Agriculture - Wikipedia

Agriculture - Wikipedia
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Agricultural
Cultivation of plants and animals to produce foods, fibers, fuels, and raw materials
"Farming" redirects here. For other uses, see
Farming (disambiguation)
Modern agriculture: a
center pivot irrigation
system on a field
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Agriculture
is the practice of cultivating the soil, planting, raising, and harvesting both food and non-food crops, as well as
livestock
production. Broader definitions also include
forestry
and
aquaculture
. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of
sedentary
human
civilization
, whereby farming of
domesticated
plants and animals created food
surpluses
that enabled people to live in the cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century,
industrial agriculture
based on large-scale
monocultures
came to dominate agricultural output.
As of 2021
[update]
small farms
, of which the vast majority are one hectare (about 2.5 acres) or smaller, produce about one-third of the world's food. Moreover, five of every six farms in the world consist of fewer than 2 hectares (4.9 acres) and take up only around 12% of all agricultural land.
In terms of total land use, large farms are dominant.
While only 1% of all farms globally are greater than 50 hectares (120 acres), they encompass more than 70% of the world's farmland.
Further, nearly 40% of all global agricultural land is found on farms larger than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres).
Farms and farming greatly influence
rural economics
and greatly shape
rural society
, affecting both the direct
agricultural workforce
and broader
businesses
that support the farms and farming populations.
The major agricultural products can be broadly grouped into
foods
fibers
fuels
, and
raw materials
(such as
rubber
and
timber
). Food classes include
cereals
grains
),
vegetables
fruits
cooking oils
meat
milk
eggs
, and
fungi
. Global agricultural production amounts to approximately 11 billion tonnes of food,
32 million tonnes of natural fibers
and 4 billion m
of wood.
However, around 14% of the world's food is lost from production before reaching the retail level.
Modern
agronomy
plant breeding
agrochemicals
such as
pesticides
and
fertilizers
, and technological developments have sharply increased
crop yields
, but also contributed to
ecological and environmental damage
Selective breeding
and modern practices in
animal husbandry
have similarly increased the output of meat, but have raised concerns about
animal welfare
and environmental damage. Environmental issues include
contributions to climate change
, depletion of
aquifers
deforestation
antibiotic resistance
, and
other agricultural pollution
. Agriculture is both a cause of and sensitive to
environmental degradation
, such as
biodiversity loss
desertification
soil degradation
, and
climate change
, all of which can cause decreases in crop yield.
Genetically modified organisms
are widely used, although
some countries ban them
Etymology and scope
Further information:
Horticulture § Scope
The word
agriculture
is a late
Middle English
adaptation of Latin
agricultūra
, from
ager
'field' and
cultūra
cultivation
' or 'growing'.
Agriculture is defined with varying scopes, in its broadest sense using natural resources to "produce commodities which maintain life, including food, fiber, forest products, horticultural crops, and their related services".
Thus defined, it includes
arable farming
, horticulture,
animal husbandry
and
forestry
, but horticulture and forestry are in practice often excluded.
It may also be broadly decomposed into
plant agriculture
, which concerns the cultivation of useful plants,
and
animal agriculture
, the production of agricultural animals.
While agriculture usually refers to human activities, other species have been cultivating crops for up to 60 million years, such as some
ant
(see
agriculture in ants
),
10
11
termite
and
beetle
12
History
Main article:
History of agriculture
Centres of origin
, as numbered by
Nikolai Vavilov
in the 1930s
Area 3 is no longer recognized as a center of origin.
New Guinea
(area P) was identified more recently.
13
14
Origins
Main article:
Neolithic Revolution
The development of agriculture enabled the human population to grow many times larger than could be sustained by
hunting and gathering
15
Agriculture began independently in different parts of the globe,
16
and included a diverse range of
taxa
, in at least 11 separate
centers of origin
13
Wild grains were collected and eaten from at least 105,000 years ago.
17
In the Paleolithic Levant, 23,000 years ago, cereals cultivation of
emmer
barley
, and
oats
has been observed near the
sea of Galilee
18
19
Rice was
domesticated in China
between 11,500 and 6200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5700 BC,
20
followed by
mung
soy
and
azuki
beans. Sheep were domesticated in
Mesopotamia
between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago.
21
Cattle were domesticated from the wild
aurochs
in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan some 10,500 years ago.
22
Pig production
emerged in Eurasia, including Europe, East Asia and Southwest Asia,
23
where
wild boar
were first domesticated about 10,500 years ago.
24
In the
Andes
of South America, the potato was domesticated between 10,000 and 7,000 years ago, along with beans,
coca
llamas
alpacas
, and
guinea pigs
Sugarcane
and some
root vegetables
were domesticated in
New Guinea
around 9,000 years ago.
Sorghum
was domesticated in the
Sahel
region of Africa by 7,000 years ago. Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 5,600 years ago,
25
and was independently domesticated in Eurasia.
In Mesoamerica
, wild
teosinte
was bred into
maize
(corn) from 10,000 to 6,000 years ago.
26
27
28
The
horse
was
domesticated
in the
Eurasian Steppes
around 3500 BC.
29
Scholars have offered multiple hypotheses to explain the historical origins of agriculture. Studies of the transition from
hunter-gatherer
to agricultural societies indicate an initial period of intensification and increasing
sedentism
; examples are the
Natufian culture
in the
Levant
, and the Early Chinese Neolithic in China. Then, wild stands that had previously been harvested started to be planted, and gradually came to be domesticated.
30
31
32
Civilizations
Map of the world showing approximate centers of origin of agriculture and its spread in prehistory.
33
DNA studies have shown that agriculture was introduced in
Europe
by the expansion of the
early farmers from Anatolia
about 9,000 years ago.
34
In Eurasia, the
Sumerians
started to live in villages from about 8000 BC, relying on the
Tigris
and
Euphrates
rivers and a canal system for irrigation.
Ploughs
appear in
pictographs
around 3000 BC; seed-ploughs around 2300 BC. Farmers grew wheat, barley, vegetables such as lentils and onions, and fruits including dates, grapes, and figs.
35
Ancient Egyptian agriculture
relied on the
Nile River
and its seasonal flooding. Farming started in the predynastic period at the end of the
Paleolithic
, after 10,000 BC. Staple food crops were grains such as wheat and barley, alongside industrial crops such as
flax
and
papyrus
36
37
In
India
, wheat, barley and
jujube
were domesticated by 9000 BC, soon followed by sheep and goats.
38
Cattle, sheep and goats were domesticated in
Mehrgarh
culture by 8000–6000 BC.
39
40
41
Cotton was cultivated by the 5th–4th millennium BC.
42
Archeological evidence indicates an animal-drawn
plough
from 2500 BC in the
Indus Valley civilization
43
In China, from the 5th century BC, there was a nationwide
granary
system and widespread
silk farming
44
Water-powered grain mills were in use by the 1st century BC,
45
followed by irrigation.
46
By the late 2nd century,
heavy ploughs
had been developed with iron ploughshares and
mouldboards
47
48
These spread westwards across Eurasia.
49
Asian rice was domesticated 8,200–13,500 years ago – depending on the
molecular clock
estimate that is used
50
– on the Pearl River in southern China with a single genetic origin from the wild rice
Oryza rufipogon
51
In
Greece
and
Rome
, the major cereals were wheat, emmer, and barley, alongside vegetables including peas, beans, and olives. Sheep and goats were kept mainly for dairy products.
