Argentina - Wikipedia

Argentina - Wikipedia
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Coordinates
34°S
64°W
 / 
34°S 64°W
 /
-34; -64
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Country in South America
This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Argentina (disambiguation)
"The Argentine" redirects here. For other uses, see
Argentine (disambiguation)
Argentine Republic
República Argentina
Spanish
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto:
En unión y libertad
"In Union and Freedom"
Anthem:
Himno Nacional Argentino
"Argentine National Anthem"
Sol de Mayo
"Sun of May"
Location of Argentina
Territory claimed but not controlled
Show globe
Show map of Argentina
Capital
and largest city
Buenos Aires
34°36′S
58°23′W
 / 
34.600°S 58.383°W
 /
-34.600; -58.383
National language
Spanish
Regional languages
Guaraní
in
Corrientes
Quechua
in
Santiago del Estero
Qom
Mocoví
, and
Wichí
in
Chaco
Religion
(2019)
79.6%
Christianity
62.9%
Catholicism
15.3%
Evangelism
1.4% Other
Christian
18.9%
No religion
9.7% None
6.0%
Atheism
3.2%
Agnosticism
1.3% Other religion
0.3% Unspecified
Demonyms
Argentine
Argentinian
Argentinean
Government
Federal
presidential republic
President
Javier Milei
Vice President
Victoria Villarruel
Chief of the Cabinet of Ministers
Manuel Adorni
President of the Chamber of Deputies
Martín Menem
President of Supreme Court
Horacio Rosatti
Legislature
National Congress
Upper house
Chamber of Senators
Lower house
Chamber of Deputies
Independence
from
Spain
May Revolution
25 May 1810
Declared
9 July 1816
Constitution
1 May 1853
Area
• Total
2,780,085
km
(1,073,397 sq mi)
8th
• Water (%)
1.57
Population
• 2025 estimate
46,735,004
33rd
• 2022 census
46,044,703
32nd
• Density
16.8/km
(43.5/sq mi) (
214th
GDP
PPP
2026 estimate
• Total
$1.591 trillion
10
30th
• Per capita
$33,187
10
68th
GDP
(nominal)
2026 estimate
• Total
$688.378 billion
10
26th
• Per capita
$14,357
10
66th
Gini
(2022)
40.7
11
medium inequality
HDI
(2023)
0.865
12
very high
47th
Currency
Argentine peso
) (
ARS
Time zone
UTC
– 03:00
ART
Date format
dd
mm
yyyy
CE
Calling code
+54
ISO 3166 code
AR
Internet TLD
.ar
Though not declared official
de jure
, the Spanish language is the only one used in the wording of laws, decrees, resolutions, official documents and public acts thus making it the
de facto
official language.
Argentina
officially the
Argentine Republic
is a country located in the
southern cone
of
South America
and with a
claimed portion
of
Antarctica
. It covers an area of 2,780,085 km
(1,073,397 mi
),
making it the
second-largest country in South America
after
Brazil
, the fourth-largest country in the
Americas
, and the
eighth-largest country
in the world. Argentina shares the bulk of the
Southern Cone
with
Chile
to the west, and is also bordered by
Bolivia
and
Paraguay
to the north, Brazil to the northeast,
Uruguay
and the South
Atlantic Ocean
to the east, and the
Drake Passage
to the south. Argentina is a
federal state
subdivided into twenty-three
provinces
, and one
autonomous city
, which is the
federal capital
and
largest city
of the nation,
Buenos Aires
. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a
federal system
. Argentina claims sovereignty over the
Falkland Islands
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
, the
Southern Patagonian Ice Field
, and
a part of Antarctica
The earliest recorded human presence in modern-day Argentina dates back to the
Paleolithic
period.
14
15
The
Inca Empire
expanded to the northwest of the country in pre-Columbian times. The modern country has its roots in
Spanish colonisation
of the region during the 16th century.
