession as anarchy and argued that "a majority held in restraint by constitutional checks, and limitations, and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments, is the only true sovereign of a free people."
317
Religious views
Main article:
Religious views of Abraham Lincoln
As a young man, Lincoln was a
religious skeptic
318
However, he was deeply familiar with the Bible;
319
throughout his public career, he often quoted scripture.
320
His three most famous speeches—the
House Divided Speech
, the
Gettysburg Address
, and
his second inaugural address
—all contain such quotes. In the 1840s, Lincoln subscribed to the
Doctrine of Necessity
, a belief that the human mind was controlled by a higher power.
321
322
After the death of his son Edward in 1850, Lincoln more frequently expressed a dependence on God.
323
He never joined a church, although he and his wife frequently attended
First Presbyterian Church
in Springfield, Illinois, beginning in 1852.
324
While president, Lincoln often attended services at the
New York Avenue Presbyterian Church
in Washington, D.C.
325
The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused him to look toward religion for solace.
326
Lincoln's frequent use of religious imagery and language toward the end of his life may have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to reach his audiences, who were mostly
evangelical
Protestants.
327
Sources differ in how they describe his religious beliefs. His law partner
William Herndon
gave a lecture after Lincoln's death stating that he was an "unbeliever";
328
James Smith, the pastor of First Presbyterian Church in Springfield, responded to this lecture with an open letter asserting that Lincoln "did avow his belief in the Divine
Authority and the Inspiration of the Scriptures".
329
Stephen Mansfield
describes "an atheist or religiously skeptical Lincoln" as "the prevailing view", although he argues that "there was a spiritual journey of some kind in Abraham Lincoln's life".
330
Richard Carwardine writes that "Many elements of the inner Lincoln, including his personal faith ... necessarily remain a puzzle".
331
Lincoln's last words were, as reported by his wife, "There is no place I so much desire to see as Jerusalem".
332
Health and appearance
Main article:
Health of Abraham Lincoln
According to Michael Burlingame, Lincoln was described as "awkward" and "gawky" as a youth.
333
In adolescence he was tall and strong, participating in jumping, throwing, wrestling, and footraces, and demonstrating exceptional strength.
334
Burlingame notes that Lincoln's clothes "were typically rough and suited to the frontier", with a gap between his shoes, socks, and pants that often exposed six or more inches of his shin; "he cared little about fashion".
335
Lincoln was a slender six feet four inches,
335
with a high-pitched voice.
336
While he is usually portrayed bearded, he did not grow a beard until 1860 at the suggestion of 11-year-old
Grace Bedell
; he was the first U.S. president to do so.
337
William H. Herndon
described Lincoln's face as "long, narrow, sallow, and cadaverous", his cheeks as "leathery and saffron-colored".
338
Lincoln described himself as having a "dark complexion, with coarse black hair".
338
Although Lincoln's features were said to be "unpleasant to behold,"
339
Walt Whitman
"wrote that Lincoln's face was 'so awful ugly it becomes beautiful.
340
Lincoln's detractors also remarked on his appearance. For example, the
Charleston
Mercury
described him as having "the dirtiest complexion" and asked "Faugh! after him what decent white man would be President?"
341
Among the illnesses that Lincoln is either documented or speculated to have suffered from are depression,
32
smallpox
342
and
malaria
343
He took
blue mass
pills, which contained
mercury
, to treat
melancholy
or
hypochondriasis
; this could have resulted in
mercury poisoning
344
Several claims have been made that Lincoln's health was declining before his assassination, as
photographs of Lincoln
appear to show weight loss and facial changes.
345
346
It has been proposed that he could have had a rare genetic disorder such as
Marfan syndrome
or
multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2B
345
347
Legacy
Bureau of Engraving and Printing
portrait of Lincoln as president
Historical reputation
In
surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents
since 1948, the top three presidents are generally Lincoln,
George Washington
, and
Franklin D. Roosevelt
, although the order varies.
348
A 2004 study found that scholars in history and politics ranked Lincoln number one, while legal scholars placed him second after Washington.
349
Between 1999 and 2011, Lincoln,
John F. Kennedy
, and
Ronald Reagan
were the top-ranked presidents in eight
public opinion
surveys by Gallup.
350
Lincoln's assassination made him a national martyr. He was viewed by abolitionists as a champion of human liberty. Many, though not all, in the South considered Lincoln to be a man of outstanding ability.