52
53
Agricultural scenes of
threshing
, a grain store, harvesting with
sickles
, digging, tree-cutting and ploughing from
ancient Egypt
. Tomb of
Nakht
, 15th century BC
In the Americas, crops domesticated in
Mesoamerica
(apart from teosinte) include squash, beans, and
cacao
54
Cocoa was domesticated by the Mayo Chinchipe of the upper Amazon around 3000 BC.
55
The
turkey
was probably domesticated in Mexico or the American Southwest.
56
The
Aztecs
developed irrigation systems, formed
terraced
hillsides, fertilized their soil, and developed
chinampas
or artificial islands. The
Mayas
used extensive canal and raised field systems to farm swampland from 400 BC.
57
58
59
60
61
In South America agriculture may have begun about 9000 BC with the domestication of
squash
(Cucurbita) and other plants.
62
Coca
was domesticated in the Andes, as were the peanut,
tomato
, tobacco, and
pineapple
54
Cotton was domesticated in Peru by 3600 BC.
63
Animals including
llamas
alpacas
, and
guinea pigs
were domesticated there.
64
In
North America
, the indigenous people of the
East domesticated crops
such as
sunflower
, tobacco,
65
squash and
Chenopodium
66
67
Wild foods including
wild rice
and
maple sugar
were harvested.
68
The domesticated
strawberry
is a hybrid of a Chilean and a North American species, developed by breeding in Europe and North America.
69
The
indigenous people of the Southwest
and the
Pacific Northwest
practiced
forest gardening
and
fire-stick farming
. The
natives controlled fire
on a regional scale to create a low-intensity
fire ecology
that
sustained a low-density agriculture
in loose rotation; a sort of "wild"
permaculture
70
71
72
73
A system of
companion planting
called
the Three Sisters
was developed in North America. The three crops were
winter squash
, maize, and climbing beans.
74
75
Indigenous Australians
, long supposed to have been nomadic
hunter-gatherers
, practiced systematic burning, possibly to enhance natural productivity in fire-stick farming.
76
Scholars have pointed out that hunter-gatherers need a productive environment to support gathering without cultivation. Because the forests of New Guinea have few food plants, early humans may have used "selective burning" to increase the productivity of the wild
karuka
fruit trees to support the hunter-gatherer way of life.
77
The
Gunditjmara
and other groups developed
eel
farming and fish trapping systems from some 5,000 years ago.
78
There is evidence of 'intensification' across the whole continent over that period.
79
In two regions of Australia, the central west coast and eastern central, early farmers cultivated yams, native millet, and bush onions, possibly in permanent settlements.
32
80
Revolution
Agricultural calendar,
c.
1470
, from a manuscript of
Pietro de Crescenzi
In the
Middle Ages
, compared to the
Roman period
, agriculture in Western Europe became more focused on
self-sufficiency
. The agricultural population under feudalism was typically organized into
manors
consisting of several hundred or more acres of land presided over by a
lord of the manor
with a
Roman Catholic
church and priest.
81
Thanks to the exchange with the
Al-Andalus
where the
Arab Agricultural Revolution
was underway, European agriculture transformed, with improved techniques and the diffusion of crop plants, including the introduction of sugar, rice, cotton and fruit trees (such as the orange).
82
After 1492, the
Columbian exchange
brought New World crops such as maize, potatoes, tomatoes,
sweet potatoes
, and
manioc
to Europe, and Old World crops such as wheat, barley, rice, and
turnips
, and livestock (including horses, cattle, sheep and goats) to the Americas.
83
Irrigation
crop rotation
, and
fertilizers
advanced from the 17th century with the
British Agricultural Revolution
, allowing global population to rise significantly. Since 1900, agriculture in developed nations, and to a lesser extent in the developing world, has seen large rises in productivity as
mechanization
replaces human labor, and assisted by
synthetic fertilizers
, pesticides, and
selective breeding
. The
Haber-Bosch
method allowed the synthesis of
ammonium nitrate
fertilizer on an industrial scale, greatly increasing
crop yields
and sustaining a further increase in global population.
84
85
Types
See also:
Staple food
Reindeer
herds form the basis of pastoral agriculture for several Arctic and Subarctic peoples.
Harvesting
wheat with a
combine harvester
accompanied by a tractor and trailer
Pastoralism
involves managing domesticated animals. In
nomadic pastoralism
, herds of livestock are moved from place to place in search of pasture, fodder, and water. This type of farming is practiced in arid and semi-arid regions of
Sahara
, Central Asia and some parts of India.
86
Spreading manure by hand in Zambia
In
shifting cultivation
, a small area of forest is cleared by cutting and burning the trees. The cleared land is used for growing crops for a few years until the soil becomes too infertile, and the area is abandoned. Another patch of land is selected and the process is repeated. This type of farming is practiced mainly in areas with abundant rainfall where the forest regenerates quickly. This practice is used in Northeast India, Southeast Asia, and the Amazon Basin.
87
Subsistence farming
is practiced to satisfy family or local needs alone, with little left over for transport elsewhere. It is intensively practiced in Monsoon Asia and South-East Asia.
88
An estimated 2.5 billion subsistence farmers worked in 2018, cultivating about 60% of the earth's
arable land
89
Intensive farming
is cultivation to maximize productivity, with a low fallow ratio and a high use of inputs (water, fertilizer, pesticide and automation). It is practiced mainly in developed countries.
90
91
Contemporary agriculture
Share of GDP from agriculture
Status
Suitability for agriculture of land around the world (US Department of Agriculture, 1998)
Recent trends of employment in agriculture (including forestry and fishing) by region
92
From the twentieth century onwards, intensive agriculture increased crop productivity. It substituted synthetic fertilizers and pesticides for labor, but caused increased water pollution, and often involved farm subsidies.
Soil degradation
and diseases such as
stem rust
are major concerns globally;
93
approximately 40% of the world's agricultural land is seriously degraded.
94
95
Modern agriculture has raised or encountered ecological, political, and economic issues including
water pollution
biofuels
genetically modified organisms
tariffs
and
farm subsidies
, leading to alternative approaches such as the
organic movement
96
97
Unsustainable farming practices in North America led to the
Dust Bowl
of the 1930s.
98
In recent years there has been a backlash against the
environmental effects
of conventional agriculture, resulting in the
organic
regenerative
, and
sustainable agriculture
movements.
96
99
One of the major forces behind this movement has been the
European Union
, which first certified
organic food
in 1991 and began reform of its
Common Agricultural Policy
(CAP) in 2005 to phase out commodity-linked farm subsidies,
100
also known as
decoupling
. The growth of organic farming has renewed research in alternative technologies such as
integrated pest management
, selective breeding,
101
and
controlled-environment agriculture
102
103
There are concerns about the lower yield associated with
organic farming
and its impact on global
food security
104
Recent mainstream technological developments include
genetically modified food
105
During the 60-year period between 1964 and 2023, most of the increase in agricultural production was achieved through intensification, while the expansion of agricultural land was limited to just 8%.
106
In the twenty-first century, between 2001 and 2023, global agricultural area decreased by 78 million hectares (Mha) (−2%), with cropland area increasing by 78 Mha and permanent meadows and pastures decreasing by 151 Mha. These changes exhibit significant regional variations.
