Angola - Wikipedia

Angola - Wikipedia
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Coordinates
12°30′S
18°30′E
 / 
12.500°S 18.500°E
 /
-12.500; 18.500
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Country in Southern Africa
This article is about the modern country since 1992. For the former state from 1975 to 1992, see
People's Republic of Angola
. For other uses, see
Angola (disambiguation)
Republic of Angola
República de Angola
Flag
Emblem
Anthem:
Angola Avante
(English:
Forward Angola
Show globe
Show map of Africa
Show map of Angola
Major cities of Angola
Capital
and largest city
Luanda
8°50′S
13°20′E
 / 
8.833°S 13.333°E
 /
-8.833; 13.333
Official languages
Portuguese
National languages
Chokwe
Kimbundu
Kikongo
Oshiwambo
Luchazi
Umbundu
Ethnic groups
(2021)
37%
Ovimbundu
25%
Ambundu
13%
Bakongo
21% other African
2%
Mestiço
(mixed European and African)
2%
Asian
1%
European
Religion
(2024)
79.1%
Christianity
44.2% Catholic
34.9% Protestant
11.5%
no religion
9.4% other
Demonym
Angolan
Government
Unitary
presidential republic
President
João Lourenço
Vice President
Esperança da Costa
President of the National Assembly
Adão Correia de Almeida
Chief Justice
Ademilson Loboto
Legislature
National Assembly
Independence
from
Portugal
Granted
11 November 1975
United Nations full membership
22 November 1976
Current constitution
21 January 2010
Area
• Total
1,246,700 km
(481,400 sq mi) (
22nd
• Water (%)
negligible
Population
• 2024 census
36,604,681
41st
• Density
29.4/km
(76.1/sq mi) (
189th
GDP
PPP
2025 estimate
• Total
$402.160 billion
58th
• Per capita
$10,230
125th
GDP
(nominal)
2025 estimate
• Total
$113.34 billion
68th
• Per capita
$2,880
137th
Gini
(2018)
51.3
high inequality
HDI
(2023)
0.616
medium
148th
Currency
Angolan kwanza
AOA
Time zone
UTC
+1
WAT
Calling code
+244
ISO 3166 code
AO
Internet TLD
.ao
Angola
officially the
Republic of Angola
is a country on the western coast of
Southern Africa
. It is the second-largest
Portuguese-speaking
(Lusophone) country after
Brazil
in both total area and
population
and is the
seventh-largest
country in
Africa
. It is bordered by
Namibia
to the south, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
to the north,
Zambia
to the east, and the
Atlantic Ocean
to the west. Angola has an
exclave
province, the province of
Cabinda
, that borders the
Republic of the Congo
and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is
Luanda
Angola has been inhabited since the
Palaeolithic Age
. After the
Bantu expansion
reached the region, states were formed by the 13th century and organised into confederations. The
Kingdom of Kongo
ascended to achieve
hegemony
among the other kingdoms from the 14th century. Portuguese explorers established relations with Kongo in 1483. To the south were the kingdoms of
Ndongo
and
Matamba
, with the
Ovimbundu
kingdoms further south, and the
Mbunda Kingdom
in the east.
The Portuguese began
colonising the coast
in the 16th century. Kongo fought three wars against the Portuguese, ending in the Portuguese conquest of Ndongo. The banning of the slave trade in the 19th century disrupted Kongo's
undiversified
economic system and European settlers gradually began to establish their presence in the interior of the region. The
Portuguese colony
that became Angola did not achieve its present borders until the early 20th century and experienced strong resistance from native groups such as the Cuamato, the
Kwanyama
, and the
Mbunda
After a protracted
anti-colonial struggle
(1961–1974), Angola achieved independence in 1975 as a
one-party Republic
, but the country descended into a devastating
civil war
the same year, between the ruling
People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola
(MPLA), backed by the
Soviet Union
and
Cuba
; the insurgent
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
, an originally
Maoist
and later anti-communist group supported by the
United States
and
South Africa
; the militant organisation
National Liberation Front of Angola
, backed by
Zaire
; and the
Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda
seeking the independence of the
Cabinda
exclave, also backed by Zaire.
Since the end of the civil war in 2002, Angola has emerged as a relatively stable
constitutional republic
, and its economy is among the fastest-growing in the world, with
China
, the
European Union
, and the United States being the country's largest investment and trade partners.
10
11
However, the economic growth is highly uneven, with most of the nation's
wealth concentrated
in a disproportionately small part of the population as most Angolans have a low
standard of living
life expectancy
is among the
lowest in the world
, while
infant mortality
is
among the highest
12
Angola is a member of the
United Nations
African Union
, the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries
, and the
Southern African Development Community
. As of 2024
[update]
, the Angolan population is estimated at 36.6 million.
Angolan culture
reflects centuries of Portuguese influence, namely the predominance of the
Portuguese language
and of the
Catholic Church
, intermingled with a variety of indigenous customs and traditions.
Etymology
edit
The name
Angola
is based on the
Portuguese
colonial name
Reino de Angola
('Kingdom of Angola'), which appeared as early as
Paulo Dias de Novais
's 1571 charter.
13
The
toponym
was derived by the Portuguese from the title
ngola
, held by the kings of
Ndongo and Matamba
. Ndongo in the
highlands
, between the
Kwanza
and
Lucala
rivers, was nominally a possession of the
Kingdom of Kongo
. But in the 16th century it was seeking greater independence.
14
History
edit
Main article:
History of Angola
Early migrations and political units
edit
Main article:
Kingdom of Kongo
Modern Angola was populated predominantly by
nomadic
Khoi
and
San
peoples prior to the first
Bantu migrations
. The Khoi and San peoples were
hunter-gatherers
, rather than practising
pastoralism
or cultivation of crops.
15
In the first millennium BC, they were displaced by
Bantu peoples
arriving from the north, most of whom likely originated in what is today northwestern
Nigeria
and southern
Niger
16
Bantu speakers introduced the cultivation of
bananas
and
taro
, as well as maintenance of large cattle herds, to Angola's central highlands and the Luanda plain. Due to a number of inhibiting geographic factors throughout the territory of Angola, namely harshly traversable land, hot/humid climate, and a plethora of deadly diseases, intermingling of pre-colonial tribes in Angola had been rare.
citation needed
Major states of the western Congo Basin, c. 1550
After settlement of the migrants, a number of political entities developed. The best-known of these was the
Kingdom of Kongo
, based in Angola. It extended northward to what are now the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
, the
Republic of the Congo
, and
Gabon
. It established
trade routes
with other city-states and civilisations up and down the coast of southwestern and western Africa. Its traders even reached
Great Zimbabwe
and the
Mutapa Empire
, although the kingdom engaged in little or no trans-oceanic trade.
17
To its south lay the
Kingdom of Ndongo
, from which the area of the later Portuguese colony was sometimes known as
Dongo
. Next to that was the
Kingdom of Matamba
18
The lesser
Kingdom of Kakongo
to the north was later a vassal of the
Kingdom of Kongo
. The people in all of these states spoke
Kikongo
as a common language.
Portuguese colonisation
edit
Main articles:
Colonial history of Angola
and
Portuguese Angola
Portuguese
explorer
Diogo Cão
reached the area in 1484.
18
The previous year, the Portuguese had established relations with the
Kingdom of Kongo
, which stretched at the time from modern
Gabon
in the north to the
Kwanza River
in the south. The Portuguese established their primary early trading post at
Soyo
, which is now the northernmost city in Angola apart from the
Cabinda
exclave
Paulo Dias de Novais
founded São Paulo de Loanda (
Luanda
) in 1575 with a hundred families of settlers and four hundred soldiers.
Benguela
was fortified in 1587 and became a township in 1617. An authoritarian state, the Kingdom of Kongo was highly centralised around its monarch and controlled neighbouring states as
vassals
. It had a strong economy, based on the industries of
copper
ivory
salt
hides
, and, to a lesser extent,
slaves
19
The transition from a feudal system of slavery to a capitalist one with Portugal would prove crucial to the history of the Kingdom of Kongo.
20
As relations between Kongo and Portugal grew in the early 16th century, trade between the kingdoms also increased. Most of the trade was in palm cloth, copper, and ivory, but also increasing numbers of slaves.
20
Kongo exported few slaves, and its slave market had remained internal. But, following the development of a successful sugar-growing colony after Portuguese settlement of
São Tomé
, Kongo became a major source of
slaves
for the island's traders and plantations. Correspondence by
King Afonso
documents the purchase and sale of slaves within the country. His accounts also detail which slaves captured in war were given or sold to Portuguese merchants.
21
Afonso continued to expand the kingdom of Kongo into the 1540s, expanding its borders to the south and east. The expansion of Kongo's population, coupled with Afonso's earlier religious reforms, allowed the ruler to centralize power in his capital and increase the power of the monarchy. He also established a royal monopoly on some trade.