351
In the
New Deal
era, liberals honored Lincoln as an advocate of the common man who they claimed would have supported the
welfare state
352
and Lincoln became a favorite of liberal intellectuals across the world.
353
The
sociologist
Barry Schwartz
argues that in the 1930s and 1940s, Lincoln provided the nation with "a moral symbol inspiring and guiding American life."
354
Schwartz states that Lincoln's American reputation grew slowly from the late 19th century until the
Progressive Era
(1900–1920s), when he emerged as one of America's most venerated heroes, even among White Southerners. The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the
National Mall
in Washington, D.C.
355
However, Schwartz also argued in 2008 that since World War II Lincoln's symbolic power has lost relevance, and this "fading hero is symptomatic of fading confidence in national greatness."
356
By the 1970s, Lincoln had become a hero to
political conservatives
357
—apart from
neo-Confederates
such as
Mel Bradford
, who denounced his treatment of the White South—for his nationalism, his support for business, his insistence on stopping the spread of slavery, and his perceived devotion to the principles of the Founding Fathers.
358
The Black orator and former slave
Frederick Douglass
stated that in "his company, I was never reminded of my humble origin, or of my unpopular color",
359
and Lincoln has long been known as the Great Emancipator.
By the late 1960s, some Black intellectuals denied that Lincoln deserved that title.
361
362
Lerone Bennett Jr.
won wide attention when he called Lincoln a
White supremacist
in 1968.
363
He noted that Lincoln used ethnic slurs and argued that Lincoln opposed social equality and proposed that freed slaves voluntarily move to another country.
364
Defenders of Lincoln highlighted his condemnation of slavery and his contributions to its abolition, casting his delays and racist rhetoric as concessions to political necessity rather than reflections of his personal beliefs.
365
366
367
Lincoln has also been characterized as a folk hero and as "Honest Abe".
368
David Herbert Donald opined in his 1996 biography that Lincoln was endowed with the personality trait of
negative capability
, attributed to extraordinary leaders who were "capable of being in uncertainties ... without any irritable reaching after fact and reason".
369
Lincoln has often been portrayed by Hollywood, almost always in a flattering light; the film historian Melvyn Stokes writes that "moviemakers have commonly used Lincoln primarily as a metaphor for ideas and values they approved".
370
371
Lincoln has also been admired by political figures outside the U.S., including the German philosopher
Karl Marx
372
Giuseppe Garibaldi
, leader of the Italian
Risorgimento
373
Indian
independence
leader
Mahatma Gandhi
; German politician
Willy Brandt
; and
Nelson Mandela
, who likened the "new birth of freedom" Lincoln spoke of in the Gettysburg Address to the end of
apartheid
in South Africa.
374
Memorials and commemorations
Main article:
Memorials to Abraham Lincoln
See also:
Cultural depictions of Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln's portrait appears on two denominations of
United States currency
, the
penny
and the
$5 bill
. He appears on postage stamps across the world, including in Ghana, Honduras, China, Haiti, Nicaragua, Colombia, and Argentina.
375
He has been memorialized in many town, city, and county names, including the
capital
of Nebraska.
376
The United States Navy has named three vessels after Lincoln, including the
Nimitz
-class
aircraft carrier
USS
Abraham Lincoln
(CVN-72)
377
378
379
The Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., is one of the most visited
National Park Service
sites in the country.
380
Memorials in Springfield, Illinois, include the
Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum
, Lincoln's home, and his tomb.
381
A carving of Lincoln appears with those of three other presidents on
Mount Rushmore
, which receives about 3 million visitors a year.
382
statue of Lincoln
completed by
Augustus Saint-Gaudens
stands in
Lincoln Park
, Chicago,
383
with recastings given as diplomatic gifts standing in
Parliament Square
, London, and
Parque Lincoln
, Mexico City.
384
385
Several states commemorate "
Presidents' Day
" as "Washington–Lincoln Day".
386
387
Lincoln has also been extensively portrayed in media. Early works, such as
Abraham Lincoln's Clemency
(1910), attempted to mythologize him, emphasizing his mercifulness. Works from the
Great Depression
era, such as
Young Mr. Lincoln
(1939), embellished his early struggles and folksiness.
371
The 1938 play
Abe Lincoln in Illinois
won a
Pulitzer Prize
and was
adapted in film
371
After a marked decrease in film portrayals between 1941 and 1999,
371
Daniel Day-Lewis
won the
Academy Award for Best Actor
for his portrayal in
Lincoln
, a 2012
biographical
film directed by
Steven Spielberg
388
Lincoln's image carved into the stone of
Mount Rushmore
The Lincoln memorial postage stamp of 1866 was issued by the U.S. Post Office exactly one year after Lincoln's assassination.