Sub-Saharan Africa
witnessed cropland expansion of 69 Mha accompanied by 72 Mha of forest loss, while
Latin America
saw 25 Mha of cropland growth alongside 85 Mha of net forest area loss. Agricultural expansion remains the primary driver of global
deforestation
, accounting for nearly 90% of forest loss. In this century, another important aspect to consider is that approximately 3.6 Mha of croplands are abandoned annually, with land degradation likely playing a significant role in these losses.
107
Development of agricultural output of China in 2015 US$ since 1961
By 2015, the agricultural output of China was the largest in the world, followed by the European Union, India and the United States.
108
Economists measure the
total factor productivity
of agriculture, according to which agriculture in the United States is roughly 1.7 times more productive than it was in 1948.
109
Agriculture employed 873 million people in 2021, or 27% of the global workforce, 916 million in 2023, compared with 1 027 million (or 40%) in 2000. The share of agriculture in global GDP was stable at around 4% since 2000–2023.
110
Despite increases in agricultural production and productivity,
111
between 702 and 828 million people were affected by hunger in 2021.
112
Food insecurity and malnutrition can be the result of conflict, climate extremes and variability and economic swings.
111
It can also be caused by a country's structural characteristics such as income status and natural resource endowments as well as its political economy.
111
Pesticide use in agriculture went up 62% between 2000 and 2021, with the Americas accounting for half the use in 2021.
110
The
International Fund for Agricultural Development
posits that an increase in
smallholder agriculture
may be part of the solution to concerns about
food prices
and overall
food security
, given the favorable experience of Vietnam.
113
Disasters
have inflicted an estimated USD 3.26 trillion in agricultural losses over 33 years (1991–2023), averaging at USD 99 billion per year, with cereal crops bearing the heaviest burden at 4.6 billion tonnes lost, followed by fruits and vegetables (2.8 billion tonnes), and with meat and dairy losing 900 million tonnes.
114
Workforce
See also:
Gender roles in agriculture
Worldwide employment In agriculture, forestry and fishing in 2023
92
Agriculture provides about one-quarter of all global employment, more than half in sub-Saharan Africa and almost 60 percent in low-income countries.
115
As countries develop, other jobs have historically pulled workers away from agriculture, and labor-saving innovations increase agricultural productivity by reducing labor requirements per unit of output.
116
117
118
Over time, a combination of labor supply and labor demand trends have driven down the share of population employed in agriculture.
119
120
On the
three-sector theory
, the proportion of people working in agriculture (left-hard bar in each group, green) falls as an economy becomes more developed.
During the 16th century in Europe, between 55 and 75% of the population was engaged in agriculture; by the 19th century, this had dropped to between 35 and 65%.
121
In the same countries today, the figure is less than 10%.
122
At the start of the 21st century, some one billion people, or over 1/3 of the available work force, were employed in agriculture. This constitutes approximately 70% of the global employment of children, and in many countries constitutes the largest percentage of women of any industry.
123
The service sector overtook the agricultural sector as the largest global employer in 2007.
124
In many developed countries, immigrants help fill labor shortages in high-value agriculture activities that are difficult to mechanize.
125
Foreign farm workers from mostly Eastern Europe, North Africa and South Asia constituted around one-third of the salaried agricultural workforce in Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal in 2013.
126
127
128
129
In the United States of America, more than half of all hired farmworkers (roughly 450,000 workers) were immigrants in 2019, although the number of new immigrants arriving in the country to work in agriculture has fallen by 75 percent in recent years and rising wages indicate this has led to a major labor shortage on US farms.
130
131
Women in agriculture
Around the world, women make up a large share of the population employed in agriculture.
132
This share is growing in all developing regions except East and Southeast Asia where women already make up about 50 percent of the agricultural workforce.
132
Women make up 47 percent of the agricultural workforce in sub-Saharan Africa, a rate that has not changed significantly in the past few decades.
132
However, the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) posits that the roles and responsibilities of women in agriculture may be changing – for example, from subsistence farming to wage employment, and from contributing household members to primary producers in the context of male-out-migration.
132
In general, women account for a greater share of agricultural employment at lower levels of economic development, as inadequate education, limited access to basic infrastructure and markets, high unpaid work burden and poor rural employment opportunities outside agriculture severely limit women's opportunities for off-farm work.
133
Women who work in agricultural production tend to do so under highly unfavorable conditions. They tend to be concentrated in the poorest countries, where alternative livelihoods are not available, and they maintain the intensity of their work in conditions of climate-induced weather shocks and in situations of conflict. Women are less likely to participate as entrepreneurs and independent farmers and are engaged in the production of less lucrative crops.
133
The gender gap in land productivity between female- and male managed farms of the same size is 24 percent. On average, women earn 18.4 percent less than men in wage employment in agriculture; this means that women receive 82 cents for every dollar earned by men. Progress has been slow in closing gaps in women's access to irrigation and in ownership of livestock, too.
133
Women in agriculture still have significantly less access than men to inputs, including improved seeds, fertilizers and mechanized equipment. On a positive note, the gender gap in access to mobile internet in low- and middle-income countries fell from 25 percent to 16 percent between 2017 and 2021, and the gender gap in access to bank accounts narrowed from 9 to 6 percentage points. Women are as likely as men to adopt new technologies when the necessary enabling factors are put in place and they have equal access to complementary resources.
133
Safety
Main article:
Agricultural safety and health
Rollover protection bar
retrofitted
to a mid-20th century
Fordson tractor
Agriculture, specifically farming, remains a hazardous industry, and farmers worldwide remain at high risk of work-related injuries, lung disease,
noise-induced hearing loss
, skin diseases, as well as certain cancers related to chemical use and prolonged sun exposure. On
industrialized farms
, injuries frequently involve the use of
agricultural machinery
, and a common cause of fatal agricultural injuries in developed countries is
tractor rollovers
134
Pesticides and other chemicals used in farming can be
hazardous to worker health
, and workers exposed to pesticides may experience illness or have children with birth defects.
135
As an industry in which families commonly share in work and live on the farm itself, entire families can be at risk for injuries, illness, and death.
136
Ages 0–6 may be an especially vulnerable population in agriculture;
137
common causes of fatal injuries among young farm workers include drowning, machinery and motor accidents, including with all-terrain vehicles.
136
137
138
Occupational fatality data from the last decade indicate that, when looking at all industries, agriculture had the leading number of work-related deaths for youth. Within this industry, youth between the ages of 10 and 15 suffered the most non-fatal work-related injuries.
139
While farming is hazardous, studies have looked at the fact that there are also many benefits to growing up and living on a farm.
140
The
International Labor Organization
considers agriculture "one of the most hazardous of all economic sectors".
123
It estimates that the annual work-related death toll among agricultural employees is at least 170,000, twice the average rate of other jobs. In addition, incidences of death, injury and illness related to agricultural activities often go unreported.
141
The organization has developed the
Safety and Health in Agriculture Convention, 2001
, which covers the range of risks in the agriculture occupation, the prevention of these risks and the role that individuals and organizations engaged in agriculture should play.
123
In the United States, agriculture has been identified by the
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
as a priority industry sector in the
National Occupational Research Agenda
to identify and provide intervention strategies for occupational health and safety issues.
142
143
In the European Union, the
European Agency for Safety and Health at Work
has issued guidelines on implementing health and safety directives in agriculture, livestock farming, horticulture, and forestry.