21
20
To govern the growing slave trade, Afonso and several Portuguese kings claimed a joint monopoly on the external slave trade.
21
20
The slave trade increasingly became Kongo's primary, and arguably sole,
economic sector
. A major obstacle for the Kingdom of Kongo was that slaves were the only commodity for which the European powers were willing to trade. Kongo lacked an effective
international currency
. Kongolese nobles could buy slaves with the national currency of
nzimbu shells
, which could be traded for slaves. These could be sold to gain international currency.
As the slave trade was the only commodity in which Europeans were interested in the region during the 16th and 17th centuries, the Kongo economy was unable to
diversify
or later
industrialise
outside of sectors in which slavery was involved, such as the
arms industry
22
23
The increased production and sale of guns within the kingdom was due to the salient issue of the slave trade, which had become an increasingly violent struggle. There was a constant need for slaves for the kings and queens to sell in exchange for foreign commodities, the absence of which would prevent them from having any influence with European powers such as Portugal and eventually the
Dutch Republic
Kongolese kings needed this influence to garner support from European powers for quelling internal rebellions. The situation became increasingly complicated during the rule of
Garcia II
, who needed the assistance of the Dutch military to drive out the Portuguese from
Luanda
, in spite of the fact that Portugal was Kongo's primary slave trading partner.
22
By the early 17th century, the supply of foreign slaves captured by the Kongolese externally was waning. The government began to approve the enslavement of freeborn Kongolese citizens for relatively minor infractions, nearly any disobeying of the authoritarian system and the aristocracy. If several villagers were deemed guilty of a crime, it became relatively common for the whole village to be enslaved. The resulting chaos and internal conflict from Garcia II's reign would lead into that of his son and successor,
António I
. He was killed in 1665 by Portuguese at the
Battle of Mbwila
1665, together with a substantial proportion of the aristocracy. The colonists were expanding their power.
24
War broke out more widely in the Kingdom of Kongo after the death of António I.
23
Much of the stability and access to
iron ore
and
charcoal
necessary for
gunsmiths
to maintain the arms industry was disrupted. From then on, in this period almost every Kongolese citizen was in danger of being enslaved.
25
22
Many Kongolese subjects were adroit in making guns, and they were enslaved to have their skills available to colonists in the New World, where they worked as blacksmiths, ironworkers, and charcoal makers.
23
The Portuguese established several other settlements, forts and trading posts along the Angolan coast, principally trading in
Angolan slaves
for
plantations
. Local slave dealers provided a large number of slaves for the
Portuguese Empire
26
usually in exchange for manufactured goods from Europe.
27
28
This part of the
Atlantic slave trade
continued until after
Brazil's independence
in the 1820s.
29
Queen Ana de Sousa of Ndongo
meeting with the
Portuguese
in 1657
Depiction of
Luanda
from 1755
Despite Portugal's territorial claims in Angola, its control over much of the country's vast interior was minimal.
18
In the 16th century Portugal gained control of the coast through a series of treaties and wars. Life for European colonists was difficult and progress was slow.
John Iliffe
notes that "Portuguese records of Angola from the 16th century show that a great
famine
occurred on average every seventy years; accompanied by epidemic disease, it might kill one-third or one-half of the population, destroying the demographic growth of a generation and forcing colonists back into the river valleys".
30
During the
Portuguese Restoration War
, the
Dutch West India Company
occupied
the principal settlement of Luanda in 1641, using alliances with local peoples to carry out attacks against Portuguese holdings elsewhere.
29
A fleet under
Salvador de Sá
retook Luanda in 1648; reconquest of the rest of the territory was completed by 1650. New treaties with the
Kongo
were signed in 1649; others with
Njinga
's Kingdom of
Matamba
and
Ndongo
followed in 1656. The conquest of
Pungo Andongo
in 1671 was the last major Portuguese expansion from Luanda, as attempts to invade Kongo in 1670 and Matamba in 1681 failed. Colonial outposts also expanded inward from Benguela, but until the late 19th century the inroads from Luanda and Benguela were very limited.
18
Hamstrung by a series of political upheavals in the early 1800s, Portugal was slow to mount a large scale annexation of Angolan territory.
29
The
slave trade
was abolished in Angola in 1836, and in 1854 the colonial government freed all its existing slaves.
29
Four years later, a more progressive administration appointed by Portugal abolished
slavery
altogether. However, these decrees remained largely unenforceable, and the Portuguese depended on assistance from the British
Royal Navy
and what became known as the
Blockade of Africa
to enforce their ban on the slave trade.
29
This coincided with a series of renewed military expeditions into the bush.
By the mid-nineteenth century Portugal had established its dominion as far north as the
Congo River
and as far south as
Mossâmedes
29
Until the late 1880s, Portugal entertained proposals to link Angola with its
colony
in
Mozambique
but was blocked by British and Belgian opposition.
31
In this period, the Portuguese came up against different forms of armed resistance from various peoples in Angola.
32
The
Berlin Conference
in 1884–1885 set the colony's borders, delineating the boundaries of Portuguese claims in Angola,
31
although many details were unresolved until the 1920s.
33
Trade between Portugal and its African territories rapidly increased as a result of protective
tariffs
, leading to increased development, and a wave of new Portuguese immigrants.
31
In 1925, an expedition to Angola was conducted by English-born American naturalist explorer
Arthur Stannard Vernay
. Between 1939 and 1943, Portuguese army operations against the Mucubal, whom they accused of rebellion and cattle-thieving, resulted in hundreds of Mucubal killed. During the campaign, 3,529 were taken prisoner, 20% of whom were women and children, and imprisoned in concentration camps. Many died in captivity from undernourishment, violence and forced labour. Around 600 were sent to
Sao Tome and Principe
. Hundreds were also sent to a camp in
Damba
, where 26% died.
34
Angolan War of Independence
edit
Main articles:
Angolan War of Independence
and
Portuguese Colonial War
Portuguese Armed Forces
marching in
Luanda
during the
Portuguese Colonial Wars
Jonas Savimbi
, who led
UNITA
from its 1966 founding until his death in 2002
National Liberation Front of Angola
forces training in 1973
Under Portuguese colonial law, black Angolans were forbidden from forming political parties or labour unions.
35
The first nationalist movements did not take root until after
World War II
, spearheaded by a largely Westernised and Portuguese-speaking urban class, which included many
mestiços
36
During the early 1960s they were joined by other associations stemming from
ad hoc
labour activism in the rural workforce.
35
Portugal's refusal to address increasing Angolan demands for
self-determination
provoked an armed conflict, which erupted in 1961 with the
Baixa de Cassanje revolt
and gradually evolved into a protracted
war of independence
that persisted for the next twelve years.
37
Throughout the conflict, three militant nationalist movements with their own partisan guerrilla wings emerged from the fighting between the Portuguese government and local forces, supported to varying degrees by the
Portuguese Communist Party
36
38
The
National Liberation Front of Angola
(FNLA) recruited from
Bakongo
refugees in
Zaire
39
Benefiting from particularly favourable political circumstances in
Léopoldville
, and especially from a common border with Zaire, Angolan political exiles were able to build up a power base among a large expatriate community from related families, clans, and traditions.
40
People on both sides of the border spoke mutually intelligible dialects and enjoyed shared ties to the historical Kingdom of Kongo.
40
Though as foreigners skilled Angolans could not take advantage of
Mobutu Sese Seko
's state employment programme, some found work as middlemen for the absentee owners of various lucrative private ventures. The migrants eventually formed the FNLA with the intention of making a bid for political power upon their envisaged return to Angola.
40
In 1966, the
National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
(UNITA), a largely
Ovimbundu
-dominated guerrilla movement against the
Portuguese Empire
, was founded by
Jonas Savimbi
39
It remained handicapped by its geographic remoteness from friendly borders, the ethnic fragmentation of the Ovimbundu, and the isolation of peasants on European plantations where they had little opportunity to mobilise.
40
During the late 1950s, the rise of the Marxist–Leninist
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
(MPLA) in the east and Dembos hills north of Luanda came to hold special significance. Formed as a coalition resistance movement by the
Angolan Communist Party
37
the organisation's leadership remained predominantly
Ambundu
and courted public sector workers in
Luanda
39
Although both the MPLA and its rivals accepted material assistance from the
Soviet Union
or the People's Republic of
China
, the former harboured strong anti-imperialist views and was openly critical of the
United States
and its support for Portugal.
38
This allowed it to win important ground on the diplomatic front, soliciting support from nonaligned governments in
Morocco
Ghana
Guinea
Mali
, and the
United Arab Republic
37
The MPLA attempted to move its headquarters from
Conakry
to Léopoldville in October 1961, renewing efforts to create a common front with the FNLA, then known as the
Union of Angolan Peoples
(UPA) and its leader
Holden Roberto
. Roberto turned down the offer.