The
Lincoln Memorial
in Washington, D.C.
The
Lincoln cent
, an American coin portraying Lincoln
See also
Outline of Abraham Lincoln
Lincoln family
Walt Whitman and Abraham Lincoln
Notes
Discharged from command-rank of captain and re-enlisted at rank of private.
ən
LINK
-ən
Though it is uncertain, Lincoln's grandmother is believed to have been Bathsheba Herring, the daughter of Alexander and Abigail Herring (née Harrison).
Eric Foner
contrasts the abolitionists and anti-slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast, who saw slavery as a sin, with the conservative Republicans, who thought it was bad because it hurt
White people
and blocked progress. Foner argues that Lincoln was in the middle, opposing slavery primarily because it violated the
republicanism principles
of the
Founding Fathers
, especially the equality of all men and democratic self-government as expressed in the
Declaration of Independence
108
Major Northern newspapers predicted victory within 90 days.
174
In 1866, when income tax applied to those with incomes above $600, only an estimated 1.3% of the national population were required to pay.
232
Government borrowing amounted to $2.8 billion by 1866.
237
The origin of the nickname is unknown.
360
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(2011).
Lincoln and the Border States: Preserving the Union
. University Press of Kansas.
ISBN
9780700620562
Havers, Grant N. (2009).
Lincoln and the Politics of Christian Love
. University of Missouri Press.
ISBN
9780826218575
Heidler, David Stephen; Heidler, Jeanne T.; Coles, David J., eds. (2002).
Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History
. W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN
9780393047585
Heidler, David Stephen; Heidler, Jeanne T. (2006).
The Mexican War
. Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
9780313327926
Herring, George
(2008).
From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780195078220
Hodes, Martha
(2015).
Mourning Lincoln
. Yale University Press.
ISBN
9780300213560
Holzer, Harold
(2004).
Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President
. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
9780743299640
Jaffa, Harry V.
(2000).
A New Birth of Freedom: Abraham Lincoln and the Coming of the Civil War
. Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
9780847699520
Jividen, Jason (2011).
Claiming Lincoln: Progressivism, Equality, and the Battle for Lincoln's Legacy in Presidential Rhetoric
. Cornell University Press.
ISBN
9781501756870
Kelley, Robin D. G.
Lewis, Earl
(2005).
To Make Our World Anew
. Vol. I: A History of African Americans to 1880. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780198040064
Kent, David (2022).
Lincoln: The Fire of Genius
. Globe Pequot.
ISBN
9781493063888
Koehn, Nancy
(2017).
Forged in Crisis: The Making of Five Legendary Leaders
. Scribner.
ISBN
9781501174445
Lamb, Brian P.
Swain, Susan
, eds. (2008).
Abraham Lincoln: Great American Historians on Our Sixteenth President
. PublicAffairs.
ISBN
9781586486761
Lincoln, Abraham (1953).
Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln
. Vol. 4. Rutgers University Press.
Lundberg, James M. (2019).
Horace Greeley: Print, Politics, and the Failure of American Nationhood
. Johns Hopkins University Press.
ISBN
9781421432885
Madison, James H.
(2014).
Hoosiers: A New History of Indiana
. Indiana University Press.
ISBN
9780253013088
Mahin, Dean (1999).
One War at a Time: The International Dimensions of the American Civil War
. Brassey's.
ISBN
9781574882094
Manning, Alan (2016).
Father Lincoln
. Lyons Press.
ISBN
9781493018239
Mansch, Larry D. (2005).
Abraham Lincoln, President-elect: The Four Critical Months from Election to Inauguration
. McFarland.
ISBN
9780786420261
Mansfield, Stephen
(2012).
Lincoln's Battle with God
. Thomas Nelson.
ISBN
9781595553096
Marvel, William (2008).
Lincoln's Darkest Year: The War in 1862
. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
ISBN
9780547523866
McClintock, Russell (2008).
Lincoln and the Decision for War
. University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN
9780807886328
McGinty, Brian (2015).
Lincoln's Greatest Case: The River, the Bridge, and the Making of America
. W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN
9780871407856
McGovern, George S.
(2009).
Abraham Lincoln: The 16th President, 1861–1865
. Henry Holt and Company.
ISBN
9780805083453
McPherson, James M.
(1992).
Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780195076066
McPherson, James M.
(2009).