144
The Agricultural Safety and Health Council of America (ASHCA) also holds a yearly summit to discuss safety.
145
Environmental impact
Extending over 4.8 billion ha in 2025 – the equivalent of one-third of the Earth’s land surface – agriculture has a greater impact on land and water resources compared with any other economic sector. Pressure on land, soil and water resources has seriously compromised the performance and future prospects of agriculture, resulting in further loss of productive land and reduced water availability for farming and other forms of agricultural production. Agricultural expansion drives deforestation and is one of the primary causes of the degradation of carbon-rich ecosystems such as
peatlands
. An estimated 64% of agricultural land is at risk of pesticide pollution, which damages biodiversity by destroying pollinators, harms soil microbiota and makes agrifood systems less resilient to pests, pathogens and climate change. Accounting for 72% of global freshwater withdrawals, a figure predicted to rise further in the future, agriculture contributes to and is increasingly affected by water scarcity. Overexploitation of groundwater and seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers is widespread, with major implications for food security.
146
Production
Main article:
List of countries by GDP sector composition
See also:
List of most important agricultural crops worldwide
Value of agricultural production
Overall production varies by country as listed.
Largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) according to
IMF
and
CIA World Factbook
, at peak level as of 2018
Economy
Countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018 (billions in USD
(01)
China
1,117
(02)
India
414
(—)
European Union
308
(03)
United States
185
(04)
Brazil
162
(05)
Indonesia
141
(06)
Nigeria
123
(07)
Russia
108
(08)
Pakistan
76
(09)
Argentina
70
(10)
Turkey
64
(11)
Japan
62
(12)
France
59
(13)
Iran
57
(14)
Australia
56
(15)
Mexico
51
(16)
Italy
50
(17)
Spain
43
(18)
Bangladesh
41
(19)
Thailand
40
(20)
Egypt
40
The twenty largest countries by agricultural output (in nominal terms) at peak level as of 2018, according to the
IMF
and
CIA World Factbook
Largest countries by agricultural output according to
UNCTAD
at 2005 constant prices and exchange rates, 2015
108
Economy
Countries by agricultural output in 2015 (millions in 2005 constant USD and exchange rates)
(01)
China
418,455
(02)
India
196,592
(03)
United States
149,023
(04)
Nigeria
77,113
(05)
Brazil
59,977
Crop cultivation systems
Slash and burn
shifting cultivation, Thailand
Cropping systems vary among farms depending on the available resources and constraints; geography and climate of the farm; government policy; economic, social and political pressures; and the philosophy and culture of the farmer.
147
148
Shifting cultivation (or
slash and burn
) is a system in which forests are burnt, releasing nutrients to support cultivation of annual and then
perennial
crops for a period of several years.
149
Then the plot is left
fallow
to regrow forest, and the farmer moves to a new plot, returning after many more years (10–20). This fallow period is shortened if population density grows, requiring the input of nutrients (fertilizer or
manure
) and some manual
pest control
. Annual cultivation is the next phase of intensity in which there is no fallow period. This requires even greater nutrient and pest control inputs.
149
Intercropping
of
coconut
and
Mexican marigold
Further industrialization led to the use of
monocultures
, when one
cultivar
is planted on a large acreage. Because of the low
biodiversity
, nutrient use is uniform and pests tend to build up, necessitating the greater use of
pesticides
and fertilizers.
148
Multiple cropping
, in which several crops are grown sequentially in one year, and
intercropping
, when several crops are grown at the same time, are other kinds of annual cropping systems known as
polycultures
149
In
subtropical
and
arid
environments, the timing and extent of agriculture may be limited by rainfall, either not allowing multiple
annual crops
in a year, or requiring irrigation. In all of these environments perennial crops are grown (coffee, chocolate) and systems are practiced such as
agroforestry
. In
temperate
environments, where ecosystems were predominantly
grassland
or
prairie
, highly productive annual farming is the dominant agricultural system.
149
Important categories of food crops include cereals, legumes, forage, fruits and vegetables.
150
Natural fibers
include cotton,
wool
hemp
, silk and
flax
151
Specific crops are cultivated in distinct
growing regions
throughout the world. Production is listed in millions of metric tons, based on
FAO
estimates.
150
Top agricultural products, by crop types
(million tonnes) 2004 data
Cereals
2,263
Vegetables and melons
866
Roots
and
tubers
715
Milk
619
Fruit
503
Meat
259
Oilcrops
133
Fish (2001 estimate)
130
Eggs
63
Pulses
60
Vegetable fiber
30
Source:
Food and Agriculture Organization
150
Top agricultural products, by individual crops
(million tonnes) 2011 data
Sugar cane
1794
Maize
883
Rice
722
Wheat
704
Potatoes
374
Sugar beet
271
Soybeans
260
Cassava
252
Tomatoes
159
Barley
134
Source:
Food and Agriculture Organization
150
Livestock production systems
Main articles:
Livestock
and
Animal husbandry
See also:
List of domesticated animals
Intensively farmed
pigs
Animal husbandry is the breeding and raising of animals for meat, milk,
eggs
, or
wool
, and for work and transport.
152
Working animals
, including horses,
mules
oxen
water buffalo
, camels, llamas, alpacas, donkeys, and dogs, have for centuries been used to help cultivate fields,
harvest
crops, wrangle other animals, and transport farm products to buyers.
153
Livestock production systems can be defined based on feed source, as grassland-based, mixed, and landless.
154
As of 2010
[update]
, 30% of Earth's ice- and water-free area was used for producing livestock, with the sector employing approximately 1.3 billion people. Between the 1960s and the 2000s, there was a significant increase in livestock production, both by numbers and by carcass weight, especially among beef, pigs and chickens, the latter of which had production increased by almost a factor of 10. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, also showed significant production increases. Global cattle, sheep and goat populations are expected to continue to increase sharply through 2050.
155
Aquaculture
or fish farming, the production of fish for human consumption in confined operations, is one of the fastest growing sectors of food production, growing at an average of 9% a year between 1975 and 2007.
156
During the second half of the 20th century, producers using selective breeding focused on creating livestock
breeds
and
crossbreeds
that increased production, while mostly disregarding the need to preserve
genetic diversity
. This trend has led to a significant decrease in genetic diversity and resources among livestock breeds, leading to a corresponding decrease in disease resistance and local adaptations previously found among traditional breeds.
157
Raising chickens intensively for meat in a broiler house
Grassland based livestock production relies upon plant material such as
shrubland
rangeland
, and
pastures
for feeding
ruminant
animals. Outside nutrient inputs may be used, however manure is returned directly to the grassland as a major nutrient source. This system is particularly important in areas where crop production is not feasible because of climate or soil, representing 30–40 million pastoralists.
149
Mixed production systems use grassland,
fodder
crops and grain feed crops as feed for ruminant and monogastric (one stomach; mainly chickens and pigs) livestock. Manure is typically recycled in mixed systems as a fertilizer for crops.
154
Landless systems rely upon feed from outside the farm, representing the de-linking of crop and livestock production found more prevalently in
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
member countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure use becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution.
154
Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth in livestock production between 2003 and 2030 will be in
confined animal feeding operations
, sometimes called
factory farming
. Much of this growth is happening in developing countries in Asia, with much smaller amounts of growth in Africa.
155
Some of the practices used in commercial livestock production, including the usage of
growth hormones
, are controversial.