37
When the MPLA first attempted to insert its own insurgents into Angola, the cadres were ambushed and annihilated by UPA partisans on Roberto's orders—setting a precedent for the bitter factional strife which would later ignite the
Angolan Civil War
37
Angolan Civil War
edit
Main article:
Angolan Civil War
Agostinho Neto
, the first
President of Angola
following its independence from
Portugal
Throughout the war of independence, the three rival nationalist movements were severely hampered by political and military factionalism, as well as their inability to unite guerrilla efforts against the Portuguese.
41
Between 1961 and 1975 the MPLA, UNITA, and the FNLA competed for influence in the Angolan population and the international community.
41
The
Soviet Union
and
Cuba
became especially sympathetic towards the MPLA and supplied that party with arms, ammunition, funding, and training.
41
They also backed UNITA militants until it became clear that the latter was at irreconcilable odds with the MPLA.
42
The collapse of Portugal's
Estado Novo
government following the 1974
Carnation Revolution
suspended all Portuguese military activity in Africa and the brokering of a ceasefire pending negotiations for Angolan independence.
41
Encouraged by the
Organisation of African Unity
, Holden Roberto, Jonas Savimbi, and MPLA chairman
Agostinho Neto
met in
Mombasa
in early January 1975 and agreed to form a coalition government.
43
This was ratified by the
Alvor Agreement
later that month, which called for general elections and set the country's independence date for 11 November 1975.
43
All three factions, however, followed up on the ceasefire by taking advantage of the gradual Portuguese withdrawal to seize various strategic positions, acquire more arms, and enlarge their militant forces.
43
The rapid influx of weapons from numerous external sources, especially the Soviet Union and the United States, as well as the escalation of tensions between the nationalist parties, fuelled a new outbreak of hostilities.
43
With tacit American and Zairean support the FNLA began massing large numbers of troops in northern Angola in an attempt to gain military superiority.
41
Meanwhile, the MPLA began securing control of Luanda, a traditional Ambundu stronghold.
41
Sporadic violence broke out in Luanda over the next few months after the FNLA attacked the MPLA's political headquarters in March 1975.
43
44
The fighting intensified with street clashes in April and May, and UNITA became involved after over two hundred of its members were massacred by an MPLA contingent that June.
43
An upswing in Soviet arms shipments to the MPLA influenced a decision by the
Central Intelligence Agency
to likewise provide substantial covert aid to the FNLA and UNITA.
45
In August 1975, the MPLA requested direct assistance from the Soviet Union in the form of ground troops.
45
The Soviets declined, offering to send advisers but no troops; however, Cuba was more forthcoming and in late September dispatched nearly five hundred combat personnel to Angola, along with sophisticated weaponry and supplies.
42
By independence, there were over a thousand Cuban soldiers in the country.
45
They were kept supplied by a massive
airbridge
carried out with Soviet aircraft.
45
The persistent buildup of Cuban and Soviet military aid allowed the MPLA to drive its opponents from Luanda and blunt an abortive intervention by Zairean and
South African
troops, which had deployed in a belated attempt to assist the FNLA and UNITA.
43
The FNLA was largely annihilated after the decisive
Battle of Quifangondo
, although UNITA managed to withdraw its civil officials and militia from Luanda and seek sanctuary in the southern provinces.
41
From there, Savimbi continued to mount a determined insurgent campaign against the MPLA.
45
Soviet
-made PT-76 tank being operated by Cuban forces in Luanda during the
Cuban intervention in Angola
in 1976
Between 1975 and 1991, the MPLA implemented an economic and political system based on the principles of
scientific socialism
, incorporating
central planning
and a
Marxist–Leninist
one-party state
46
It embarked on an ambitious programme of
nationalisation
, and the domestic private sector was essentially abolished.
46
Privately owned enterprises were nationalised and incorporated into a single umbrella of state-owned enterprises known as
Unidades Economicas Estatais
(UEE).
46
Under the MPLA, Angola experienced a significant degree of modern
industrialisation
46
However, corruption and graft also increased and public resources were either allocated inefficiently or simply embezzled by officials for personal enrichment.
47
The ruling party survived an
attempted coup d'état
by the
Maoist
-oriented
Communist Organisation of Angola
(OCA) in 1977, which was suppressed after a series of bloody political purges left thousands of OCA supporters dead.
48
The MPLA abandoned its former Marxist ideology at its third party congress in 1990, and declared
social democracy
to be its new platform.
48
Angola subsequently became a member of the
International Monetary Fund
; restrictions on the market economy were also reduced in an attempt to draw foreign investment.
49
By May 1991 it reached a peace agreement with UNITA, the
Bicesse Accords
, which scheduled
new general elections
for September 1992.
49
When the MPLA secured a major electoral victory, UNITA objected to the results of both the presidential and legislative vote count and returned to war.
49
Following the election, the
Halloween massacre
occurred from 30 October to 1 November, where MPLA forces killed thousands of UNITA supporters.
50
In 1997,
George Soros
's
Open Society Foundations
launched its activities in Angola with the help of its first national representative until 2004,
Rafael Marques de Morais
. Despite the initial collaboration with the Angolan government on developing
primary school
education, relations quickly soured over OSF's
democratisation
and
human rights
campaigning.
51
21st century
edit
Main article:
2000s in Angola
In the 21st century,
Luanda
, Angola's capital, is undergoing urban renewal and redevelopment backed largely by profits from the oil and diamond industries.
On 22 February 2002, government troops killed
Jonas Savimbi
in a skirmish in the
Moxico province
52
UNITA and the MPLA consented to the
Luena
Memorandum of Understanding in April; UNITA agreed to give up its armed wing.
53
With the
elections
in
2008
and
2012
, an MPLA-ruled
dominant-party system
emerged, with UNITA and the FNLA as opposition parties.
54
Angola experienced a serious humanitarian crisis; the result of the prolonged war, the abundance of
minefields
, and the continued political agitation in favour of the independence of the
exclave
of
Cabinda
(carried out in the context of the protracted
Cabinda conflict
by the
FLEC
). While most of the internally displaced have now
squatted
around the capital, in
musseques
shanty towns
) the general situation for Angolans remains desperate.
55
56
In 2007, a separatist movement was launched in the diamond-rich
Lunda Norte Province
by the retired
military judge
Jota Filipe Malakito under the name of the Commission of the Legal-Sociological Manifesto of the Lunda Tchokwé Protectorate (
Comissão do Manifesto Jurídico-Sociológico do Protectorado Lunda Tchokwé
, CMJSPLT).
57
After Malakito's release from prison in 2011, a
hardline
faction led by the former
secretary general
José Mateus "Zeca Mutchima" split from the CMJSPLT, forming the Movement of the Portuguese Protectorate of Lunda Chokwe (
Movimento do Protetorado Português da Lunda Tchokwé
, MPPLT),
59
60
whose statement of principles was partly drawn from
Diogo Pacheco de Amorim
's 2003 manifesto for the Portuguese right-wing party
New Democracy
61
The separatist movement eventually targeted Angola's six eastern provinces, corresponding to 51,6% of its territory.
62
63
drought
in 2016 caused the worst food crisis in
Southern Africa
in 25 years, affecting 1.4 million people across seven of Angola's eighteen provinces.
Food prices
rose and acute
malnutrition
rates doubled, impacting over 95,000 children.
64
José Eduardo dos Santos
stepped down as
President of Angola
after 38 years in 2017, being peacefully succeeded by
João Lourenço
, Santos' chosen successor.
65
Some members of the dos Santos family were later linked to high levels of corruption. In July 2022, ex-president José Eduardo dos Santos died in Spain.
66
In August 2022, the ruling party, MPLA, won another majority and President Lourenço won a second five-year term in the
election
. However, the election was the tightest in Angola's history.
67
Geography
edit
Main article:
Geography of Angola
Topography of Angola
Satellite imagery of Angola in 2022
At 1,246,700 km
(481,400 sq mi),
68
Angola is the world's twenty-second largest country – comparable in size to Mali, or twice the size of France or of Texas.
It lies mostly between latitudes
4°
and
18°S
, and longitudes
12°
and
24°E
. Angola borders
Namibia
to the south,
Zambia
to the east, the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
to the north-east and the
South Atlantic Ocean
to the west. The coastal
exclave
of
Cabinda
in the north has borders with the
Republic of the Congo
to the north and with the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south.
69
The nation's capital,
Luanda
, lies on the Atlantic coast in the northwest of the country.
70
Angola has a favourable coastline for maritime trade, with four natural harbours: Luanda, Lobito, Moçâmedes, and Tômbua. These natural indentations contrast with Africa's typical coastline of rocky cliffs and deep bays.
71
Angola had a 2018
Forest Landscape Integrity Index
mean score of 8.35/10, ranking it 23rd globally out of 172 countries.