16
Argentina rose as the successor state of the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
17
a Spanish
overseas viceroyalty
founded in 1776. The
Argentine Declaration of Independence
on July 9 of 1816 and the
Argentine War of Independence
(1810–1825) were followed by an
extended civil war
that lasted until 1880, culminating in the country's reorganisation as a
federation
. The country thereafter enjoyed relative peace and stability, with
several subsequent waves of European immigration
, mainly of
Italians
and
Spaniards
, influencing its
culture
and
demography
18
19
20
21
The
National Autonomist Party
dominated national politics in the period called the
Conservative Republic
, from 1880 until the
1916 elections
. The
Great Depression
led to the
first coup d'état in 1930
led by
José Félix Uriburu
, beginning the so-called "
Infamous Decade
" (1930–1943). After that coup, four more followed in
1943
1955
1962
, and
1966
. Following the death of President
Juan Perón
in 1974, his widow and vice president,
Isabel Perón
, ascended to the presidency, before being overthrown in the final coup
in 1976
. The following
military junta
persecuted and murdered thousands of political critics, activists, and leftists in the
Dirty War
, a period of
state terrorism
and civil unrest that lasted until the election of
Raúl Alfonsín
as president in
1983
Argentina is a
regional power
, and retains its historic status as a
middle power
in international affairs.
22
23
24
major non-NATO ally
of the
United States
25
Argentina is a
developing country
with the second-highest
HDI
(human development index) in
Latin America
after
Chile
26
It maintains the
second-largest economy
in South America, and is a member of
G-15
and
G20
. Argentina is also a founding member of the
United Nations
World Bank
World Trade Organization
Mercosur
Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
and the
Organization of Ibero-American States
Etymology
Main article:
Etymology of Argentina
The description of the region by the word
Argentina
has been found on a
Venetian
map in 1536.
27
In English, the name
Argentina
comes from the
Spanish language
; however, the naming itself is not Spanish, but
Italian
Argentina
masculine
argentino
) means in Italian '(made) of silver, silver coloured', derived from the Latin
argentum
for silver. In Italian, the adjective or the
proper noun
is often used in an autonomous way as a substantive and replaces it and it is said
l'Argentina
citation needed
The name
Argentina
was probably first given by the Venetian and Genoese navigators, such as
Giovanni Caboto
. In Spanish and Portuguese, the words for 'silver' are respectively
plata
and
prata
and '(made) of silver' is
plateado
and
prateado
, although
argento
for 'silver' and
argentado
for 'covered in silver' exist in Spanish.
Argentina
was first associated with the
silver mountains legend
, widespread among the first European explorers of the
La Plata Basin
28
The first written use of the name in Spanish can be traced to
La Argentina
a 1602 poem by
Martín del Barco Centenera
describing the region.
29
Although "Argentina" was already in common usage by the 18th century, the country was formally named "
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
" by the
Spanish Empire
, and "
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
" after independence.
The
1826 constitution
included the first use of the name "Argentine Republic" in legal documents.
30
The name "Argentine Confederation" was also commonly used and was formalised in the
Argentine Constitution of 1853
31
In 1860 a presidential decree settled the country's name as "Argentine Republic",
32
and that year's constitutional amendment ruled all the names since 1810 as legally valid.
33
In
, the country was traditionally called "the Argentine", mimicking the typical
Spanish
usage
la Argentina
34
and perhaps resulting from a mistaken shortening of the longer name "Argentine Republic". "The Argentine" fell out of fashion during the mid-to-late 20th century, and now the country is referred to as "Argentina".
citation needed
History
Main article:
History of Argentina
Pre-Columbian era
Main article:
Indigenous peoples in Argentina
The
Cave of the Hands
in
Santa Cruz province
Evidence suggests that humans inhabited parts of what is now Argentina as early as 21,000 years ago. In 2015, fossilised bones of a large, extinct armored mammal called
Neosclerocalyptus
were unearthed near
Buenos Aires
. These bones bore cut marks indicative of butchering with stone tools, implying human activity during the
Last Glacial Maximum
35
36
Further south, the
Piedra Museo
site in
Santa Cruz Province
has yielded human remains and artifacts dating back approximately 11,000 years. Discoveries at this site include spearheads associated with extinct megafauna such as
Mylodon
and
Hippidion
, highlighting the advanced hunting practices of early inhabitants.
37
38
Another significant site is the
Cueva de las Manos
Cave of the Hands
), also located in
Santa Cruz
. This cave features stenciled handprints and hunting scenes created between 7,300 BC and 700 AD, offering insights into the lives of early hunter-gatherer communities.
