Animal - Wikipedia

Animal - Wikipedia
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Kingdom of life
For other uses, see
Animal (disambiguation)
"Animalia" redirects here. For other uses, see
Animalia (disambiguation)
Animals
Temporal range:
Cryogenian
– present,
665–0 Ma
Pha.
Proterozoic
Archean
Had.
Scientific classification
Domain:
Eukaryota
Clade
Podiata
Clade
Amorphea
Clade
Obazoa
Clade
Opisthokonta
Clade
Holozoa
Clade
Filozoa
Clade
Choanozoa
Kingdom:
Animalia
Linnaeus
1758
Major groups
Bilateria
(~30 phyla)
Cnidaria
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Porifera
Synonyms
Metazoa
Haeckel, 1874
Choanoblastaea
Nielsen, 2008
Gastrobionta
Rothm., 1948
Zooaea
Barkley, 1939
Euanimalia
Barkley, 1939
Animals
are
multicellular
eukaryotic
organisms
belonging to the
biological
kingdom
Animalia
eɪ
). With few exceptions, animals
consume organic material
breathe oxygen
, have
myocytes
and are
able to move
, can
reproduce sexually
, and grow from a hollow sphere of
cells
, the
blastula
, during
embryonic development
. Animals form a
clade
, meaning that they arose from a single
common ancestor
. Over 1.5 million
living
animal
species
have been
described
, of which around 1.05 million are
insects
, over 85,000 are
molluscs
, and around 65,000 are
vertebrates
. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex
ecologies
and
interactions
with each other and their environments, forming intricate
food webs
. The scientific study of animals is known as
zoology
, and the study of animal behaviour is known as
ethology
The animal kingdom is divided into five major clades, namely
Porifera
Ctenophora
Placozoa
Cnidaria
and
Bilateria
. Most living animal species belong to the clade Bilateria, a highly proliferative clade whose members have a
bilaterally symmetric
and significantly
cephalised
body plan
, and the vast majority of bilaterians belong to two large clades: the
protostomes
, which includes organisms such as
arthropods
molluscs
flatworms
annelids
and
nematodes
; and the
deuterostomes
, which include
echinoderms
hemichordates
and
chordates
, the latter of which contains the
vertebrates
. The much smaller
basal
phylum
Xenacoelomorpha
have an uncertain position within Bilateria.
Animals first appeared in the fossil record in the late
Cryogenian
period and diversified in the subsequent
Ediacaran
period in what is known as the
Avalon explosion
. Nearly all modern animal phyla first appeared in the fossil record as
marine species
during the
Cambrian explosion
, which began around 539
million years ago
(Mya), and most
classes
during the
Ordovician radiation
485.4 Mya. Common to all living animals, 6,331 groups of
genes
have been identified that may have arisen from a single
common ancestor
that lived about 650 Mya during the
Cryogenian
period.
Historically,
Aristotle
divided animals
into those with blood and those without
Carl Linnaeus
created the first hierarchical
biological classification
for animals in 1758 with his
Systema Naturae
, which
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
expanded into 14 phyla by 1809. In 1874,
Ernst Haeckel
divided the animal kingdom into the multicellular
Metazoa
(now
synonymous
with Animalia) and the
Protozoa
, single-celled organisms no longer considered animals. In modern times, the biological classification of animals relies on advanced techniques, such as
molecular phylogenetics
, which are effective at demonstrating the
evolutionary
relationships between
taxa
Humans
make
use of
many other animal species for
food
(including
meat
eggs
, and
dairy products
), for
materials
(such as
leather
fur
, and
wool
), as
pets
and as
working animals
for
transportation
, and
services
Dogs
, the first
domesticated
animal, have been used
in hunting
in security
and
in warfare
, as have
horses
pigeons
and
birds of prey
; while other
terrestrial
and
aquatic animals
are
hunted
for sports, trophies or profits. Non-human animals are also an important
cultural
element of
human evolution
, having appeared in
cave arts
and
totems
since the earliest times, and are frequently featured in
mythology
religion
arts
literature
heraldry
politics
, and
sports
Etymology
The word
animal
comes from the Latin noun
animal
of the same meaning, which is itself derived from Latin
animalis
'having breath or soul'.
The biological definition includes all members of the kingdom Animalia.
In colloquial usage, the term
animal
is often used to refer only to nonhuman animals.
10
The term
metazoa
is derived from Ancient Greek
μετα
meta
'after' (in biology, the prefix
meta-
stands for 'later') and
ζῷᾰ
zōia
'animals', plural of
ζῷον
zōion
'animal'.