158
Production practices
Tilling
an arable field
Further information:
Tillage
Crop rotation
, and
Irrigation
Tillage is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or
harrow
to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to
no-till
. It can improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, but also renders soil more prone to erosion, triggers the decomposition of organic matter releasing CO
, and reduces the abundance and diversity of soil organisms.
159
160
Pest control includes the management of weeds, insects,
mites
, and diseases. Chemical (pesticides), biological (
biocontrol
), mechanical (tillage), and cultural practices are used. Cultural practices include crop rotation,
culling
cover crops
, intercropping,
composting
, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.
161
Nutrient management
includes both the source of nutrient inputs for crop and livestock production, and the method of use of manure produced by livestock. Nutrient inputs can be chemical inorganic fertilizers, manure,
green manure
, compost and minerals.
162
Crop nutrient use may also be managed using cultural techniques such as crop rotation or a
fallow
period. Manure is used either by holding livestock where the feed crop is growing, such as in managed intensive rotational grazing, or
by spreading
either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or
pastures
159
163
Water management
is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world.
149
Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. In other areas such as the
Great Plains
in the US and Canada, farmers use a fallow year to conserve soil moisture for the following year.
164
Recent technological innovations in precision agriculture allow for water status monitoring and automate water usage, leading to more efficient management.
165
Agriculture represents 70% of freshwater use worldwide.
166
However, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture vary significantly by income level. In least developed countries and landlocked developing countries, water withdrawal ratios for agriculture are as high as 90 percent of total water withdrawals and about 60 percent in
Small Island Developing States
167
According to 2014 report by the
International Food Policy Research Institute
, agricultural technologies will have the greatest impact on food production if adopted in combination with each other. Using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduced by almost half.
168
Payment for ecosystem services
is a method of providing additional incentives to encourage farmers to conserve some aspects of the environment. Measures might include paying for reforestation upstream of a city, to improve the supply of fresh water.
169
Agricultural automation
Different definitions exist for agricultural automation and for the variety of tools and technologies that are used to automate production. One view is that agricultural automation refers to autonomous navigation by robots without human intervention.
170
Alternatively, it is defined as the accomplishment of production tasks through mobile, autonomous, decision-making, mechatronic devices.
171
However,
FAO
finds that these definitions do not capture all the aspects and forms of automation, such as robotic milking machines that are static, most motorized machinery that automates the performing of agricultural operations, and digital tools (e.g., sensors) that automate only diagnosis.
165
FAO defines agricultural automation as the use of machinery and equipment in agricultural operations to improve their diagnosis, decision-making or performing, reducing the drudgery of agricultural work or improving the timeliness, and potentially the precision, of agricultural operations.
172
The technological evolution in agriculture has involved a progressive move from manual tools to animal traction, to motorized mechanization, to digital equipment and finally, to robotics with artificial intelligence (AI).
172
Motorized mechanization using engine power automates the performance of agricultural operations such as ploughing and milking.
173
With digital automation technologies, it also becomes possible to automate diagnosis and decision-making of agricultural operations.
172
For example, autonomous crop robots can harvest and seed crops, while drones can gather information to help automate input application.
165
Precision agriculture often employs such automation technologies.
165
Motorized machines are increasingly complemented, or even superseded, by new digital equipment that automates diagnosis and decision-making.
173
A conventional tractor, for example, can be converted into an automated vehicle allowing it to sow a field autonomously.
173
Motorized mechanization has increased significantly across the world in recent years, although reliable global data with broad country coverage exist only for tractors and only up to 2009.
174
Sub-Saharan Africa is the only region where the adoption of motorized mechanization has stalled over the past decades.
165
175
Automation technologies are increasingly used for managing livestock, though evidence on adoption is lacking. Global automatic milking system sales have increased over recent years, but adoption is likely mostly in Northern Europe,
176
and likely almost absent in low- and middle-income countries. Automated feeding machines for both cows and poultry also exist, but data and evidence regarding their adoption trends and drivers is likewise scarce.
177
165
Measuring the overall employment impacts of agricultural automation is difficult because it requires large amounts of data tracking all the transformations and the associated reallocation of workers both upstream and downstream.
172
While automation technologies reduce labor needs for the newly automated tasks, they also generate new labor demand for other tasks, such as equipment maintenance and operation.
165
Agricultural automation can also stimulate employment by allowing producers to expand production and by creating other agrifood systems jobs.
178
This is especially true when it happens in context of rising scarcity of rural labor, as is the case in high-income countries and many middle-income countries.
178
On the other hand, if forcedly promoted, for example through government subsidies in contexts of abundant rural labor, it can lead to labor displacement and falling or stagnant wages, particularly affecting poor and low-skilled workers.
178
Effects of climate change on yields
Main article:
Effects of climate change on agriculture
The sixth IPCC Assessment Report projects changes in average soil moisture at 2.0 °C of warming, as measured in
standard deviations
from the 1850 to 1900 baseline.
Climate change
and agriculture are interrelated on a global scale.
Climate change affects agriculture
through changes in
average temperatures
, rainfall, and
weather extremes
(like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric
carbon dioxide
and ground-level
ozone
concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods;
179
and changes in
sea level
180
Global warming is already affecting agriculture, with effects unevenly distributed across the world.
181
In a 2022 report, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
describes how human-induced warming has slowed growth of agricultural productivity over the past 50 years in mid and low latitudes.
182
Methane emissions have negatively impacted crop yields by increasing temperatures and surface ozone concentrations.
182
Warming is also negatively affecting crop and grassland quality and harvest stability.
182
Ocean warming
has decreased sustainable yields of some wild fish populations while ocean acidification and warming have already affected farmed aquatic species.
182
Climate change will probably increase the risk of
food insecurity
for some vulnerable groups, such as the
poor
183
Future predictions
In order to meet the demands of a growing global population, agriculture needs to produce about 50% more food, feed and fibre by 2050 compared with the volumes it generated in 2012, according to estimates by the
Food
and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations (FAO). Achieving such objectives will place additional pressure on the world’s already overstretched water, land and soil resources. In an increasing number of regions, food security and agrifood systems are at risk from unsustainable natural resource management practices, urban expansion, higher demand for food, water, energy and biomaterials, and persisting social and gender inequalities in access to and governance of resources.
146
Crop alteration and biotechnology
Plant breeding
Main article:
Plant breeding
Wheat cultivar tolerant of high
salinity
(left) compared with non-tolerant variety
Crop alteration has been practiced by humankind for thousands of years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breeding ensued after the work of geneticist
Gregor Mendel
. His work on
dominant
and
recessive alleles
, although initially largely ignored for almost 50 years, gave plant breeders a better understanding of genetics and breeding techniques. Crop breeding includes techniques such as plant selection with desirable traits,
self-pollination
and
cross-pollination
, and molecular techniques that genetically modify the organism.
184
Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and
drought tolerance
, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants. Plant selection and breeding in the 1920s and 1930s improved pasture (grasses and clover) in New Zealand. Extensive X-ray and ultraviolet induced mutagenesis efforts (i.e. primitive genetic engineering) during the 1950s produced the modern commercial varieties of grains such as wheat, corn (maize) and barley.
185
186
Seedlings in a green house. This is what it looks like when seedlings are growing from plant breeding.