72
Its
forest cover
is around 53% of the total land area, equivalent to 66,607,380 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 79,262,780 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 65,800,190 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 807,200 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 40% was reported to be
primary forest
(consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 3% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under
public ownership
73
74
75
Climate
edit
Main article:
Climate of Angola
Angola map of Köppen climate classification
Like the rest of tropical Africa, Angola experiences distinct, alternating
rainy
and
dry
seasons.
76
In the north, the rainy season may last for as long as seven months—usually from September to April, with perhaps a brief slackening in January or February.
76
In the south, the rainy season begins later, in November, and lasts until about February.
76
The dry season (
cacimbo
) is often characterised by a heavy morning mist.
76
In general, precipitation is higher in the north, but at any latitude it is greater in the interior than along the coast and increases with altitude.
76
Temperatures fall with distance from the equator and with altitude and tend to rise closer to the Atlantic Ocean.
76
Thus, at
Soyo
, at the mouth of the
Congo River
, the average annual temperature is about 26 °C, but it is under 16 °C at
Huambo
on the temperate central plateau.
76
The coolest months are July and August (in the middle of the dry season), when frost may sometimes form at higher altitudes.
76
Due to
climate change
, Angola's annual average temperature has increased by 1.4.°C since 1951, and is expected to keep rising
77
while rainfall is becoming more variable.
78
Angola is highly vulnerable to climate change impacts.
79
Natural hazards such as
floods
, erosion,
droughts
, and
epidemics
(e.g.:
malaria
cholera
and
typhoid fever
) are expected to worsen with climate change.
Rising sea levels
also pose a significant risk to Angola's coastal areas, where around 50% of the population lives.
80
In 2023 Angola emitted 174.71 million tonnes of
greenhouse gases
, around 0.32% of the world's total emissions, making it the 46th highest emitting country.
81
In its
Nationally Determined Contribution
, Angola has pledged a 14% reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions by 2025 and an additional 10% reduction conditional on international support.
82
According to the
World Bank
, achieving
climate resilience
in Angola requires diversifying the country's economy away from its dependence on oil.
77
Wildlife
edit
Main article:
Wildlife of Angola
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November 2025
Government and politics
edit
Main article:
Politics of Angola
See also:
Elections in Angola
and
List of political parties in Angola
This section
needs additional citations for
verification
Please help
improve this article
by
adding citations to reliable sources
in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
November 2020
Learn how and when to remove this message
The
National Assembly
in
Luanda
, Angola's capital
The Angolan government is composed of three branches of government: executive, legislative and judicial. The executive branch of the government is composed of the President, the vice-presidents and the Council of Ministers.
The legislative branch comprises a 220-seat
unicameral
legislature, the
National Assembly of Angola
, elected from multi-member province-wide and nationwide constituencies using
party-list proportional representation
. For decades, political power has been concentrated in the presidency.
83
After 38 years of rule, in 2017 President dos Santos stepped down from MPLA leadership.
84
The leader of the winning party at the parliamentary elections in August 2017 would become the next president of Angola. The MPLA selected the former Defence Minister
João Lourenço
as Santos' chosen successor.
85
In what has been described as a political purge
86
to cement his power and reduce the influence of the Dos Santos family, Lourenço subsequently sacked the chief of the national police, Ambrósio de Lemos, and the head of the intelligence service, Apolinário José Pereira. Both are considered allies of former president Dos Santos.
87
He also removed
Isabel dos Santos
, daughter of the former president, as head of the country's state oil company
Sonangol
88
In August 2020,
José Filomeno dos Santos
, son of Angola's former president, was sentenced for five years in jail for fraud and corruption.
89
Constitution
edit
Main article:
Constitution of Angola
João Lourenço
President
Esperança da Costa
Vice President
The
Constitution of 2010
establishes the broad outlines of government structure and delineates the rights and duties of citizens. The legal system is based on Portuguese law and customary law but is weak and fragmented, and courts operate in only 12 of more than 140 municipalities.
90
A Supreme Court serves as the appellate tribunal; a Constitutional Court does not hold the powers of
judicial review
91
Governors of the 18 provinces are appointed by the president. After the end of the civil war, the regime came under pressure from within as well as from the international community to become more democratic and less authoritarian. Its reaction was to implement a number of changes without substantially changing its character.
92
The
new constitution
, adopted in 2010, did away with presidential elections, introducing a system in which the president and the vice-president of the political party that wins the parliamentary elections automatically become president and vice-president. Directly or indirectly, the president controls all other organs of the state, so there is
de facto
no
separation of powers
93
In the classifications used in constitutional law, this government falls under the category of
authoritarian regime.
94
Justice
edit
Further information:
Judiciary of Angola
A Supreme Court serves as a court of appeal. The Constitutional Court is the supreme body of the constitutional jurisdiction, established with the approval of Law no. 2/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Court and Law n. 3/08, of 17 June – Organic Law of the Constitutional Process. The legal system is based on Portuguese and customary law. There are 12 courts in more than 140 counties in the country. Its first task was the validation of the candidacies of the political parties to the legislative elections of 5 September 2008. Thus, on 25 June 2008, the Constitutional Court was institutionalised and its Judicial Counsellors assumed the position before the President of the Republic. Currently, seven advisory judges are present, four men and three women.
citation needed
In 2014, a new penal code took effect in Angola. The classification of
money-laundering
as a crime is one of the novelties in the new legislation.
95
Administrative divisions
edit
Main articles:
Provinces of Angola
Municipalities of Angola
, and
Communes of Angola
Map of the provinces of Angola
The provincial government building in
Huambo Province
As of September 2024
[update]
, Angola is divided into
twenty-one provinces
províncias
) and
162 municipalities
. The municipalities are further divided into 559 communes (townships).
96
The provinces are:
Number
Province
Capital
Area (km
97
Population
(2024 Census)
Bengo
Caxito
20,300
716,335
Benguela
Benguela
39,124
2,597,638
Bié
Cuíto
70,745
2,264,874
Cabinda
Cabinda
7,270
903,370
Cuando
Mavinga
109,346
138,770
Cuanza Norte
N'dalatando
20,426
659,097
Cuanza Sul
Sumbe
55,554
2,327,981
Cubango
Menongue
91,466
570,447
Cunene
Ondjiva
77,156
1,806,417
10
Huambo
Huambo
33,296
2,691,902
11
Huíla
Lubango
78,897
3,302,866
12
Icolo e Bengo
Catete
17,223
1,372,670
13
Luanda
Luanda
1,655
8,816,297
14
Lunda Norte
Dundo
99,197
1,742,217
15
Lunda Sul
Saurimo
82,443
893,936
16
Malanje
Malanje
87,136
1,298,250
17
Moxico
Luena
126,432
574,253
18
Moxico Leste
Cazombo
75,421
411,074
19
Namibe
Moçâmedes
57,170
815,708
20
Uíge
Uíge
62,920
2,017,921
21
Zaire
M'banza-Kongo
37,327
682,658
Exclave of Cabinda
edit
Main article:
Cabinda Province
The provincial government building in
Namibe Province
With an area of approximately 7,283 square kilometres (2,812 sq mi), the Northern Angolan province of Cabinda is unusual in being separated from the rest of the country by a strip, some 60 kilometres (37 mi) wide, of the
Democratic Republic of Congo
along the lower
Congo River
. Cabinda borders the
Congo Republic
to the north and north-northeast and the DRC to the east and south. The city of
Cabinda
is the chief population centre.
According to a 1995 census, Cabinda had an estimated population of 600,000, approximately 400,000 of whom are citizens of neighbouring countries. Population estimates are, however, highly unreliable. Consisting largely of tropical forest, Cabinda produces hardwoods, coffee, cocoa, crude rubber, and palm oil.
The product for which it is best known, however, is its oil, which has given it the nickname the Kuwait of Africa. Cabinda's petroleum production from its considerable offshore reserves now accounts for more than half of Angola's output.
98
Most of the oil along its coast was discovered under
Portuguese rule
by the Cabinda Gulf Oil Company (CABGOC) from 1968 onwards.
Ever since
Portugal
handed over sovereignty of its former overseas province of Angola to the local independence groups (MPLA, UNITA and FNLA), the territory of Cabinda has been a focus of separatist guerrilla actions opposing the
Government of Angola
(which has employed its armed forces, the FAA—Forças Armadas Angolanas) and Cabindan separatists.
Foreign relations
edit
Main article:
Foreign relations of Angola
See also:
List of diplomatic missions of Angola
Tete António
, Angola's
Foreign Minister
Angola is a founding member state of the
Community of Portuguese Language Countries
(CPLP), also known as the Lusophone Commonwealth, an international organisation and political association of
Lusophone
nations across four continents, where
Portuguese
is an official language.
On 16 October 2014, Angola was elected for the second time a non-permanent member of the
United Nations Security Council
, with 190 favourable votes out of a total of 193. The term of office began on 1 January 2015 and expired on 31 December 2016.