11
metazoan
is any member of the group
Metazoa
12
Characteristics
Animals are unique in having the ball of cells of the early
embryo
(1) develop into a hollow ball or
blastula
(2).
Animals have several characteristics that they share with other living things. Animals are
eukaryotic
multicellular
, and
aerobic
, as are
plants
and
fungi
13
Unlike plants and
algae
, which
produce their own food
14
animals
cannot produce their own food
15
16
a feature they share with fungi. Animals ingest organic material and digest it internally.
17
Structural features
Animals have structural characteristics that set them apart from all other living things:
cells surrounded by an
extracellular matrix
18
composed of
collagen
19
and
elastic
glycoproteins
18
19
motility
20
i.e. able to spontaneously move their bodies during at least part of their
life cycle
blastula
stage during
embryonic development
21
Typically, there is an internal
digestive
chamber with either one opening (in Ctenophora, Cnidaria, and flatworms) or two openings (in most bilaterians).
22
Development
Animal development is controlled by
Hox genes
, which signal the times and places to develop structures such as body segments and limbs.
23
24
During development, the animal extracellular matrix forms a relatively flexible framework upon which cells can move about and be reorganised into specialised tissues and organs, making the formation of complex structures possible, and allowing
cells to be differentiated
21
The extracellular matrix may be calcified, forming structures such as
shells
bones
, and
spicules
25
In contrast, the cells of other multicellular organisms (primarily algae, plants, and
fungi
) are held in place by cell walls, and so develop by progressive growth.
26
Reproduction
See also:
Sexual reproduction § Animals
, and
Asexual reproduction § Examples in animals
Sexual reproduction
is nearly universal in animals, such as these
dragonflies
Nearly all animals make use of some form of sexual reproduction.
27
They produce
haploid
gametes
by
meiosis
; the smaller, motile gametes are
spermatozoa
and the larger, non-motile gametes are
ova
28
These fuse to form
zygotes
29
which develop via
mitosis
into a hollow sphere, called a blastula. In sponges, blastula larvae swim to a new location, attach to the seabed, and develop into a new sponge.
30
In most other groups, the blastula undergoes more complicated rearrangement.
31
It first
invaginates
to form a
gastrula
with a digestive chamber and two separate
germ layers
, an external
ectoderm
and an internal
endoderm
32
In most cases, a third germ layer, the
mesoderm
, also develops between them.
33
These germ layers then differentiate to form tissues and organs.
34
Repeated instances of
mating with a close relative
during sexual reproduction generally leads to
inbreeding depression
within a population due to the increased prevalence of harmful
recessive
traits.
35
36
Animals have evolved numerous mechanisms for
avoiding close inbreeding
37
Some animals are capable of
asexual reproduction
, which often results in a genetic clone of the parent. This may take place through
fragmentation
budding
, such as in
Hydra
and other
cnidarians
; or
parthenogenesis
, where fertile eggs are produced without
mating
, such as in
aphids
38
39
Ecology
Predators
, such as this
ultramarine flycatcher
Ficedula superciliaris
), feed on other animals.
Animals are categorised into ecological groups depending on their
trophic levels
and
how they consume organic material
. Such groupings include
carnivores
(further divided into subcategories such as
piscivores
insectivores
ovivores
, etc.),
herbivores
(subcategorised into
folivores
graminivores
frugivores
granivores
nectarivores
algivores
, etc.),
omnivores
fungivores
scavengers
detritivores
40
and
parasites
41
Interactions
between animals of each
biome
form complex
food webs
within that
ecosystem
. In carnivorous or omnivorous species,
predation
is a
consumer–resource interaction
where the predator feeds on another organism, its
prey
42
who often evolves
anti-predator adaptations
to avoid being fed upon.
Selective pressures
imposed on one another lead to an
evolutionary arms race
between predator and prey, resulting in various antagonistic/
competitive
coevolutions
43
44
Almost all multicellular predators are animals.
45
Some
consumers
use multiple methods; for example, in
parasitoid wasps
, the larvae feed on the hosts' living tissues, killing them in the process,
46
but the adults primarily consume nectar from flowers.