The
Green Revolution
popularized the use of conventional
hybridization
to sharply increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from less than 1 t/ha in 1900 to more than 2.5 t/ha in 1990. South American average wheat yields are around 2 t/ha, African under 1 t/ha, and Egypt and Arabia up to 3.5 to 4 t/ha with irrigation. In contrast, the average wheat yield in countries such as France is over 8 t/ha. Variations in yields are due mainly to variation in climate, genetics, and the level of intensive farming techniques (use of fertilizers, chemical pest control, and growth control to avoid lodging).
187
188
189
Increase of
intellectual property
protection for agri inventions, as seen in the total number of
patents
utility models
and
plant varieties
equivalent protection systems applied for on agricultural innovation worldwide.
Investments into
innovation
for agriculture are long term. This is because it takes time for research to become commercialized and for technology to be adapted to meet multiple regions' needs, as well as meet national guidelines before being adopted and planted in a farmer's fields. For instance, it took at least 60 years from the introduction of
hybrid corn
technology before its adoption became widespread.
190
191
Agricultural innovation developed for the specific agroecological conditions of one region is not easily transferred and used in another region with different agroecological conditions. Instead, the innovation would have to be adapted to the specific conditions of that other region and respect its
biodiversity
and environmental requirements and guidelines. Some such adaptations can be seen through the steadily increasing number of plant varieties protected under the plant variety protection instrument administered by the
International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants
(UPOV).
190
Genetic engineering
Main article:
Genetic engineering
See also:
Genetically modified food
Genetically modified crops
Regulation of the release of genetic modified organisms
, and
Genetically modified food controversies
Genetically modified
potato plants (left) resist virus diseases that damage unmodified plants (right).
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are
organisms
whose
genetic
material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as
recombinant DNA technology
. Genetic engineering has expanded the genes available to breeders to use in creating desired germlines for new crops. Increased durability, nutritional content, insect and virus resistance and herbicide tolerance are a few of the attributes bred into crops through genetic engineering.
192
For some, GMO crops cause
food safety
and
food labeling
concerns. Numerous countries have placed restrictions on the production, import or use of GMO foods and crops.
193
The
Biosafety Protocol
, an international treaty, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and the EU has had GMO food labeling requirements since 1997.
194
195
As of 2022, the United States requires food containing GMO ingredients to be labeled as well.
196
197
Herbicide-resistant seeds have a gene implanted into their genome that allows the plants to tolerate exposure to herbicides, including
glyphosate
. These seeds allow the farmer to grow a crop that can be sprayed with herbicides to control weeds without harming the resistant crop. Herbicide-tolerant crops are used by farmers worldwide.
198
With the increasing use of herbicide-tolerant crops, comes an increase in the use of glyphosate-based herbicide sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides.
199
200
Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implications.
201
Other GMO crops used by growers include insect-resistant crops, which have a gene from the soil bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis
(Bt), which produces a toxin specific to insects. These crops resist damage by insects.
202
Some believe that similar or better pest-resistance traits can be acquired through traditional breeding practices, and resistance to various pests can be gained through hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.
203
Environmental impact
Main article:
Environmental issues with agriculture
Effects and costs
Water pollution
in a rural stream due to
runoff from farming activity in New Zealand
Agriculture is both a cause of environmental degradation and sensitive to environmental degradation, such as
biodiversity loss
desertification
soil degradation
and
climate change
, which cause decreases in crop yield.
204
Agriculture is one of the most important drivers of environmental pressures, particularly habitat change, climate change, water use and toxic emissions. Agriculture is the main source of toxins released into the environment, including
insecticides
, especially those used on cotton.
205
206
The 2011 UNEP Green Economy report stated that agricultural operations produced some 13 percent of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. This includes gases from the use of inorganic fertilizers, agro-chemical pesticides, and herbicides, as well as fossil fuel-energy inputs.
207
Agriculture imposes multiple external costs upon society through effects such as pesticide damage to nature (especially herbicides and insecticides), nutrient runoff, excessive water usage, and loss of natural environment. A 2000 assessment of agriculture in the UK determined total external costs for 1996 of £2,343 million, or £208 per hectare.
208
A 2005 analysis of these costs in the US concluded that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million.
209
Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they noted that subsidies also influence the cost of agriculture to society.
208
209
Agriculture seeks to increase yield and to reduce costs, often employing measures that cut biodiversity to very low levels. Yield increases with inputs such as fertilizers and removal of pathogens, predators, and competitors (such as weeds). Costs decrease with increasing scale of farm units, such as making fields larger; this means removing
hedges
, ditches and other areas of habitat. Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. Effective yields fall with on-farm losses, which may be caused by poor production practices during harvesting, handling, and storage.
210
The environmental effects of climate change show that research on pests and diseases that do not generally afflict areas is essential. In 2021, farmers discovered
stem rust
on wheat in the
Champagne
area of France, a disease that had previously only occurred in
Morocco
for 20 to 30 years. Because of climate change, insects that used to die off over the winter are now alive and multiplying.
211
212
Livestock issues
Farmyard
anaerobic digester
converts waste plant material and manure from livestock into
biogas
fuel.
A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems".
213
Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of the planet. It is one of the largest sources of
greenhouse gases
, responsible for 18% of the world's
greenhouse gas emissions
as measured in CO
equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO
. (This comparison later turned out to be an apples-and-oranges analogy
214
.) It produces 65% of human-related
nitrous oxide
(which has 296 times the
global warming potential
of CO
) and 37% of all human-induced
methane
(which is 23 times as warming as CO
.) It also generates 64% of the
ammonia
emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving
deforestation
; in the Amazon basin 70% of
previously forested area
is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feed crops.
215
Through deforestation and
land degradation
, livestock is also driving reductions in biodiversity. A well documented phenomenon is
woody plant encroachment
, caused by
overgrazing
in rangelands.
216
Furthermore, the
United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) states that "
methane emissions
from global livestock are projected to increase by 60 percent by 2030 under current practices and consumption patterns."
207
Land and water issues
See also:
Environmental impact of irrigation
Countries with the highest share of water withdrawal by agriculture in total withdrawal (2022)
92
Circular
irrigated
crop fields in
Kansas
. Healthy, growing crops of
corn
and
sorghum
are green (sorghum may be slightly paler). Wheat is brilliant gold. Fields of brown have been recently harvested and plowed or have lain in
fallow
for the year.
Land transformation, the use of land to yield goods and services, is the most substantial way humans alter the Earth's ecosystems, and is the driving force causing
biodiversity loss
. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%.
217
It is estimated that 24% of land globally experiences land degradation, a long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, with cropland being disproportionately affected.
218
Land management is the driving factor behind degradation; 1.5 billion people rely upon the degrading land. Degradation can be through deforestation,
desertification
soil erosion
, mineral depletion,
acidification
, or
salinization
149
In 2021, the global agricultural land area was 4.79 billion hectares (ha), down 2 percent, or 0.09 billion ha compared with 2000. Between 2000 and 2021, roughly two-thirds of agricultural land were used for permanent meadows and pastures (3.21 billion ha in 2021), which declined by 5 percent (0.17 billion ha). One-third of the total agricultural land was cropland (1.58 billion ha in 2021), which increased by 6 percent (0.09 billion ha).
110
Within the U.S., total agricultural land use is estimated to be 56%,
219
and including grazing, animal agriculture constitutes around 80% of agricultural land.