39
38
Until the period of European colonisation, Argentina was relatively sparsely populated by a wide number of diverse cultures with different social organisations,
40
which can be divided into three main groups.
41
The first group were basic hunters and food gatherers without the development of
pottery
, such as the
Selkʼnam
and
Yaghan
in the extreme south. The second group were advanced hunters and food gatherers, who included the
Puelche
Querandí
and Serranos in the centre-east; and the
Tehuelche
in the south, all of them conquered by the
Mapuche
spreading from
Chile
42
and the
Kom
and
Wichi
in the north. The last group were farmers with pottery, such as the
Charrúa
Minuane
and
Guaraní
in the northeast, with
slash and burn
semisedentary existence;
40
the advanced
Diaguita
sedentary
trading culture
in the northwest, which was conquered by the
Inca Empire
around 1480; the
Tonocoté
and
Hênîa and Kâmîare
in the country's centre, and the
Huarpe
in the centre-west, a culture that raised
llama
cattle and was strongly influenced by the Incas.
40
Colonial era
Main article:
Colonial Argentina
See also:
Spanish colonization of the Americas
The surrender of Beresford to
Santiago de Liniers
during the
British invasions of the Río de la Plata
Europeans first arrived in the region with the 1502 voyage of
Amerigo Vespucci
. The Spanish navigators
Juan Díaz de Solís
and
Sebastian Cabot
visited the territory that is now Argentina in 1516 and 1526, respectively.
16
In 1536
Pedro de Mendoza
founded the small settlement of
Buenos Aires
, which was abandoned in 1541.
43
Further colonisation efforts came from
Paraguay
—establishing the
Governorate of the Río de la Plata
Peru
and Chile.
44
Francisco de Aguirre
founded
Santiago del Estero
in 1553.
Londres
was founded in 1558;
Mendoza
, in 1561;
San Juan
, in 1562;
San Miguel de Tucumán
, in 1565.
45
Juan de Garay
founded
Santa Fe
in 1573 and the same year
Jerónimo Luis de Cabrera
set up
Córdoba
46
Garay went further south to re-found Buenos Aires in 1580.
47
San Luis
was established in 1596.
45
The
Spanish Empire
subordinated the economic potential of the Argentine territory to the immediate wealth of the silver and gold mines in
Bolivia
and Peru, and as such it became part of the
Viceroyalty of Peru
until the creation of the
Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
in 1776 with Buenos Aires as its capital.
48
Buenos Aires repelled
two ill-fated British invasions
in 1806 and 1807.
49
The ideas of the
Age of Enlightenment
and the example of the first
Atlantic Revolutions
generated criticism of the
absolutist monarchy
that ruled the country. As in the rest of Spanish America, the overthrow of
Ferdinand VII
during the
Peninsular War
created great concern.
50
Independence and civil wars
Main articles:
Argentine War of Independence
and
Argentine Civil Wars
General
José de San Martín
Libertador
of Argentina,
Chile
and
Peru
51
Beginning a process from which Argentina was to emerge as successor state to the Viceroyalty,
17
the 1810
May Revolution
replaced the viceroy
Baltasar Hidalgo de Cisneros
with the
First Junta
, a new government in
Buenos Aires
made up from locals.
50
In the first clashes of the Independence War the Junta crushed a royalist
counter-revolution in Córdoba
52
but failed to overcome those of the
Banda Oriental
Upper Peru
and
Paraguay
, which later became independent states.
53
The French-Argentine
Hippolyte Bouchard
then brought his fleet to wage war against Spain overseas and attacked
Spanish California
Spanish Peru
and
Spanish Philippines
. He secured the allegiance of escaped Filipinos in San Blas who defected from the Spanish to join the Argentine navy, due to common Argentine and Philippine grievances against Spanish colonisation.
54
55
Jose de San Martin's brother,
Juan Fermín de San Martín
, was already in the Philippines and drumming up revolutionary fervor prior to this.
56
At a later date, the Argentine sign of Inca origin, the
Sun of May
was adopted as a symbol by the Filipinos in the
Philippine Revolution
against Spain. He also secured the diplomatic recognition of Argentina from King
Kamehameha I
of the
Kingdom of Hawaii
. Historian Pacho O'Donnell affirms that Hawaii was the first state that recognised Argentina's independence.