47
Other animals may have very specific
feeding behaviours
, such as
hawksbill sea turtles
which mainly
eat sponges
48
Hydrothermal vent
mussels and shrimps
Most animals rely on
biomass
and
bioenergy
produced by
plants
and
phytoplanktons
(collectively called
producers
) through
photosynthesis
. Herbivores, as
primary consumers
, eat the plant material directly to digest and absorb the nutrients, while carnivores and other animals on higher
trophic levels
indirectly acquire the nutrients by eating the herbivores or other animals that have eaten the herbivores. Animals oxidise
carbohydrates
lipids
proteins
and other biomolecules in
cellular respiration
, which allows the animal to grow and to sustain
basal metabolism
and fuel other biological processes such as
locomotion
49
50
Some
benthic
animals living close to
hydrothermal vents
and
cold seeps
on the dark
sea floor
consume organic matter produced through
chemosynthesis
(via
oxidising
inorganic compounds
such as
hydrogen sulfide
) by
archaea
and
bacteria
51
Animals originated in the ocean; all extant animal phyla, except for
Micrognathozoa
and
Onychophora
, feature at least some marine species. However, several lineages of arthropods begun to colonise land around the same time as
land plants
, probably between 510 and 471 million years ago, during the
Late Cambrian
or Early
Ordovician
52
Vertebrates
such as the
lobe-finned fish
Tiktaalik
started to move on to land in the late
Devonian
, about 375 million years ago.
53
54
Other notable animal groups that colonized land environments are
Mollusca
Platyhelmintha
Annelida
Tardigrada
Onychophora
Rotifera
Nematoda
Animals occupy virtually all of earth's
habitats
and microhabitats, with
faunas
adapted to salt water, hydrothermal vents, fresh water, hot springs, swamps, forests, pastures, deserts, air, and the interiors of other organisms.
55
Animals are however not particularly
heat tolerant
; very few of them can survive at constant temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F)
56
or in the most extreme cold deserts of continental
Antarctica
57
The collective global geomorphic influence of animals on the processes shaping the Earth's surface remains largely understudied, with most studies limited to individual species and well-known exemplars.
58
Diversity
Size
Further information:
Largest organisms
and
Smallest organisms
The
blue whale
Balaenoptera musculus
) is the largest animal that has ever lived, weighing up to 190
tonnes
and measuring up to 33.6 metres (110 ft) long.
59
60
The largest extant terrestrial animal is the
African bush elephant
Loxodonta africana
), weighing up to 12.25 tonnes
59
and measuring up to 10.67 metres (35.0 ft) long.
59
The largest terrestrial animals that ever lived were
titanosaur
sauropod dinosaurs
such as
Argentinosaurus
, which may have weighed as much as 73 tonnes, and
Supersaurus
which may have reached 39 metres.
61
62
Several animals are microscopic; some
Myxozoa
obligate parasites
within the Cnidaria) never grow larger than 20
μm
63
and one of the smallest species (
Myxobolus shekel
) is no more than 8.5 μm when fully grown.
64
The
blue whale
is the largest animal that has ever lived; it can be up to 33.6 metres (110 ft) long.
Myxozoans
such as
Myxobolus cerebralis
are single-celled parasites, never more than 20
μm
across.
Numbers and habitats of major phyla
The following table lists estimated numbers of described extant species for the major animal phyla,
65
along with their principal habitats (terrestrial, fresh water,
66
and marine),
67
and free-living or parasitic ways of life.
68
Species estimates shown here are based on numbers described scientifically; much larger estimates have been calculated based on various means of prediction, and these can vary wildly. For instance, around 25,000–27,000 species of nematodes have been described, while published estimates of the total number of nematode species include 10,000–20,000; 500,000; 10 million; and 100 million.
69
Using patterns within the
taxonomic
hierarchy, the total number of animal species—including those not yet described—was calculated to be about 7.77 million in 2011.
70
71
Phylum
Example
Species
Land
Sea
Freshwater
Free-living
Parasitic
Arthropoda
1,257,000
65
Yes 1,000,000
insects
73
Yes >40,000
Malac-
ostraca
74
Yes 94,000
66
Yes
67
Yes >45,000
68
Mollusca
85,000
65
107,000
75
35,000
75
60,000
75
5,000
66
12,000
75
Yes
67
>5,600
68
Chordata
>70,000
65
76
23,000
77
13,000
77
18,000
66
9,000
77
Yes
40
catfish
78
68
Platyhelminthes
29,500
65
Yes
79
Yes
67
1,300
66
Yes
67
3,000–6,500
80
>40,000
68
4,000–25,000
80
Nematoda
25,000
65
Yes (soil)
67
4,000
69
2,000
66
11,000
69
14,000
69
Annelida
17,000
65
Yes (soil)
67
Yes
67
1,750
66
Yes
400
68
Cnidaria
16,000
65
Yes
67
Few
67
Yes
67
>1,350
Myxozoa
68
Porifera
10,800
65
Yes
67
200–300
66
Yes
Yes
81
Echinodermata
7,500
65
7,500
65
Yes
67
Bryozoa
6,000
65
Yes
67
60–80
66
Yes
Rotifera
2,000
65
>400
82
2,000
66
Yes
Yes
83
Nemertea
1,350
84
85
Yes
Yes
Yes
Tardigrada
1,335
65
Yes
86
(moist plants)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Evolutionary origin
Further information:
Urmetazoan
Evidence of animals is found as long ago as the
Cryogenian
period.