220
Eutrophication
, excessive nutrient enrichment in
aquatic ecosystems
resulting in
algal blooms
and
anoxia
, leads to
fish kills
loss of biodiversity
, and renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly
nitrogen
and
phosphorus
runoff
and
leaching
from agricultural land. These nutrients are major
nonpoint pollutants
contributing to
eutrophication
of aquatic ecosystems and pollution of groundwater, with harmful effects on human populations.
221
Fertilizers also reduce terrestrial biodiversity by increasing competition for light, favoring those species that are able to benefit from the added nutrients.
222
Agriculture simultaneously is facing growing freshwater demand and precipitation anomalies (droughts, floods, and extreme rainfall and weather events) on rainfed areas fields and grazing lands.
167
Agriculture accounts for 70 percent of withdrawals of freshwater resources,
223
224
and an estimated 41 percent of current global irrigation water use occurs at the expense of environmental flow requirements.
167
Within the U.S., agriculture accounts for about 80% of total water consumption, with animal agriculture making up half of agricultural consumption (around 40%).
225
It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the
Upper Ganges
and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia.
226
Increasing pressure is being placed on water resources by industry and urban areas, meaning that
water scarcity
is increasing and agriculture is facing the challenge of producing more food for the world's growing population with reduced water resources.
227
While industrial withdrawals have declined in the past few decades and municipal withdrawals have increased only marginally since 2010, agricultural withdrawals have continued to grow at an ever faster pace.
167
Agricultural water
usage can also cause major environmental problems, including the destruction of natural wetlands, the spread of water-borne diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.
228
Pesticides
Main article:
Environmental impact of pesticides
Spraying a crop with a
pesticide
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5 million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant.
229
The World Health Organization estimated in 1992 that three million pesticide poisonings occur annually, causing 220,000 deaths.
230
Pesticides select for
pesticide resistance
in the pest population, leading to a condition termed the "pesticide treadmill" in which pest resistance warrants the development of a new pesticide.
231
An alternative argument is that the way to "save the environment" and prevent famine is by using pesticides and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'.
232
233
However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable,
234
and that pesticides can replace
good agronomic practices
such as crop rotation.
231
The
Push–pull agricultural pest management
technique involves intercropping, using plant aromas to repel pests from crops (push) and to lure them to a place from which they can then be removed (pull).
235
Contribution to climate change
Main article:
Greenhouse gas emissions from agriculture
World farm-gate greenhouse gas emissions by activity
92
Agriculture contributes towards
climate change
through
greenhouse gas emissions
and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as
forests
into agricultural land.
236
The agriculture, forestry and land use sector contribute between 13% and 21% of global greenhouse gas emissions.
237
Emissions of
nitrous oxide
methane
make up over half of total greenhouse gas emission from agriculture.
238
Animal husbandry
is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions.
239
Approximately 57% of global GHG emissions from the production of food are from the production of animal-based food while plant-based foods contribute 29% and the remaining 14% is for other utilizations.
240
Farmland management and
land-use change
represented major shares of total emissions (38% and 29%, respectively), whereas rice and beef were the largest contributing plant- and animal-based commodities (12% and 25%, respectively).
240
South and Southeast Asia and South America were the largest emitters of production-based GHGs.
240
Effects of climate change on agriculture
Further information:
Effects of climate change on agriculture
Climate change put significant part of crops in danger already at 1.5 degrees of warming. While in North America, Europe and central Asia the share of endangered crops is relatively little at this level of warming, in the
Middle east and North Africa
region for example, close to 50% of cropland is in danger. With further temperature rise the risk increase in all regions, in some more, in some less. Globally the cropland area in safe climatic zone decrease for all the major crop groups as warming exceed 1.5 degrees.
241
242
Sustainability
Terraces,
conservation tillage
and conservation buffers reduce
soil erosion
and
water pollution
on this farm in Iowa.
Main article:
Sustainable agriculture
Current farming methods have resulted in over-stretched water resources, high levels of erosion and reduced soil fertility. There is not enough water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how water, land, and
ecosystem
resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of users and interests.
243
Inequities that result when such measures are adopted would need to be addressed, such as the reallocation of water from poor to rich, the clearing of land to make way for more productive farmland, or the preservation of a wetland system that limits fishing rights.
244
Technological advancements help provide farmers with tools and resources to make farming more sustainable.
245
Technology permits innovations like
conservation tillage
, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances
carbon sequestration
246
Agricultural automation can help address some of the challenges associated with climate change and thus facilitate adaptation efforts.
165
For example, the application of digital automation technologies (e.g. in precision agriculture) can improve resource-use efficiency in conditions which are increasingly constrained for agricultural producers.
165
Moreover, when applied to sensing and early warning, they can help address the uncertainty and unpredictability of weather conditions associated with accelerating climate change.
165
Other potential sustainable practices include
conservation agriculture
agroforestry
, improved
grazing
, avoided grassland conversion, and
biochar
247
248
Current mono-crop farming practices in the United States preclude widespread adoption of sustainable practices, such as 2–3 crop rotations that incorporate grass or hay with annual crops, unless negative emission goals such as soil carbon sequestration become policy.
249
The food demand of Earth's projected population, with current climate change predictions, could be satisfied by improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.
250
Energy dependence
Mechanized agriculture
: from the first models in the 1940s, tools like a
cotton picker
could replace 50 farm workers, at the price of increased use of
fossil fuel
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased use of energy-intensive mechanization, fertilizers and pesticides. The vast majority of this energy input comes from
fossil fuel
sources.
251
Between the 1960s and the 1980s, the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, with world grain production increasing significantly (between 70% and 390% for wheat and 60% to 150% for rice, depending on geographic area)
252
as
world population
doubled. Heavy reliance on
petrochemicals
has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.
253
Industrialized agriculture depends on
fossil fuels
in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption includes the use of lubricants and fuels to operate farm vehicles and machinery.
253
Indirect consumption includes the manufacture of fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.
253
In particular, the production of
nitrogen fertilizer
can account for over half of agricultural energy usage.
254
Together, direct and indirect consumption by US farms accounts for about 2% of the nation's energy use. Direct and indirect energy consumption by US farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined.
253
Food systems
encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of food system energy use in the US.
255
256
Plastic pollution
Main articles:
Plastic pollution
and
plasticulture
Plastic products are used extensively in agriculture, including to increase crop yields and improve the efficiency of water and agrichemical use. "Agriplastic" products include films to cover
greenhouses
and tunnels, mulch to cover soil (e.g. to suppress weeds,
conserve water
, increase soil temperature and aid fertilizer application), shade cloth, pesticide containers, seedling trays, protective mesh and irrigation tubing. The polymers most commonly used in these products are low-density polyethylene (LPDE), linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), polypropylene (PP) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).