99
Since January 2014, the Republic of Angola has been chairing the International Conference for the Great Lakes Region (CIRGL).
citation needed
In 2015, CIRGL Executive Secretary Ntumba Luaba said that Angola is the example to be followed by the members of the organisation, due to the significant progress made during the 12 years of peace, namely in terms of socio-economic stability and political-military.
100
Military
edit
Main article:
Angolan Armed Forces
Soldiers of the
Angolan Armed Forces
in
full dress uniform
The Angolan Armed Forces (Forças Armadas Angolanas, FAA) are headed by a Chief of Staff who reports to the Minister of Defence. There are three divisions—the Army (Exército), Navy (Marinha de Guerra, MGA) and
National Air Force
(Força Aérea Nacional, FAN). Total manpower is 107,000; plus paramilitary forces of 10,000 (2015 est.).
101
Its equipment includes Russian-manufactured fighters, bombers and transport planes. There are also Brazilian-made
EMB-312 Tucanos
for training,
Czech
-made
L-39 Albatroses
for training and bombing, and a variety of western-made aircraft such as the C-212\Aviocar, Sud Aviation Alouette III, etc. A small number of FAA personnel are stationed in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
(Kinshasa) and 500 more were deployed in March 2023 due to the resurgence of the
M23
102
103
The FAA has also participated in the
Southern African Development Community
(SADC)'s
mission for peace
in
Cabo Delgado
, Mozambique.
104
Police
edit
Main article:
Law enforcement in Angola
Angolan National Police officers
The National Police force is a paramilitary body (managed by the Ministry of the Interior) composed of National Criminal Investigations, SWAT, Border Police, Traffic Control, technical and operational units, and support units.
105
106
Human rights
edit
Main article:
Human rights in Angola
See also:
LGBT rights in Angola
Angola was classified as 'not free' by
Freedom House
in the
Freedom in the World
2014 report
107
and the 2024 report,
108
however the report has noted increases in freedoms under
João Lourenço
. The 2014 report noted that the
August 2012 parliamentary elections
, in which the ruling
Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola
won more than 70% of the vote, suffered from serious flaws, including outdated and inaccurate voter rolls.
107
Voter turnout dropped from 80% in 2008 to 60%.
107
A 2012 report by the
U.S. Department of State
said, "The three most important
human rights
abuses [in 2012] were official corruption and impunity; limits on the freedoms of assembly, association, speech, and press; and cruel and excessive punishment, including reported cases of torture and beatings as well as unlawful killings by police and other security personnel."
109
Angola ranked forty-two of forty-eight sub-Saharan African states on the 2007 Index of African Governance list and scored poorly on the 2013
Ibrahim Index of African Governance
110
: 8
It was ranked 39 out of 52
sub-Saharan African
countries, scoring particularly badly in the areas of participation and human rights, sustainable economic opportunity and human development. The Ibrahim Index uses a number of variables to compile its list which reflects the state of governance in Africa.
111
In 2019,
homosexual
acts were decriminalised in Angola, and the government also prohibited discrimination based on sexual orientation. The vote was overwhelming: 155 for, 1 against, 7 abstaining.
112
Economy
edit
Main article:
Economy of Angola
Angolan GDP per capita between 1950 and 2018
Angola has diamonds, oil, gold, copper, a rich wildlife (which was dramatically depleted during the civil war), forests, and fossil fuels. Since independence, oil and diamonds have been the most important economic resources.
Smallholder
and
plantation
agriculture dramatically dropped during the
Angolan Civil War
, but began to recover after 2002.
Angola's economy has in recent years moved on from the disarray caused by a quarter-century of
Angolan civil war
to become the fastest-growing economy in Africa and one of the fastest-growing in the world, with an average
GDP
growth of 20% between 2005 and 2007.
113
In the period 2001–10, Angola had the world's highest
annual average GDP growth
, at 11.1%.
In 2004, the
Exim Bank of China
approved a $2 billion
line of credit
to Angola, to be used for rebuilding Angola's
infrastructure
, and to limit the influence of the
International Monetary Fund
there.
114
China is Angola's biggest trade partner and
export
destination as well as a significant source of
imports
. Bilateral trade reached $27.67 billion in 2011, up 11.5% year-on-year. China's imports, mainly
crude oil
and diamonds, increased 9.1% to $24.89 billion while China's exports to Angola, including mechanical and electrical products, machinery parts and construction materials, surged 38.8%.
115
The oil
glut
led to a local
price
for unleaded gasoline of
0.37 a gallon.
116
As of 2021, the biggest import partners were the European Union, followed by China,
Togo
, the United States, and Brazil.
10
More than half of Angola's exports go to China, followed by a significantly smaller amount to India, the European Union, and the United Arab Emirates.
11
The Angolan economy grew 18% in 2005, 26% in 2006 and 17.6% in 2007. Due to the global
recession
, the economy contracted an estimated −0.3% in 2009.
91
The security brought about by the 2002 peace settlement has allowed the resettlement of 4 million displaced persons and a resulting large-scale increase in agriculture production. Angola's economy is expected to grow by 3.9 per cent in 2014 said the
International Monetary Fund
(IMF), robust growth in the non-oil economy, mainly driven by a very good performance in the agricultural sector, is expected to offset a temporary drop in oil production.
117
The
National Bank of Angola
Angola's financial system is maintained by the
National Bank of Angola
and managed by the governor
Jose de Lima Massano
. According to a study on the banking sector, carried out by
Deloitte
, the monetary policy led by
Banco Nacional de Angola
(BNA), the Angolan national bank, allowed a decrease in the inflation rate put at 7.96% in December 2013, which contributed to the sector's growth trend.
118
Estimates released by Angola's central bank, said the country's economy should grow at an annual average rate of 5 per cent over the next four years, boosted by the increasing participation of the private sector.
119
Angola was ranked 133rd in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2024,
120
but stepped back to the 138th rank in 2025.
121
Although the country's economy has grown significantly since Angola achieved political stability in 2002, mainly due to fast-rising earnings in the oil sector, Angola faces huge social and economic problems. These are in part a result of almost continual armed conflict from 1961 on, although the highest level of destruction and socio-economic damage took place after the 1975 independence, during the long years of
civil war
. However, high
poverty rates
and blatant
social inequality
chiefly stems from persistent
authoritarianism
, "neo-patrimonial" practices at all levels of the political, administrative, military and economic structures, and of
a pervasive corruption
122
123
The main beneficiaries are political, administrative, economic and military power holders, who have accumulated (and continue to accumulate) enormous wealth.
124
Luanda Financial City
"Secondary beneficiaries" are the middle strata that are about to become
social classes
. However, almost half the population has to be considered poor, with dramatic differences between the countryside and the cities, where slightly more than 50% of the people reside.
citation needed
A study carried out in 2008 by the Angolan Instituto Nacional de Estatística found that in rural areas roughly 58% must be classified as "poor" according to UN norms but in the urban areas only 19%, and an overall rate of 37%.
125
In cities, a majority of families, well beyond those officially classified as poor, must adopt a variety of survival strategies.
126
clarification needed
In urban areas social inequality is most evident and it is extreme in Luanda.
127
In the
Human Development Index
Angola constantly ranks in the bottom group.
128
Tourism in Angola
has grown with the country's economy and stability.
In January 2020, a leak of government documents known as the
Luanda Leaks
showed that U.S. consulting companies such as
Boston Consulting Group
McKinsey & Company
, and
PricewaterhouseCoopers
had helped members of the family of former President
José Eduardo dos Santos
(especially his daughter
Isabel dos Santos
) corruptly run Sonangol for their own personal profit, helping them use the company's revenues to fund vanity projects in France and Switzerland.
129
After further revelations in the
Pandora Papers
, former generals
Dias
and
do Nascimento
and former presidential advisers were also accused of misappropriating significant public funds for personal benefit.
130
The enormous differences between the regions pose a serious structural problem for the Angolan economy, illustrated by the fact that about one third of economic activities are concentrated in Luanda and neighbouring Bengo province, while several areas of the interior suffer economic stagnation and even regression.
131
One of the economic consequences of social and regional disparities is a sharp increase in Angolan private investments abroad. The small fringe of Angolan society where most of the asset accumulation takes place seeks to spread its assets, for reasons of security and profit. For the time being, the biggest share of these investments is concentrated in Portugal where the
Angolan presence
(including the family of the state president) in banks as well as in the domains of energy,
telecommunications
, and
mass media
has become notable, as has the acquisition of vineyards and orchards as well as of tourism enterprises.
132
Corporate headquarters in Luanda
Angola has upgraded critical infrastructure, an investment made possible by funds from the country's development of oil resources.
133
According to a report, just slightly more than ten years after the end of the
civil war
Angola's standard of living has overall greatly improved. Life expectancy, which was just 46 years in 2002, reached 51 in 2011. Mortality rates for children fell from 25 per cent in 2001 to 19 per cent in 2010 and the number of students enrolled in primary school has tripled since 2001.