24-Isopropylcholestane
(24-ipc) has been found in rocks from roughly 650 million years ago; it is only produced by sponges and
pelagophyte
algae. Its likely origin is from sponges based on
molecular clock
estimates for the origin of 24-ipc production in both groups. Analyses of pelagophyte algae consistently recover a
Phanerozoic
origin, while analyses of sponges recover a
Neoproterozoic
origin, consistent with the appearance of 24-ipc in the fossil record.
87
88
The first body fossils of animals appear in the
Ediacaran
, represented by forms such as
Charnia
and
Spriggina
. It had long been doubted whether these fossils truly represented animals,
89
90
91
but the discovery of the animal lipid
cholesterol
in fossils of
Dickinsonia
establishes their nature.
92
Animals are thought to have originated under low-oxygen conditions, suggesting that they were capable of living entirely by
anaerobic respiration
, but as they became specialised for aerobic metabolism they became fully dependent on oxygen in their environments.
93
Many animal phyla first appear in the
fossil
record during the
Cambrian explosion
, starting about 539 million years ago, in beds such as the
Burgess Shale
94
Extant phyla in these rocks include
molluscs
brachiopods
onychophorans
tardigrades
arthropods
echinoderms
and
hemichordates
, along with numerous now-extinct forms such as the
predatory
Anomalocaris
. The apparent suddenness of the event may however be an artefact of the fossil record, rather than showing that all these animals appeared simultaneously.
95
96
97
98
99
That view is supported by the discovery of
Auroralumina attenboroughii
, the earliest known Ediacaran crown-group cnidarian (557–562 mya, some 20 million years before the Cambrian explosion) from
Charnwood Forest
, England. It is thought to be one of the earliest
predators
, catching small prey with its
nematocysts
as modern cnidarians do.
100
Some palaeontologists have suggested that animals appeared much earlier than the Cambrian explosion, possibly as early as 1 billion years ago.
101
Early fossils that might represent animals appear for example in the 665-million-year-old rocks of the
Trezona Formation
of
South Australia
. These fossils are interpreted as most probably being early
sponges
102
Trace fossils
such as tracks and burrows found in the
Tonian
period (from 1 gya) may indicate the presence of
triploblastic
worm-like animals, roughly as large (about 5 mm wide) and complex as earthworms.
103
However, similar tracks are produced by the giant single-celled protist
Gromia sphaerica
, so the Tonian trace fossils may not indicate early animal evolution.
104
105
Around the same time, the layered mats of
microorganisms
called
stromatolites
decreased in diversity, perhaps due to grazing by newly evolved animals.
106
Objects such as sediment-filled tubes that resemble trace fossils of the burrows of wormlike animals have been found in 1.2 gya rocks in North America, in 1.5 gya rocks in Australia and North America, and in 1.7 gya rocks in Australia. Their interpretation as having an animal origin is disputed, as they might be water-escape or other structures.
107
108
Dickinsonia costata
from the
Ediacaran biota
(c. 635–542 mya) is one of the earliest animal species known.
92
Auroralumina attenboroughii
, an Ediacaran predator (c. 560 mya)
100
Anomalocaris canadensis
is one of the many animal species that emerged in the
Cambrian explosion
, starting some 539 mya, and found in the fossil beds of the
Burgess Shale
Phylogeny
Further information:
Lists of animals
External phylogeny
Animals are
monophyletic
, meaning they are derived from a common ancestor. Animals are the
sister group
to the
choanoflagellates
, with which they form the
Choanozoa
109
Ros-Rocher and colleagues (2021) trace the origins of animals to unicellular ancestors, providing the external phylogeny shown in the cladogram. Uncertainty of relationships is indicated with dashed lines. The animal clade had certainly originated by 650 mya, and may have come into being as much as 800 mya, based on
molecular clock
evidence for different phyla.
110
Opisthokonta
Holomycota
(inc. fungi)
Holozoa
Ichthyosporea
Pluriformea
Filozoa
Filasterea
Choanozoa
Choanoflagellatea
Animalia
over 650 mya
Internal phylogeny
The relationships at the base of the animal tree have been debated.
111
112
Other than Ctenophora, the Bilateria and Cnidaria are the only groups with symmetry, and other evidence shows they are closely related.
113
In addition to sponges, Placozoa has no symmetry and was often considered a "missing link" between protists and multicellular animals. The presence of
hox genes
in Placozoa shows that they were once more complex.