Abraham Lincoln
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780195374520
Meacham, Jon
(2022).
And There Was Light: Abraham Lincoln and the American Struggle
. Random House.
ISBN
9780553393965
Murrin, John (2006).
Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People
. Thomson Wadsworth.
ISBN
9780495915881
Myers, Marshall (2018).
The Rhetoric of Lincoln's Letters
. McFarland.
ISBN
9781476631158
Neely, Mark
Holzer, Harold
(2006).
The Lincoln Family Album
. Southern Illinois University Press.
ISBN
9780809327133
Noll, Mark A.
(2002).
America's God: From Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780195151114
Paludan, Phillip Shaw
(1994).
The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln
. University Press of Kansas.
ISBN
9780700606719
Peck, Garrett (2015).
Walt Whitman in Washington, D.C.: The Civil War and America's Great Poet
. The History Press.
ISBN
9781626199736
Peterson, Merrill
(1995).
Lincoln in American Memory
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780198023043
Potter, David M.
(1977).
The Impending Crisis: America Before the Civil War, 1848–1861
. HarperCollins.
ISBN
9780061319297
Reynolds, David S.
(2020).
Abe: Abraham Lincoln in His Times
. Penguin.
ISBN
9780698154513
Samuels, Shirley
(2012).
The Cambridge Companion to Abraham Lincoln
. Cambridge Companions to American Studies. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
9780521193160
Sandburg, Carl
(2002).
Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years and the War Years
. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
ISBN
9780156027526
Schaffer, Jeffrey P. (1999).
Yosemite National Park: A Natural History Guide to Yosemite and Its Trails
. Wilderness Press.
ISBN
9780899972442
Schroeder-Lein, Glenna R. (2012).
Lincoln and Medicine
. Southern Illinois University Press.
ISBN
9780809331949
Schwartz, Barry
(2000).
Abraham Lincoln and the Forge of National Memory
. University of Chicago Press.
ISBN
9780226741970
Schwartz, Barry
(2008).
Abraham Lincoln in the Post-Heroic Era: History and Memory in Late Twentieth-Century America
. University of Chicago Press.
ISBN
9780226741888
Sears, Stephen W. (1999) [1988].
George B. McClellan: The Young Napoleon
. Da Capo Press.
ISBN
9780306809132
Silver, David (1998).
Lincoln's Supreme Court
. University of Illinois Press.
ISBN
9780252067198
Simon, Paul
(1990).
Lincoln's Preparation for Greatness: The Legislative Years
. University of Illinois Press.
ISBN
9780252002038
Smith, Robert C.
(2010).
Conservatism and Racism, and Why in America They Are the Same
. State University of New York Press.
ISBN
9781438432335
Steers, Edward Jr.
(2010).
The Lincoln Assassination Encyclopedia
. HarperCollins.
ISBN
9780061787751
Striner, Richard (2006).
Father Abraham: Lincoln's Relentless Struggle to End Slavery
. Oxford University Press.
ISBN
9780195183061
Taranto, James
Leo, Leonard
, eds. (2004).
Presidential Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House
. Free Press.
ISBN
9780743254335
Thomas, Benjamin P.
(2008).
Abraham Lincoln: A Biography
. Southern Illinois University Press.
ISBN
9780809328871
Thomas, Benjamin Platt
Hyman, Harold Melvin
(1962).
Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War
. Alfred A. Knopf.
Thompson, Todd (2015).
The National Joker: Abraham Lincoln and the Politics of Satire
. Southern Illinois University Press.
ISBN
9780809334230
Trefousse, Hans L.
(1989).
Andrew Johnson: A Biography
. W. W. Norton & Company.
ISBN
9780393317428
Trefousse, Hans L.
(1999). "Lincoln and race relations". In Hubbard, Charles (ed.).
Abraham Lincoln and His Contemporaries
. Mercer University Press. pp.
87–
100.
ISBN
9780865546271
Tucker, Spencer
(2014).
Battles that Changed American History
. ABC-CLIO.
ISBN
9781440828621
Vile, John R. (2003). "Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865)".
Encyclopedia of Constitutional Amendments: Proposed Amendments, and Amending Issues 1789–2002
(2nd ed.). ABC-CLIO.
ISBN
9781851094288
Vorenberg, Michael (2001).
Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
9780521652674
Weisman, Steven R. (2002).
The Great Tax Wars: Lincoln to Wilson—The Fierce Battles over Money and Power That Transformed the Nation
. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
9780684850689
White, Ronald C.
(2009).