257
The total amount of plastics used in agriculture is difficult to quantify. A 2012 study reported that almost 6.5 million tonnes per year were consumed globally while a later study estimated that global demand in 2015 was between 7.3 million and 9 million tonnes. Widespread use of
plastic mulch
and lack of systematic collection and management have led to the generation of large amounts of mulch residue. Weathering and degradation eventually cause the mulch to fragment. These fragments and larger pieces of plastic accumulate in soil. Mulch residue has been measured at levels of 50 to 260 kg per hectare in topsoil in areas where mulch use dates back more than 10 years, which confirms that mulching is a major source of both microplastic and macroplastic
soil contamination
257
Agricultural plastics, especially plastic films, are not easy to recycle because of high contamination levels (up to 40–50% by weight contamination by pesticides, fertilizers, soil and debris, moist vegetation, silage juice water, and UV stabilizers) and collection difficulties . Therefore, they are often buried or abandoned in fields and watercourses or burned. These disposal practices lead to soil degradation and can result in contamination of soils and leakage of
microplastics
into the marine environment as a result of precipitation run-off and tidal washing. In addition, additives in residual plastic film (such as UV and thermal stabilizers) may have deleterious effects on crop growth, soil structure, nutrient transport and salt levels. There is a risk that plastic mulch will deteriorate
soil quality
, deplete soil organic matter stocks, increase soil water repellence and emit greenhouse gases. Microplastics released through fragmentation of agricultural plastics can absorb and concentrate contaminants capable of being passed up the trophic chain.
257
Disciplines
Agricultural economics
Main article:
Agricultural economics
In 19th-century Britain, the
protectionist
Corn Laws
led to high prices and widespread protest, such as this 1846 meeting of the
Anti–Corn Law League
258
Agricultural economics is economics as it relates to the "production, distribution and consumption of [agricultural] goods and services".
259
Combining agricultural production with general theories of marketing and business as a discipline of study began in the late 1800s, and grew significantly through the 20th century.
260
Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from
tenant farmers
and
sharecropping
in the post–
American Civil War
Southern United States
261
to the European
feudal
system of
manorialism
262
In the United States, and elsewhere, food costs attributed to
food processing
, distribution, and
agricultural marketing
, sometimes referred to as the
value chain
, have risen while the costs attributed to farming have declined. This is related to the greater efficiency of farming, combined with the increased level of
value addition
(e.g. more highly processed products) provided by the supply chain.
Market concentration
has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute
economic surplus
from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural communities.
263
National government policies, such as taxation,
subsidies
, tariffs and others, can significantly change the economic marketplace for agricultural products.
264
Since at least the 1960s, a combination of trade restrictions,
exchange rate policies
and subsidies have affected farmers in both the developing and the developed world. In the 1980s, non-subsidized farmers in developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.
265
However, as of 2009
[update]
, there was still a significant amount of policy-driven distortion in global agricultural product prices. The three agricultural products with the most trade distortion were sugar, milk and rice, mainly due to taxation. Among the
oilseeds
, sesame had the most taxation, but overall, feed grains and oilseeds had much lower levels of taxation than livestock products. Since the 1980s, policy-driven distortions have decreases more among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy.
264
Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developing countries with non-subsidized farmers.
266
Unprocessed commodities such as corn, soybeans, and cattle are generally graded to indicate quality, affecting the price the producer receives. Commodities are generally reported by production quantities, such as volume, number or weight.
267
Agricultural science
Main article:
Agricultural science
Further information:
Agronomy
An
agronomist
mapping a plant
genome
Agricultural science
is a broad multidisciplinary field of
biology
that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and
social sciences
used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics,
plant pathology
, crop modeling, soil science,
entomology
, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, and study of adverse environmental effects such as soil degradation,
waste management
, and
bioremediation
268
269
The scientific study of agriculture began in the 18th century, when
Johann Friedrich Mayer
conducted experiments on the use of
gypsum
(hydrated
calcium sulphate
) as a fertilizer.
270
Research became more systematic when in 1843,
John Lawes
and Henry Gilbert began a set of long-term agronomy field experiments at
Rothamsted Research Station
in England; some of them, such as the
Park Grass Experiment
, are still running.
271
272
In America, the
Hatch Act of 1887
provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers.
273
In agricultural entomology, the USDA began to research biological control in 1881; it instituted its first large program in 1905, searching Europe and Japan for natural enemies of the
spongy moth
and
brown-tail
moth, establishing
parasitoids
(such as solitary wasps) and predators of both pests in the US.
274
275
276
Policy
Main article:
Agricultural policy
Direct subsidies
for animal products and feed by
OECD
countries in 2012, in billions of US dollars
277
Product
Subsidy
Beef and veal
18.0
Milk
15.3
Pigs
7.3
Poultry
6.5
Soybeans
2.3
Eggs
1.5
Sheep
1.1
Agricultural policy
is the set of government decisions and actions relating to domestic agriculture and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food safety and natural disasters),
economic stability
(including policies related to taxes), natural resources and
environmental sustainability
(especially
water policy
), research and development, and market access for domestic commodities (including relations with global organizations and agreements with other countries).
278
Agricultural policy can also touch on
food quality
, ensuring that the food supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and
conservation
. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.
279
A 2021 report finds that globally, support to agricultural producers accounts for almost US$540 billion a year.
280
This amounts to 15 percent of total agricultural production value, and is heavily biased towards measures that are leading to inefficiency, as well as are unequally distributed and harmful for the environment and human health.
280
Crop use in animal agriculture accounts for one form of inefficiency. Animal agriculture’s estimated land use to produce one kilocalorie or gram of protein is 50 to 100 times that of plant-based alternatives. Furthermore, the larger the livestock, the lower the energy efficiency (kilocalories obtained relative to kilocalories the animal consumes). For instance, beef's energy efficiency is estimated to be 2%.
281
There are many influences on the creation of agricultural policy, including consumers,
agribusiness
, trade lobbies and other groups. Agribusiness interests hold a large amount of influence over policy making, in the form of
lobbying
and
campaign contributions
. Political action groups, including those interested in environmental issues and labor unions, also provide influence, as do lobbying organizations representing individual agricultural commodities.
282
The
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's
animal production
and health division, states that lobbying by large corporations has stopped reforms that would improve human health and the environment. For example, proposals in 2010 for a voluntary code of conduct for the livestock industry that would have provided incentives for improving standards for health, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.
283
See also
Main article:
Outline of agriculture
Aeroponics
Agricultural aircraft
Agricultural engineering
Agricultural finance
Agricultural robot
Agroecology
Agrominerals
Building-integrated agriculture
Contract farming
Corporate farming
Crofting
Ecoagriculture
Farmworker
Food loss and waste
Food security
Hill farming
List of documentary films about agriculture
Pharming (genetics)
Remote sensing
Rural Development
Soil biodiversity
Subsistence economy
Sustainable agriculture
Urban agriculture
Vertical farming
Vegetable farming
Sources
This article incorporates text from a
free content
work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (
license statement/permission
). Text taken from
The State of Food and Agriculture 2025​
, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
This article incorporates text from a
free content
work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (
license statement/permission
). Text taken from
The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2025​
, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
This article incorporates text from a
free content
work. Licensed under CC BY 4.0 (
license statement/permission
). Text taken from
The Impact of Disasters on Agriculture and Food Security 2025​
, The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
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, FAO, FAO.
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). Text taken from
In Brief to The State of Food and Agriculture 2022. Leveraging automation in agriculture for transforming agrifood systems​
, FAO, FAO.
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work (
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). Text taken from
Enabling inclusive agricultural automation​
, FAO, FAO.
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free content
work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 (
license statement/permission
). Text taken from
The status of women in agrifood systems – Overview​
, FAO, FAO.
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World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023​
, FAO, FAO.
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World Intellectual Property Report 2024 - The importance of local capabilities in AgTech specialization​
, WIPO, WIPO.
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