114
The
Porifera
(sponges) have long been assumed to be sister to the rest of the animals, but there is evidence that the
Ctenophora
may be in that position. Molecular phylogenetics has supported both the sponge-sister and ctenophore-sister hypotheses. In 2017, Roberto Feuda and colleagues, using
amino acid
differences, presented both, with the following cladogram for the sponge-sister view that they supported (their ctenophore-sister tree simply interchanging the places of ctenophores and sponges):
115
Animalia
Porifera
Eumetazoa
Ctenophora
ParaHoxozoa
Placozoa
Cnidaria
Bilateria
symmetry
hox genes
multicellular
Conversely, a 2023 study by Darrin Schultz and colleagues uses ancient
gene linkages
to construct the following ctenophore-sister phylogeny:
116
Animalia
Ctenophora
Myriazoa
Porifera
ParaHoxozoa
Placozoa
Cnidaria
Bilateria
symmetry
hox genes
multicellular
Non-bilaterians
Non-bilaterians include sponges (centre) and corals (background).
Sponges are physically very distinct from other animals, and were long thought to have diverged first, representing the oldest animal phylum and forming a sister clade to all other animals.
117
Despite their morphological dissimilarity with all other animals, genetic evidence suggests sponges may be more closely related to other animals than the comb jellies are.
118
119
Sponges lack the complex organisation found in most other animal phyla;
120
their cells are differentiated, but in most cases not organised into distinct tissues, unlike all other animals.
121
They typically feed by drawing in water through pores, filtering out small particles of food.
122
The Ctenophora and Cnidaria are radially symmetric and have digestive chambers with a single opening, which serves as both mouth and anus.
123
Animals in both phyla have distinct tissues, but these are not organised into discrete
organs
124
They are
diploblastic
, having only two main germ layers, ectoderm and endoderm.
125
The tiny placozoans have no permanent digestive chamber and no symmetry; they superficially resemble amoebae.
126
127
Their phylogeny is poorly defined, and under active research.
118
128
Bilateria
Main articles:
Bilateria
and
Symmetry (biology) § Bilateral symmetry
The remaining animals, the great majority—comprising some 29 phyla and over a million species—form the
Bilateria
clade
, which have a bilaterally symmetric
body plan
. The Bilateria are
triploblastic
, with three well-developed germ layers, and their tissues
form distinct organs
. The digestive chamber has two openings, a mouth and an anus, and in the
Nephrozoa
there is an internal body cavity, a
coelom
or pseudocoelom. These animals have a head end (anterior) and a tail end (posterior), a back (dorsal) surface and a belly (ventral) surface, and a left and a right side.
129
130
A modern consensus
phylogenetic tree
for the Bilateria is shown below.
131
Bilateria
Xenacoelomorpha
Nephrozoa
Deuterostomia
Ambulacraria
Chordata
Protostomia
Ecdysozoa
Spiralia
610 mya
650 Mya
Idealised
nephrozoan
body plan.
With an elongated body and a direction of movement the animal has head and tail ends. Sense organs and mouth form the
basis of the head
. Opposed circular and longitudinal muscles enable
peristaltic motion
Having a front end means that this part of the body encounters stimuli, such as food, favouring
cephalisation
, the development of a head with
sense organs
and a mouth. Many bilaterians have a combination of circular
muscles
that constrict the body, making it longer, and an opposing set of longitudinal muscles, that shorten the body;
130
these enable soft-bodied animals with a
hydrostatic skeleton
to move by
peristalsis
132
They also have a gut that extends through the basically cylindrical body from mouth to anus. Many bilaterian phyla have primary
larvae
which swim with
cilia
and have an apical organ containing sensory cells. However, over evolutionary time, descendant spaces have evolved which have lost one or more of each of these characteristics. For example, adult echinoderms are radially symmetric (unlike their larvae), while some
parasitic worms
have extremely simplified body structures.
129
130
Genetic studies have considerably changed zoologists' understanding of the relationships within the Bilateria. Most appear to belong to two major lineages, the
protostomes
and the
deuterostomes
133
It is often suggested that the basalmost bilaterians are the
Xenacoelomorpha
, with all other bilaterians belonging to the subclade
Nephrozoa
134
135
136
However, this suggestion has been contested, with other studies finding that xenacoelomorphs are more closely related to
Ambulacraria
than to other bilaterians.
137
Protostomes and deuterostomes
Further information:
Embryological origins of the mouth and anus
Main articles:
Protostome
and
Deuterostome
The bilaterian gut develops in two ways. In many
protostomes
, the blastopore develops into the mouth, while in
deuterostomes
it becomes the anus.