A. Lincoln: A Biography
. Random House.
ISBN
9781588367754
White, Jonathan W. (2011).
Abraham Lincoln and Treason in the Civil War: The Trials of John Merryman
. Louisiana State University Press.
ISBN
9780807142158
Wills, Garry
(2012).
Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words that Remade America
. Simon & Schuster.
ISBN
9781439126455
Wilson, Douglas L.
(1999).
Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln
. Alfred A. Knopf.
ISBN
9780307765819
Winik, Jay (2006) [2001].
April 1865: The Month That Saved America
. HarperCollins.
ISBN
9780060899684
Winkle, Kenneth J. (2001).
The Young Eagle: The Rise of Abraham Lincoln
. Taylor Trade Publishing.
ISBN
9781461734369
Witt, John Fabian
(2013).
Lincoln's Code: The Laws of War in American History
. Free Press.
ISBN
9781416576174
Winkle, Kenneth J. (2011).
Abraham and Mary Lincoln
. Southern Illinois University Press.
ISBN
9780809379996
Work, David (2024).
Lincoln's Political Generals
. University of Illinois Press.
ISBN
9780252056888
Young, Alfred C. (2013).
Lee's Army during the Overland Campaign: A Numerical Study
. Louisiana State University Press.
ISBN
9780807151723
Zarefsky, David
(1993).
Lincoln, Douglas, and Slavery: In the Crucible of Public Debate
. University of Chicago Press.
ISBN
9780226978765
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Abraham Lincoln
16th
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IL–7
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← James Buchanan
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Outline
Offices and distinctions
U.S. House of Representatives
Preceded by
John Henry
Member of the
U.S. House of Representatives
from
Illinois's 7th congressional district
1847–1849
Succeeded by
Thomas Harris
Party political offices
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John Frémont
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1860
1864
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Succeeded by
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Henry Clay
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1865
Succeeded by
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International Democracy Union
Three Legged Stool
Timeline of modern American conservatism
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Illinois
's delegation(s) to the 30th
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(ordered by seniority)
30th
Senate
S. Breese
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(D)
House
O. Ficklin
(D)
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(D)
R. Smith
(ID)
J. Wentworth
(D)
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(W)
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(D)
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(D)
Historical anti-slavery parties in the United States
Presidential tickets
Liberty Party
James G. Birney
Thomas Earle
1840
James G. Birney
Thomas Morris
1844
Gerrit Smith
/Charles C. Foote (
1848
William Goodell
/S. M. Bell (
1852
Gerrit Smith
/Samuel McFarland (
1856
1860
Free Soil Party
Martin Van Buren
Charles Francis Adams Sr.
1848
John P. Hale
George W. Julian
1852
Republican Party
John C. Frémont
William L. Dayton
1856
Abraham Lincoln
Hannibal Hamlin
1860
National Union Party
Abraham Lincoln/
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1864
National conventions
1848 Free Soil
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Other party leaders
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← 1852
1856 United States presidential election
1860 →
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Nominees
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Other 1856 elections
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← 1856
1860 United States presidential election
1864 →
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Nominees
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Vice President:
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Other candidates
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Vice President:
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Other 1860 elections
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← 1860
1864 United States presidential election
1868 →
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Nominees
President:
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Vice President:
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Other candidates
President:
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Vice President:
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Lovell Rousseau
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Daar kom die Alibama
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Related
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Reconstruction era
Participants
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39
40
41
42
43
44
45
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Freedman's Savings Bank
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1864
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1876
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1864
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1865
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1866
Connecticut
Delaware
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Michigan
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1867
California
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1868
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1869
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1870
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1871
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1872
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1873
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1874
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1875
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1864
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Key events
Prelude
American Indian Wars
Slavery in the United States