134
However, at the same time the social and economic inequality that has characterised the country for so long has not diminished, but has deepened in all respects.
With a stock of assets corresponding to 70 billion Kz (US$6.8 billion), Angola is now the third-largest financial market in sub-Saharan Africa, surpassed only by
Nigeria
and South Africa. According to the Angolan Minister of Economy,
Abraão Gourgel
, the financial market of the country grew modestly since 2002 and now occupies third place in sub-Saharan Africa.
135
On 19 December 2014, the Capital Market in Angola was launched.
BODIVA
(Angola Stock Exchange and Derivatives, in English) was allocated the secondary public debt market, and was expected to launch the corporate debt market by 2015, though the stock market itself was only expected to commence trading in 2016.
136
Natural resources
edit
An
offshore oil drilling platform
off the coast of central Angola
The Economist
reported in 2008 that diamonds and oil make up 60% of Angola's economy, almost all of the country's
revenue
and all of its dominant
exports
137
Growth is almost entirely driven by rising
oil production
which surpassed 1.4 million barrels per day (220,000 m
/d) in late 2005 and was expected to grow to 2 million barrels per day (320,000 m
/d) by 2007. Control of the
oil industry
is consolidated in
Sonangol Group
, a conglomerate owned by the Angolan government. In December 2006, Angola was admitted as a member of
OPEC
138
In 2022, the country produced an average of 1.165 million barrels of oil per day, according to
Agência Nacional de Petróleo, Gás e Biocombustíveis
(ANPG), the national oil, gas and biofuels agency.
139
"China has extended three multi-billion dollar lines of credit to the Angolan government; two loans of $2 billion from China Exim Bank, one in 2004, the second in 2007, as well as one loan in 2005 of $2.9 billion from
China International Fund
Ltd."
140
Growing oil revenues also created opportunities for
corruption
: according to a recent
Human Rights Watch
report, US$32 billion disappeared from government accounts in 2007–2010.
141
Furthermore,
Sonangol
, the state-run oil company, controls 51% of Cabinda's oil. Due to this market control, the company ends up determining the profit received by the government and the taxes it pays. The council of foreign affairs states that the World Bank mentioned that Sonangol is a taxpayer, it carries out quasi-fiscal activities, it invests public funds, and, as concessionaire, it is a sector regulator. This multifarious work programme creates conflicts of interest and characterises a complex relationship between Sonangol and the government that weakens the formal budgetary process and creates uncertainty as regards the actual fiscal stance of the state."
142
In 2002, Angola demanded compensation for
oil spills
allegedly caused by
Chevron Corporation
, the first time it had fined a multinational corporation operating in its waters.
143
Operations in its
diamond mines
include partnerships between state-run
Endiama
and mining companies such as
ALROSA
which operate in Angola.
144
Access to
biocapacity
in Angola is higher than world average. In 2016, Angola had 1.9 global hectares
145
of biocapacity per person within its territory, slightly more than world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.
146
In 2016, Angola used 1.01 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their
ecological footprint
of consumption. This means they use about half as much biocapacity as Angola contains. As a result, Angola is running a biocapacity reserve.
145
Agriculture
edit
Main article:
Agriculture in Angola
Capanda Dam
on the
Cuanza
Agriculture and forestry is an area of potential opportunity for the country. The African Economic Outlook organisation states that "Angola requires 4.5 million tonnes a year of grain but grows only about 55% of the
maize
it needs, 20% of the
rice
and just 5% of its required
wheat
".
147
In addition, the World Bank estimates that "less than 3 per cent of Angola's abundant fertile land is cultivated and the economic potential of the forestry sector remains largely unexploited".
148
Before independence in 1975,
Angola
was a bread-basket of southern Africa and a major exporter of
bananas
, coffee and
sisal
, but
three decades of civil war
destroyed fertile countryside, left it littered with
landmines
and drove millions into the cities. The country now depends on expensive food imports, mainly from South Africa and
Portugal
, while more than 90% of farming is done at the family and subsistence level. Thousands of Angolan small-scale farmers are trapped in poverty.
149
Transport
edit
Main article:
Transport in Angola
TAAG Angola Airlines
, the country's state-owned
national carrier
Transport in Angola consists of:
Three separate
railway systems
totalling 2,761 km (1,716 mi)
76,626 km (47,613 mi) of highway of which 19,156 km (11,903 mi) is paved
1,295 navigable inland waterways
five major
sea ports
243
airports
, of which 32 are paved.
Angola centres its port trade in five main ports:
Namibe
Lobito
Soyo
Cabinda
and Luanda. The
port of Luanda
is the largest of the five, as well as being one of the busiest on the African continent.
150
Catumbela
Bridge in
Benguela
Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Angola: the
Tripoli-Cape Town Highway
and the
Beira-Lobito Highway
. Travel on highways outside of towns and cities in Angola (and in some cases within) is
when?
often not best advised for those without four-by-four vehicles. While reasonable road infrastructure has existed within Angola, time and war have taken their toll on the road surfaces, leaving many severely potholed, littered with broken asphalt. In many areas drivers have established alternative tracks to avoid the worst parts of the surface, although careful attention must be paid to the presence or absence of landmine warning markers by the side of the road. The
Angolan government
has contracted the restoration of many of the country's roads. The road between Lubango and Namibe, for example, was completed recently with funding from the European Union,
151
and is comparable to many European main routes. Completing the road infrastructure is likely to take some decades, but substantial efforts are already being made.
citation needed
The old airport in Luanda,
Quatro de Fevereiro Airport
, will be replaced by the new
Dr. Antonio Agostinho Neto International Airport
Telecommunications
edit
Lobito
, an Angolan seaport
Luanda
's construction boom is financed largely by oil and diamonds.
The
telecommunications
industry is considered one of the main strategic sectors in Angola.
152
For additional information, see
Telephone numbers in Angola
In October 2014, the building of an
optic fibre
underwater cable was announced.
153
This project aims to turn Angola into a continental hub, thus improving Internet connections both nationally and internationally.
154
On 11 March 2015, the First Angolan Forum of Telecommunications and Information Technology was held in
Luanda
under the motto "The challenges of telecommunications in the current context of Angola",
155
to promote debate on topical issues on
telecommunications
in Angola and worldwide.
156
A study of this sector, presented at the forum, said Angola had the first telecommunications operator in Africa to test
LTE
‌with speeds up to
400 Mbit/s
‌and mobile penetration of about 75%. There are about 3.5 million
smartphones
in the Angolan market, and about 25,000 kilometres (16,000 miles) of optical fibre installed in the country.
157
158
The first Angolan satellite,
AngoSat-1
, was launched into orbit on 26 December 2017.
159
It was launched from the
Baikonur space centre
in Kazakhstan on board a
Zenit 3F
rocket. The
satellite
was built by Russia's
RSC Energia
, a subsidiary of the state-run space industry player
Roscosmos
. The satellite payload was supplied by
Airbus Defence & Space
160
Due to an on-board power failure during solar panel deployment, on 27 December, RSC Energia revealed that they lost communications contact with the satellite. Although, subsequent attempts to restore communications with the satellite were successful, the satellite eventually stopped sending data and RSC Energia confirmed that AngoSat-1 was inoperable. The launch of AngoSat-1 was aimed at ensuring telecommunications throughout the country.
161
According to Aristides Safeca, Secretary of State for Telecommunications, the satellite was aimed at providing telecommunications services, TV, internet and
e-government
and was expected to remain in operation "at best" for 18 years.
162
A replacement satellite named
AngoSat-2
was pursued and was expected to be in service by 2020.
163
As of February 2021, Ango-Sat-2 was about 60% ready. The officials reported the launch was expected in about 17 months, by July 2022.
164
The launch of AngoSat-2 occurred on 12 October 2022.
165
Technology
edit
The management of the
top-level domain
.ao
' passed from
Portugal
to Angola in 2015, following new legislation.
166
A joint decree of Minister of Telecommunications and Information Technologies José Carvalho da Rocha and the minister of Science and Technology, Maria Cândida Pereira Teixeira, states that "under the massification" of that Angolan domain, "conditions are created for the transfer of the domain root '.ao' of Portugal to Angola".
167
Demographics
edit
Main article:
Demographics of Angola
Historical ethnic divisions of Angola
Current ethnic divisions of Angola
Angola has a population of 36,604,681 inhabitants according to the results of its 2024 census.
It is composed of
Ovimbundu
(language
Umbundu
) 29.1%,
Ambundu
(language
Kimbundu
) 27%,
Bakongo
14%, and 29.5% other ethnic groups (including the
Chokwe
, the Nyaneka-Lumkumbi, the
Ovambo
, the
Ganguela
and the
Xindonga
).
The Ambundu and Ovimbundu ethnic groups combined form a majority of the population, at 56%.