Protostomes and deuterostomes differ in several ways. Early in development, deuterostome embryos undergo radial
cleavage
during cell division, while many protostomes (the
Spiralia
) undergo spiral cleavage.
138
Animals from both groups possess a complete digestive tract, but in protostomes the first opening of the
embryonic gut
develops into the mouth, and the anus forms secondarily. In deuterostomes, the anus forms first while the mouth develops secondarily.
139
140
Most protostomes have
schizocoelous development
, where cells simply fill in the interior of the gastrula to form the mesoderm. In deuterostomes, the mesoderm forms by
enterocoelic pouching
, through invagination of the endoderm.
141
The main deuterostome taxa are the Ambulacraria and the Chordata.
142
Ambulacraria are exclusively marine and include
acorn worms
starfish
sea urchins
, and
sea cucumbers
143
The chordates are dominated by the
vertebrates
(animals with
backbones
),
144
which consist of
fishes
amphibians
reptiles
birds
, and
mammals
145
146
147
The
Spiralia
develop with
spiral cleavage
in the embryo, as here in a sea snail.
The protostomes include the
Ecdysozoa
, named after their shared
trait
of
ecdysis
, growth by moulting,
148
Among the largest ecdysozoan phyla are the
arthropods
and the
nematodes
149
The rest of the protostomes are in the
Spiralia
, named for their pattern of developing by spiral cleavage in the early embryo. Major spiralian phyla include the
annelids
and
molluscs
150
History of classification
Further information:
Taxonomy (biology)
History of zoology through 1859
, and
History of zoology since 1859
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
led the creation of a modern classification of
invertebrates
, breaking up Linnaeus's "Vermes" into nine phyla by 1809.
151
In the
classical era
, Aristotle
divided animals
based on his own observations, into those with blood (roughly, the vertebrates) and those without. The animals were then
arranged on a scale
from man (with blood, two legs, rational soul) down through the live-bearing tetrapods (with blood, four legs, sensitive soul) and other groups such as crustaceans (no blood, many legs, sensitive soul) down to spontaneously generating creatures like sponges (no blood, no legs, vegetable soul).
Aristotle
was uncertain whether sponges were animals, which in his system ought to have sensation, appetite, and locomotion, or plants, which did not: he knew that sponges could sense touch and would contract if about to be pulled off their rocks, but that they were rooted like plants and never moved about.
152
In 1758,
Carl Linnaeus
created the first
hierarchical
classification in his
Systema Naturae
153
In his original scheme, the animals were one of three kingdoms, divided into the classes of
Vermes
Insecta
Pisces
Amphibia
Aves
, and
Mammalia
. Since then, the last four have all been subsumed into a single phylum, the
Chordata
, while his Insecta (which included the crustaceans and arachnids) and Vermes have been renamed or broken up. The process was begun in 1793 by
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck
, who called the Vermes
une espèce de chaos
('a chaotic mess')
and split the group into three new phyla: worms, echinoderms, and polyps (which contained corals and jellyfish). By 1809, in his
Philosophie Zoologique
, Lamarck had created nine phyla apart from vertebrates (where he still had four phyla: mammals, birds, reptiles, and fish) and molluscs, namely
cirripedes
, annelids, crustaceans, arachnids, insects, worms,
radiates
, polyps, and
infusorians
151
In his 1817
Le Règne Animal
Georges Cuvier
used
comparative anatomy
to group the animals into four
embranchements
('branches' with different body plans, roughly corresponding to phyla), namely vertebrates, molluscs, articulated animals (arthropods and annelids), and
zoophytes (radiata)
(echinoderms, cnidaria and other forms).
155
This division into four was followed by the embryologist
Karl Ernst von Baer
in 1828, the zoologist
Louis Agassiz
in 1857, and the comparative anatomist
Richard Owen
in 1860.
156
In 1874,
Ernst Haeckel
divided the animal kingdom into two subkingdoms: Metazoa (multicellular animals, with five phyla: coelenterates, echinoderms, articulates, molluscs, and vertebrates) and Protozoa (single-celled animals), including a sixth animal phylum, sponges.
157
156
The protozoa were later moved to the former kingdom
Protista
, leaving only the Metazoa as a synonym of Animalia.
158
In human culture
Practical uses
Main article:
Human uses of animals
Sides of
beef
in a
slaughterhouse
The human population exploits a large number of other animal species for food, both of
domesticated
livestock species in
animal husbandry
and, mainly at sea, by hunting wild species.
159
160
Marine fish of many species are
caught commercially
for food. A smaller number of species are
farmed commercially
159
161
162
Humans and their
livestock
make up more than 90% of the biomass of all terrestrial vertebrates, and almost as much as all insects combined.