57
He was finally arrested in 1819 by Chilean patriots.
Revolutionaries split into two antagonist groups: the
Centralists
and the
Federalists
—a move that would define Argentina's first decades of independence.
58
The
Assembly of the Year XIII
appointed
Gervasio Antonio de Posadas
as Argentina's first
Supreme Director
58
On 9 July 1816, the
Congress of Tucumán
formalised the
Declaration of Independence
59
which is now celebrated as Independence Day, a national holiday.
60
One year later General
Martín Miguel de Güemes
stopped royalists on the north. General
José de San Martín
joined
Bernardo O'Higgins
, and they led a combined army
across the Andes
and secured the independence of Chile; then it was sent by O'Higgins orders to the Spanish stronghold of
Lima
and proclaimed the
independence of Peru
61
In 1819 Buenos Aires enacted a
centralist constitution
that was soon
abrogated
by federalists.
63
Some of the most important figures of Argentine independence made a proposal known as the
Inca plan
of 1816, which proposed that the
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
(Present Argentina) should be a monarchy, led by a descendant of the
Inca
. Juan Bautista Túpac Amaru (half-brother of
Túpac Amaru II
) was proposed as monarch.
64
Some examples of those who supported this proposal were
Manuel Belgrano
José de San Martín
and
Martín Miguel de Güemes
. The
Congress of Tucumán
finally decided to reject the Inca plan, creating instead a republican, centralist state.
65
66
The 1820
Battle of Cepeda
, fought between the Centralists and the Federalists, resulted in the
end of the Supreme Director rule
. In 1826 Buenos Aires enacted another
centralist constitution
, with
Bernardino Rivadavia
being appointed as the first president of the country. However, the interior provinces soon rose against him, forced his resignation and discarded the constitution.
67
Centralists and Federalists resumed the civil war; the latter prevailed and formed the
Argentine Confederation
in 1831, led by
Juan Manuel de Rosas
68
During his regime he faced a
French blockade
(1838–1840), the
War of the Confederation
(1836–1839), and an
Anglo-French blockade
(1845–1850), but remained undefeated and prevented further loss of national territory.
69
His trade restriction policies, however, angered the interior provinces and in 1852
Justo José de Urquiza
, another powerful
caudillo
beat him out of power
. As the new president of the Confederation, Urquiza enacted the
liberal
and federal 1853 Constitution.
Buenos Aires seceded
but was forced back into the Confederation after being defeated in the 1859
Battle of Cepeda
70
Rise of the modern nation
Main articles:
List of Presidents of Argentina
Generation of '80
, and
Infamous Decade
See also:
Argentine–Chilean naval arms race
and
South American dreadnought race
People gathered in front of the
Buenos Aires Cabildo
during the
May Revolution
Immigrants
from Italy
arriving in Buenos Aires, during the
great European immigration wave to Argentina
Overpowering Urquiza in the 1861
Battle of Pavón
Bartolomé Mitre
secured Buenos Aires' predominance and was elected as the first president of the reunified country. He was followed by
Domingo Faustino Sarmiento
and
Nicolás Avellaneda
; these three presidencies set up the basis of the modern Argentine State.
71
Starting with
Julio Argentino Roca
in 1880, ten consecutive federal governments emphasised
liberal economic policies
. The
massive wave of European immigration
they promoted—second only to the United States'—led to a near-reinvention of Argentine society and economy that by 1908 had placed the country as the seventh wealthiest
72
developed nation
73
in the world. Driven by this
immigration
wave and decreasing mortality, the Argentine population grew fivefold and the economy 15-fold:
74
from 1870 to 1910, Argentina's
wheat
exports went from 100,000 to 2,500,000 t (110,000 to 2,760,000 short tons) per year, while frozen beef exports increased from 25,000 to 365,000 t (28,000 to 402,000 short tons) per year,
75
placing Argentina as one of the world's top five exporters.
76
Its railway mileage rose from 503 to 31,104 km (313 to 19,327 mi).
77
Fostered by a new
public, compulsory, free and secular education
system,
literacy
quickly increased from 22% to 65%, a level higher than most
Latin American
nations would reach even fifty years later.