It is estimated that Angola was host to 12,100 refugees and 2,900 asylum seekers by the end of 2007. 11,400 of those refugees were originally from the Democratic Republic of Congo, who arrived in the 1970s.
168
As of 2008
[update]
there were an estimated 400,000
Democratic Republic of the Congo
migrant workers,
169
at least 220,000
Portuguese
170
and about 259,000
Chinese living in Angola
171
1 million Angolans are
mixed race
(black and white). Also, 40,000
Vietnamese
live in the country.
12
Since 2003, more than 400,000
Congolese
migrants have been expelled from Angola.
172
Prior to independence in 1975, Angola had a community of approximately 350,000 Portuguese,
173
but the vast majority left after independence and the ensuing civil war. However, Angola has recovered its Portuguese minority in recent years; currently, there are about 200,000 registered with the consulates, and increasing due to the debt crisis in Portugal and the relative prosperity in Angola.
175
The Chinese population stands at 258,920, mostly composed of temporary migrants.
176
Also, there is a small
Brazilian
community of about 5,000 people.
177
Romani people
were expelled to Angola from Portugal during the colonial era.
178
As of 2007
[update]
, the
total fertility rate
of Angola is 5.54 children born per woman (2012 estimates), the 11th highest in the world.
91
Urbanisation
edit
Largest cities or towns in Angola
According to the 2014 Census
179
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Luanda
Luanda
6,759,313
Lubango
Huíla
600,751
Huambo
Huambo
595,304
Benguela
Benguela
555,124
Cabinda
Cabinda
550,000
Malanje
Malanje
455,000
Saurimo
Lunda Sul
393,000
Lobito
Benguela
357,950
Cuíto
Bié
355,423
10
Uíge
Uíge
322,531
Languages
edit
Main article:
Languages of Angola
Languages in Angola by Number of Native Speakers(2024 Census)
Languages
percent
Portuguese
45.5%
Umbundu
17.1%
Kimbundu
10.8%
Chokwe
6.9%
Kikongo
6.9%
Nyaneka
4.3%
Kwanyama
2.9%
Ngangela
2.0%
Fiote
1.1%
Muhumbi
0.7%
Luvale
0.5%
Other
0.6%
Situation of Portuguese as Native Language in each municipality of Angola
The languages in Angola are those originally spoken by the different ethnic groups and
Portuguese
, introduced during the Portuguese colonial era. The most widely spoken indigenous languages are
Umbundu
Kimbundu
and
Kikongo
, in that order. Portuguese is the official language of the country.
In 2014, a census carried out by the Instituto Nacional de Estatística in Angola mentions that 71.15% of the nearly 25.8 million inhabitants of Angola (meaning around 18.3 million people) use Portuguese at home.
180
According to the 2024 census,
Portuguese
is spoken natively by 45.5% of Angolans,
Umbundu
by 17.1%,
Kimbundu
by 10.8%,
Chokwe
by 6.9%,
Kikongo
by 6.9%,
Nyaneka
by 4.3%,
Kwanyama
by 2.9%,
Ngangela
by 2.0%,
Fiote
by 1.1%,
Muhumbi
by 0.7%,
Luvale
by 0.5%, and
other languages
by 0.6%.
Religion
edit
Catholic
church in
Uaco Cungo
There are about 1,000 religious communities, mostly
Christian
, in Angola.
181
About 4 fifths of the population is Christian; of these, a little more than half are
Catholics
while the rest adhere to the Protestant churches introduced during the colonial period: the
Congregationalists
mainly among the
Ovimbundu
of the Central Highlands and the coastal region to its west, the
Methodists
concentrating on the
Kimbundu
speaking strip from Luanda to Malanje, the
Baptists
almost exclusively among the
Bakongo
of the north-west (now present in Luanda as well) and dispersed
Adventists
Reformed
, and
Lutherans
182
183
Religion in Angola
(2024)
Roman Catholicism
(44.2%)
Protestantism
(34.9%)
Irreligion
(11.5%)
Others (9.40%)
In Luanda and region there subsists a nucleus of the
syncretic
Tocoists
and in the north-west a sprinkling of
Kimbanguism
can be found, spreading from the Congo/Zaïre. Since independence, hundreds of
Pentecostal
and similar communities have sprung up in the cities, whereby now about 50% of the population is living; several of these communities/churches are of Brazilian origin.
As of 2008
[update]
the
U.S. Department of State
estimates the Muslim population at 80,000–90,000, less than 1% of the population,
184
while the
Islamic Community of Angola
puts the figure closer to 500,000.
185
Muslims consist largely of migrants from West Africa and the Middle East (especially
Lebanon
), although some are local converts.
186
The Angolan government does not
legally recognize
any Muslim organisations and often shuts down mosques or prevents their construction.
187
In a study assessing nations' levels of religious regulation and persecution with scores ranging from 0 to 10 where 0 represented low levels of regulation or persecution, Angola was scored 0.8 on Government Regulation of Religion, 4.0 on Social Regulation of Religion, 0 on Government Favouritism of Religion and 0 on Religious Persecution.
188
Foreign
missionaries
were very active prior to independence in 1975, although since the beginning of the anti-colonial fight in 1961 the Portuguese colonial authorities expelled a series of Protestant missionaries and closed mission stations based on the belief that the missionaries were inciting pro-independence sentiments. Missionaries have been able to return to the country since the early 1990s, although security conditions due to the civil war have prevented them until 2002 from restoring many of their former inland mission stations.
189
The Catholic Church and some major Protestant denominations mostly keep to themselves in contrast to the "New Churches" which actively proselytize. Catholics, as well as some major Protestant denominations, provide help for the poor in the form of crop seeds, farm animals, medical care and education.
190
191
Health
edit
Main article:
Health in Angola
Lucrécia Paím Maternity Hospital
Epidemics of
cholera
malaria
rabies
and African
hemorrhagic
fevers like
Marburg hemorrhagic fever
, are common diseases in several parts of the country. Many regions in this country have high incidence rates of
tuberculosis
and high
HIV prevalence
rates.
Dengue
filariasis
leishmaniasis
and
onchocerciasis
(river blindness) are other diseases carried by insects that also occur in the region. Angola has one of the highest
infant mortality rates
in the world and one of the world's lowest
life expectancies
. A 2007 survey concluded that low and deficient
niacin
status was common in Angola.
192
Demographic and Health Surveys
is currently conducting several surveys in Angola on malaria, domestic violence and more.
193
In September 2014, the Angolan Institute for Cancer Control (IACC) was created by presidential decree, and it will integrate the National Health Service in Angola.
194
The purpose of this new centre is to ensure health and medical care in
oncology
, policy implementation, programmes and plans for prevention and specialised treatment.
195
This cancer institute will be assumed as a reference institution in the central and southern regions of Africa.
196
In 2014, Angola launched a national campaign of
vaccination
against
measles
, extended to every child under ten years old and aiming to go to all 18 provinces in the country.
197
The measure is part of the Strategic Plan for the Elimination of Measles 2014–2020 created by the Angolan Ministry of Health which includes strengthening routine immunisation, a proper dealing with measles cases, national campaigns, introducing a second dose of vaccination in the national routine vaccination calendar and active epidemiological surveillance for measles. This campaign took place together with the vaccination against
polio
and
vitamin A
supplementation.
198
yellow fever
outbreak, the worst in the country in three decades
199
began in December 2015. By August 2016, when the outbreak began to subside, nearly 4,000 people were suspected of being infected. As many as 369 may have died. The outbreak began in the capital, Luanda, and spread to at least 16 of the 18 provinces. In the 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI), Angola has a serious level of hunger and ranks 103rd out of 127 countries. Angola's GHI score is 26.6
200
Education
edit
Main article:
Education in Angola
Agostinho Neto University
Although by law education in Angola is compulsory and free for eight years, the government reports that a percentage of pupils are not attending due to a lack of school buildings and teachers.
201
Pupils are often responsible for paying additional school-related expenses, including fees for books and supplies.
201
In 1999, the gross primary enrollment rate was 74 per cent and in 1998, the most recent year for which data are available, the net primary enrollment rate was 61 per cent.
201
Gross and net enrollment ratios are based on the number of pupils formally registered in primary school and therefore do not necessarily reflect actual school attendance.
201
There continue to be significant disparities in enrollment between rural and urban areas. In 1995, 71.2 per cent of children ages 7 to 14 years were attending school.
201
It is reported that higher percentages of boys attend school than girls.
201
During the
Angolan Civil War
(1975–2002), nearly half of all schools were reportedly looted and destroyed, leading to current problems with overcrowding.
201
A primary school in
Cuanza Sul Province
The Ministry of Education recruited 20,000 new teachers in 2005 and continued to implement teacher training.
201
Teachers tend to be underpaid, inadequately trained and overworked (sometimes teaching two or three shifts a day).
201
Some teachers may reportedly demand payment or bribes directly from their pupils.