163
Invertebrates
including
cephalopods
crustaceans
insects
—principally
bees
and
silkworms
—and
bivalve
or
gastropod
molluscs are hunted or farmed for food, fibres.
164
165
Chickens
cattle
sheep
pigs
, and other animals are raised as livestock for meat across the world.
160
166
167
Animal fibres such as wool and silk are used to make textiles, while animal
sinews
have been used as lashings and bindings, and leather is widely used to make shoes and other items. Animals have been hunted and farmed for their fur to make items such as coats and hats.
168
Dyestuffs including
carmine
cochineal
),
169
170
shellac
171
172
and
kermes
173
174
have been made from the bodies of insects.
Working animals
including cattle and horses have been used for work and transport from the first days of agriculture.
175
Animals such as the fruit fly
Drosophila melanogaster
serve a major role in science as
experimental models
176
177
178
179
Animals have been used to create
vaccines
since their discovery in the 18th century.
180
Some medicines such as the cancer drug
trabectedin
are based on
toxins
or other molecules of animal origin.
181
gun dog
retrieving a duck during a hunt
People have used
hunting dogs
to help chase down and retrieve animals,
182
and
birds of prey
to catch birds and mammals,
183
while tethered
cormorants
have been
used to catch fish
184
Poison dart frogs
have been used to poison the tips of
blowpipe darts
185
186
A wide variety of animals are kept as pets, from invertebrates such as tarantulas, octopuses, and
praying mantises
187
reptiles such as
snakes
and
chameleons
188
and birds including
canaries
parakeets
, and
parrots
189
all finding a place. However, the most kept pet species are mammals, namely
dogs
cats
, and
rabbits
190
191
192
There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as
individuals with rights
of their own.
193
A wide variety of terrestrial and aquatic animals are hunted
for sport
194
Symbolic uses
The
signs of the Western
and
Chinese zodiacs
are based on animals.
195
196
In China and Japan, the
butterfly
has been seen as the
personification
of a person's
soul
197
and in classical representation the butterfly is also the symbol of the soul.
198
199
Artistic vision:
Still Life
with
Lobster
and
Oysters
by
Alexander Coosemans
c.
1660
Animals have been the
subjects of art
from the earliest times, both historical, as in ancient Egypt, and prehistoric, as in the
cave paintings at Lascaux
. Major animal paintings include
Albrecht Dürer
's 1515
The Rhinoceros
, and
George Stubbs
's
c.
1762
horse portrait
Whistlejacket
200
Insects
, birds and mammals play roles in literature and film,
201
such as in
giant bug movies
202
203
204
Animals including
insects
197
and mammals
205
feature in mythology and religion. The
scarab beetle
was sacred in
ancient Egypt
206
and the
cow is sacred in Hinduism
207
Among other mammals,
deer
205
horses
208
lions
209
bats
210
bears
211
and
wolves
212
are the subjects of myths and worship.
See also
Animal coloration
– General appearance of an animal
Ethology
– Study of animal behaviour
Lists of organisms by population
World Animal Day
– Observed on 4 October
Notes
The application of
DNA barcoding
to taxonomy further complicates this; a 2016 barcoding analysis estimated a total count of nearly 100,000
insect
species for
Canada
alone, and extrapolated that the global insect fauna must be in excess of 10 million species, of which nearly 2 million are in a single fly family known as gall midges (
Cecidomyiidae
).
72
Not including
parasitoids
68
Compare
File:Annelid redone w white background.svg
for a more specific and detailed model of a particular phylum with this general body plan.
In his
History of Animals
and
Parts of Animals
The French prefix
une espèce de
is pejorative.
154
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"Vaccines and animal cell technology"
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The Humane Society of the United States
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Archived
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27 April
2012
"U.S. Rabbit Industry profile"
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United States Department of Agriculture
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on 20 October 2013
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2013
Plous, S. (1993). "The Role of Animals in Human Society".
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2016
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Relate:
Extraterrestrial life
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classification
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(major groups
Metamonada
Discoba
Diaphoretickes
Hacrobia
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plants
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(land plants or plants
sensu strictissimo
Disparia
Provora
Nebulidia
Nibbleridia
Membrifera
Caelestes
Hemimastigophora
Excavates
"*
Discoba
Jakobea
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Discicristata
Heterolobosea
Euglenozoa
Metamonada
Anaeramoebidae
Parabasalia
Barthelona
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Incertae sedis
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Berkeleyaesol
Kamera
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Meteora
Parakaryon
(?)
Phyllomitus
Quasibodo
Tetrahelia
Acritarchs
and other fossils
Algospongia
Archaeochaeta
Calpionellids
Cephalonyx
Changchengia
Cheleutochroa
Chitinozoa
Coryphidium
Cucumiforma
Dictyosphaera
Diskagma
(?)