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
(1792)
The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women
(1838)
Woman in the Nineteenth Century
(1839)
Seneca Falls Convention
(1848)
National Women's Rights Convention
(1850)
American Civil War
Confiscation Act of 1861
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District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act
(1862)
Militia Act of 1862
1863
Emancipation Proclamation
General Order No. 143
Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction
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Women's Loyal National League
New York City draft riots
1863 State of the Union Address
1864
Wade–Davis Bill
1864 elections
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1865
13th Amendment
Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln
Address
Black Codes
Special Field Orders No. 15
Freedmen's Bureau
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Confederates surrender at Appomattox
Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
Shaw University
New Departure
1865 State of the Union Address
Founding of the Ku Klux Klan
1866
Civil Rights Act of 1866
Memphis massacre of 1866
New Orleans Massacre of 1866
Swing Around the Circle
Southern Homestead Act of 1866
Fort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866
Choctaw and Chickasaw Treaty of Washington of 1866
Tennessee readmitted to Union
Petition for Universal Freedom
National Labor Union
Ex parte Garland
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Slave Kidnapping Act of 1866
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1867
Tenure of Office Act
Command of Army Act
Indian Peace Commission
Knights of the White Camelia
Pulaski riot
Reconstruction Acts
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1867 State of the Union Address
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Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson
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Arkansas readmitted to Union
Florida readmitted to Union
North Carolina readmitted to Union
South Carolina readmitted to Union
Louisiana readmitted to Union
Alabama readmitted to Union
Opelousas massacre
Fourth Reconstruction Act
Georgia v. Stanton
1868 elections
1868 State of the Union Address
1869
National Woman Suffrage Association
American Woman Suffrage Association
Alabama
Claims
Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo
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Ex parte McCardle
First transcontinental railroad
1869 State of the Union Address
1870
15th Amendment
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1871
Ku Klux Klan hearings
Second Enforcement Act
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Alcorn State University
Meridian race riot of 1871
Treaty of Washington
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United States expedition to Korea
1871 State of the Union Address
1872
General Mining Act of 1872
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1872 State of the Union Address
1873
Panic of 1873
Colfax massacre
Timber Culture Act
Slaughter-House Cases
Virginius
Affair
Coinage Act of 1873
Long Depression
Comstock laws
1873 State of the Union Address
1874
Brooks–Baxter War
Battle of Liberty Place
Coushatta massacre
Red River War
Timber Culture Act
White League
Election Massacre of 1874
Vicksburg massacre
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Sanborn incident
Anti-Moiety Acts
1874 elections
1874 State of the Union Address
1875
United States v. Cruikshank
Civil Rights Act of 1875
Red Shirts
Mississippi Plan
Clifton Riot of 1875
Yazoo City Riot of 1875
Specie Payment Resumption Act
Whiskey Ring
Wheeler Compromise
Delano affair
Pratt & Boyd
1875 State of the Union Address
1876
Hamburg massacre
South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876
Ellenton massacre
Great Sioux War of 1876
Battle of the Little Bighorn
United States v. Reese
Trader post scandal
Centennial Exposition
Cattellism
Safe burglary conspiracy
1876 elections
1876 State of the Union Address
1877
Electoral Commission
Compromise of 1877
Nez Perce War
Desert Land Act
Great Railroad Strike of 1877
End
and
aftermath
Posse Comitatus Act
(1878)
Civil Rights Cases
(1883)
United States v. Harris
(1883)
Plessy v. Ferguson
(1896)
Williams v. Mississippi
(1898)
Wilmington massacre
Giles v. Harris
(1903)
Disenfranchisement
Aspects
Historiography
Bibliography of the Reconstruction era
James Shepherd Pike
The Prostrate State
(1874)
James Bryce
The American Commonwealth
(1888)
Claude G. Bowers
The Tragic Era
(1929)
Columbia University
John Burgess
Walter L. Fleming
Dunning School
William Archibald Dunning
Charles A. Beard
Howard K. Beale
W. E. B. Du Bois
Black Reconstruction in America
(1935)
C. Vann Woodward
Joel Williamson
William R. Brock
The American Crisis
(1963)
John Hope Franklin
From Slavery to Freedom
(1947)
After Slavery
(1965)
Leon Litwack
Been in the Storm So Long
(1979)
Eric Foner
Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877
(1988)
Kenneth M. Stampp
Steven Hahn
A Nation Under Our Feet
(2003)
The Second Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution
(2019)
Memory
Winslow Homer
A Visit from the Old Mistress
(1876)
Thomas Dixon Jr.
The Leopard's Spots
(1902)
The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan
(1905)
D. W. Griffith
The Birth of a Nation
(1915)
United Daughters of the Confederacy
Gone with the Wind
(1939)
David W. Blight
Race and Reunion
(2001)
Legacy
Women's suffrage in the United States
Labor history of the United States
Gilded Age
Jim Crow era
Civil rights movement
American frontier
Other topics
African American founding fathers of the United States
Forty acres and a mule
Habeas corpus
History of the United States (1865–1917)
Paramilitary
Race (human categorization)
Reconstruction Treaties
Suffrage
Technological and industrial history of the United States
White supremacy
Whitecapping
Category
Individuals
lain in state
in honor
and
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