201
Other factors, such as the presence of landmines, lack of resources and identity papers, and poor health prevent children from regularly attending school.
201
Although budgetary allocations for education were increased in 2004, the education system in Angola continues to be extremely under-funded.
201
According to estimates by the
UNESCO Institute for Statistics
, the adult literacy rate in 2011 was 70.4%.
202
By 2015, this had increased to 71.1%.
203
82.9% of men and 54.2% of women are literate as of 2001.
204
Since independence from Portugal in 1975, a number of Angolan students continued to be admitted every year at high schools,
polytechnical
institutes and universities in
Portugal
and
Brazil
through bilateral agreements; in general, these students belong to the elites.
Mutu-ya Kevela Prep. School
In September 2014, the Angolan Ministry of Education announced an investment of 16 million
Euros
in the computerisation of over 300 classrooms across the country. The project also includes training teachers at a national level, "as a way to introduce and use new information technologies in primary schools, thus reflecting an improvement in the quality of teaching".
205
In 2010, the Angolan government started building the Angolan Media Libraries Network, distributed throughout several provinces in the country to facilitate the people's access to information and knowledge. Each site has a bibliographic archive, multimedia resources and computers with Internet access, as well as areas for reading, researching and socialising.
206
The plan envisages the establishment of one media library in each Angolan province by 2017. The project also includes the implementation of several media libraries, in order to provide the several contents available in the fixed media libraries to the most isolated populations in the country.
207
At this time, the mobile media libraries are already operating in the provinces of Luanda, Malanje, Uíge, Cabinda and Lunda South. As for REMA, the provinces of Luanda, Benguela, Lubango and Soyo have currently working media libraries.
208
Culture
edit
Main article:
Culture of Angola
See also:
Music of Angola
and
Angolan cuisine
Agostinho Neto National Memorial in Luanda
Angolan culture has been heavily influenced by
Portuguese culture
, especially in language and religion, and the culture of the indigenous ethnic groups of Angola, predominantly
Bantu culture
The diverse ethnic communities—the
Ovimbundu
Ambundu
Bakongo
Chokwe
Mbunda
and other peoples—to varying degrees maintain their own cultural traits, traditions and languages, but in the cities, where slightly more than half of the population now lives, a mixed culture has been emerging since colonial times; in
Luanda
, since its foundation in the 16th century.
In this urban culture, Portuguese heritage has become more and more dominant. African roots are evident in music and dance and is moulding the way in which Portuguese is spoken. This process is well reflected in contemporary Angolan literature, especially in the works of
Angolan authors
In 2014, Angola resumed the National Festival of Angolan Culture after a 25-year break. The festival took place in all the provincial capitals and lasted for 20 days, with the theme "Culture as a Factor of Peace and Development.
209
Media
edit
Main articles:
Mass media in Angola
List of newspapers in Angola
, and
Television in Angola
Cinema
edit
Main article:
Cinema of Angola
In 1972, one of Angola's first feature films,
Sarah Maldoror
's
internationally co-produced
Sambizanga
, was released at the
Carthage Film Festival
to critical acclaim, winning the
Tanit d'Or
, the festival's highest prize.
210
In 2025, Angola premiered its first musical film, "The Adventures of Angosat" composed by local rapper Isis Hembe.
211
Sports
edit
The National Stadium in
Benguela
Basketball
is the second most popular sport in Angola. Its
national team
has won the
AfroBasket
11 times and holds the record of most titles. As a top team in Africa, it is a regular competitor at the
Summer Olympic Games
and the
FIBA World Cup
. Angola is home to one of Africa's first competitive leagues.
212
In football, Angola hosted the
2010 Africa Cup of Nations
. The
Angola national football team
qualified for the
2006 FIFA World Cup
, their first appearance in the World Cup finals. They were eliminated after one defeat and two draws in the group stage. They won three
COSAFA Cups
and finished runner-up in the
2011 African Nations Championship
Angola has participated in the
World Women's Handball Championship
for several years. The country has also appeared in the
Summer Olympics
for seven years and both regularly competes in and once has hosted the
FIRS Roller Hockey World Cup
, where the best finish is sixth. Angola is also often believed to have historic roots in the
martial art
Capoeira Angola
and
Batuque
which were practised by
enslaved African Angolans
transported as part of the
Atlantic slave trade
213
See also
edit
Africa portal
Countries portal
Outline of Angola
Notes
edit
oʊ
an-
GOH
-lə
Portuguese:
[ɐ̃ˈɡɔlɐ]
Kongo
Ngola
pronounced
[ŋɔla]
Portuguese
República de Angola
Later changed to Legal-Sociological Manifesto of the Lunda People,
Manifesto Jurídico-Sociológico do Povo Lunda
, MJSLP, and disbanded in 2025
58
A 1975 article from
The Economist
put the number at 500,000, but this is an estimate lacking sources.
174
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Archived
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Executive Summary of the ReMA Master Plan
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Government to open digital libraries in every province
Archived
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Archived
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Further reading
edit
Chisholm, Hugh
, ed. (1911),
"Angola"
Encyclopædia Britannica
, vol. 2 (11th ed.), Cambridge University Press, pp.
38–
40
Birmingham, David (2006)
Empire in Africa: Angola and its Neighbors
, Ohio University Press: Athens, Ohio.
Bösl, Anton (2008)
Angola's Parliamentary Elections in 2008. A Country on its Way to One-Party-Democracy
, KAS Auslandsinformationen 10/2008.
Die Parlamentswahlen in Angola 2008
Cilliers, Jackie and Christian Dietrich, Eds. (2000).
Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds
. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
Global Witness (1999).
A Crude Awakening,
The Role of Oil and Banking Industries in Angola's Civil War and the Plundering of State Assets. London, UK, Global Witness.
A Crude Awakening
Archived
28 September 2007 at the
Wayback Machine
Hodges, Tony (2001).
Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism
. Oxford: James Currey.
Hodges, Tony (2004).
Angola: The Anatomy of an Oil State
. Oxford, UK and Indianapolis, US, The Fridtjol Nansen Institute & The International African Institute in association with James Currey and Indiana University Press.
Human Rights Watch (2004). Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenues in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights. New York, Human Rights Watch.
Some Transparency, No Accountability: The Use of Oil Revenue in Angola and Its Impact on Human Rights (Human Rights Watch Report, January 2004)
Human Rights Watch (2005). Coming Home, Return and Reintegration in Angola. New York, Human Rights Watch.
Coming Home: Return and Reintegration in Angola
James, Walter (1992). A political history of the civil war in Angola, 1964–1990. New Brunswick, Transaction Publishers.
Kapuściński, Ryszard
. Another Day of Life, Penguin, 1975.
ISBN
978-0-14-118678-8
. A Polish journalist's account of Portuguese withdrawal from Angola and the beginning of the civil war.
Kevlihan, R. (2003). "Sanctions and humanitarian concerns: Ireland and Angola, 2001-2". Irish Studies in International Affairs 14: 95–106.
Lari, A. (2004).
Returning home to a normal life? The plight of displaced Angolans
. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
Lari, A. and R. Kevlihan (2004).
"International Human Rights Protection in Situations of Conflict and Post-Conflict, A Case Study of Angola".
African Security Review 13(4): 29–41.
Le Billon, Philippe (2005)
Aid in the Midst of Plenty: Oil Wealth, Misery and Advocacy in Angola
, Disasters 29(1): 1–25.
Le Billon, Philippe (2001). "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds". African Affairs (100): 55–80.
Le Billon, P. (March 2006).
Fuelling War: Natural Resources and Armed Conflicts
Routledge
ISBN
978-0-415-37970-0
MacQueen, Norrie
An Ill Wind? Rethinking the Angolan Crisis and the Portuguese Revolution, 1974–1976
Itinerario: European Journal of Overseas History, 26/2, 2000, pp. 22–44
Médecins Sans Frontières (2002).
Angola: Sacrifice of a People
. Luanda, Angola, MSF.
Mwakikagile, Godfrey
Nyerere and Africa: End of an Era
, Third Edition, Pretoria, South Africa, 2006, on Angola in Chapter 11, "American Involvement in Angola and Southern Africa: Nyerere's Response", pp. 324–346,
ISBN
978-0-9802534-1-2
Pearce, Justin (2004). "War, Peace and Diamonds in Angola: Popular perceptions of the diamond industry in the Lundas". African Security Review 13 (2), pp 51–64.
Wayback Machine
Porto, João Gomes (2003).
Cabinda: Notes on a soon to be forgotten war
. Pretoria, South Africa, Institute for Security Studies.
Tvedten, Inge (1997). Angola, Struggle for Peace and Reconstruction. Boulder, Colorado, Westview Press.
Vines, Alex (1999). Angola Unravels: The Rise and Fall of the Lusaka Peace Process. New York and London, UK, Human Rights Watch.
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