Eosolena
Francevillian biota
(?)
Germinosphaera
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Gunflint microbiota
Horodyskia
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Schizofusa
Shuiyousphaeridium
Simia
Tappania
Tawuia
(?)
Tetraporina
Thuchomyces
(?)
Tuanshanzia
Valeria
Vernanimalcula
¹non-
protist
groups
*possibly
paraphyletic
groups
bold
denotes groups with over 1,000 species
Taxonomy of protists
Extant
animal
phyla
Domain
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryota
(major groups
Metamonada
Discoba
Diaphoretickes
Hacrobia
Cryptista
Rhizaria
Alveolata
Stramenopiles
Plants
Amorphea
Amoebozoa
Opisthokonta
Animalia
Fungi
Mesomycetozoea
Animalia
Porifera (sponges)
Ctenophora (comb jellies)
ParaHoxozoa
Planulozoa
Placozoa (
Trichoplax
and relatives)
Cnidaria (jellyfish and relatives)
Bilateria
(Triploblasts)
(see below↓)
The
phylogeny
of the animal root
is disputed
; see also
Eumetazoa
Benthozoa
Bilateria
Bilateria
Xenacoelomorpha (acoels and relatives)
Chordata (vertebrates and relatives)
Ambulacraria
Echinodermata (starfish and relatives)
Hemichordata (acorn worms and relatives)
Protostomia
Ecdysozoa
Scalidophora
Kinorhyncha (mud dragons)
Priapulida (penis worms)
N+L+P
Nematoida
Nematoda (roundworms)
Nematomorpha (horsehair worms)
L+P
Loricifera (corset animals)
Panarthropoda
Onychophora (velvet worms)
Arthropoda (insects and relatives)
Tardigrada (waterbears)
Spiralia
Gnathifera
Chaetognatha (arrow worms)
Gnathostomulida (jaw worms)
M+R
Micrognathozoa
(Limnognathia)
Rotifera (wheel animals inc. acanthocephalans)
Platytrochozoa
R+M
Rouphozoa
Platyhelminthes (flatworms)
Gastrotricha (hairybacks)
Mesozoa
Orthonectida
Dicyemida or Rhombozoa
Monoblastozoa (
Salinella
Lophotrochozoa
Cycliophora (
Symbion
Annelida (earth worms and relatives)
M+K
Mollusca (snails and relatives)
Kryptotrochozoa
Nemertea (ribbon worms)
Lophophorata
Bryozoa s.l.
Entoprocta or Kamptozoa
Ectoprocta (moss animals)
Brachiozoa
Brachiopoda (lamp shells)
Phoronida (horseshoe worms)
The
phylogeny
of Bilateria
is disputed
; see also
Nephrozoa
Deuterostomia
Xenambulacraria
Centroneuralia
Major groups
within phyla
Sponges
Demosponges
Glass sponges
Calcareous sponges
Cnidarians
Anthozoans inc. corals
Medusozoans inc. jellyfish
Myxozoans
Chordates
Lancelets
Tunicates
Vertebrates
Echinoderms
Sea lilies
Asterozoans inc. starfish
Echinozoans inc. sea urchins
Hemichordates
Acorn worms
Pterobranchs
Nematodes
Chromadorea
Enoplea
Secernentea
Arthropods
Chelicerates inc. arachnids
Myriapods
Pancrustaceans inc. hexapods
Rotifera
Bdelloidea
Monogononta
Seisonidae
Acanthocephala
Platyhelminths
Turbellaria
Trematoda
Monogenea
Cestoda
Ectoproctans
Phylactolaemata
Stenolaemata
Gymnolaemata
Annelids
Polychaetes
Clitellata
Sipuncula
Molluscs
Gastropods
Cephalopods
Bivalves
Chitons
Tusk shells
Phyla with ≥1000 extant species
bolded
Potentially
dubious phyla
Taxon identifiers
Animalia
Wikidata
Q729
Wikispecies
Animalia
ADW
Animalia
AFD
Animalia
CoL
EoL
EPPO
1ANIMK
Fauna Europaea
Fauna Europaea (new)
dada6f44-b7b5-4c0a-9f32-980f54b02c36
GBIF
iNaturalist
ITIS
202423
Lygaeoidea Species File (new):
936783
MilliBase
NBN
NBNSYS0100001342
NZOR:
f38e12bf-0be7-4f13-b739-e2bc1b763ae0
Paleobiology Database
325038
TaiCOL
t0000009
WoRMS
ZooBank
0EA9A33B-6B31-4551-B4E2-A772AAF96231
Authority control databases
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