76
Furthermore, real
GDP
grew so fast that despite the huge immigration influx,
per capita income
between 1862 and 1920 went from 67% of developed country levels to 100%:
77
In 1865, Argentina was already one of the top 25 nations by per capita income. By 1908, it had surpassed Denmark, Canada and the Netherlands to reach 7th place—behind Switzerland, New Zealand, Australia, the United States, the United Kingdom and Belgium. Argentina's per capita income was 70% higher than Italy's, 90% higher than Spain's, 180% higher than Japan's and 400% higher than
Brazil
's.
72
Despite these unique achievements, the country was slow to meet its original goals of industrialisation:
78
after the steep development of capital-intensive local industries in the 1920s, a significant part of the manufacturing sector remained labour-intensive in the 1930s.
79
Conquest of the Desert
, by
Juan Manuel Blanes
(fragment showing
Julio Argentino Roca
, at the front, a major figure of the
Generation of '80
80
Between 1878 and 1884, the so-called
Conquest of the Desert
occurred, with the purpose of tripling the Argentine territory by means of the constant confrontations between natives and Criollos in the border,
81
and the appropriation of the indigenous territories. The first conquest consisted of a series of military incursions into the Pampa and Patagonian territories dominated by the indigenous peoples,
82
distributing them among the members of the
Sociedad Rural Argentina
, financiers of the expeditions.
83
The conquest of Chaco lasted up to the end of the century,
84
since its full ownership of the national economic system only took place when the mere extraction of wood and
tannin
was replaced by the production of
cotton
85
The Argentine government considered
indigenous people
as inferior beings, without the same rights as Criollos and Europeans.
86
In 1912, President
Roque Sáenz Peña
enacted
universal and secret male suffrage
, which allowed
Hipólito Yrigoyen
, leader of the
Radical Civic Union
(or UCR), to win
the 1916 election
. He enacted social and economic reforms and extended assistance to small farms and businesses. Argentina stayed neutral during
World War I
. The second administration of Yrigoyen faced an economic crisis, precipitated by the
Great Depression
87
Crowds outside the
Argentine National Congress
during the
1930 Argentine coup d'état
which marked the start of the
Infamous Decade
In 1930, Yrigoyen
was ousted from power
by the military led by
José Félix Uriburu
. Although Argentina remained among the fifteen richest countries until mid-century,
72
this
coup d'état
marked the start of the steady economic and social decline that pushed the country back into underdevelopment.
88
Uriburu ruled for two years; then
Agustín Pedro Justo
was elected in a
fraudulent election
and signed a controversial
treaty with the United Kingdom
. Argentina
stayed neutral during World War II
, a decision that had full British support but was rejected by the United States after the
attack on Pearl Harbor
. In 1943
a military coup d'état
led by
General Arturo Rawson
toppled the constitutional government of
Ramón Castillo
. Under pressure from the United States, later Argentina declared war on the Axis Powers (on 27 March 1945, roughly a month before the
end of World War II in Europe
).
During the Rawson dictatorship a relatively unknown military colonel named
Juan Perón
was named head of the Labour Department. Perón quickly managed to climb the political ladder, being named defence minister in 1944. Being perceived as a political threat by rivals in the military and the conservative camp, he was forced to resign in 1945, and was arrested days later. He was finally released under mounting pressure from both his base and several allied unions.
89
He later became president after a landslide victory over the UCR in the
1946 general election
as the
Labour
candidate.
90
Peronist years
Main article:
Peronism
Juan Perón
and his wife
Eva Perón
, 1947
The
Labour Party
(later renamed
Justicialist Party
), the most powerful and influential party in Argentine history, came into power with the rise of Juan Perón to the presidency in 1946. He
nationalised
strategic industries and services, improved wages and working conditions, paid the full
external debt
and claimed he achieved nearly
full employment
. He pushed Congress to enact
women's suffrage
in 1947,
91
and developed a system of social assistance for the most vulnerable sectors of society.
92
The economy began to decline in 1950 due in part to government expenditures and the
protectionist
economic policies.
93
He also engaged in a campaign of political suppression. Anyone who was perceived to be a political dissident or potential rival was subject to threats, physical violence and harassment. The Argentine
intelligentsia
, the middle-class, university students, and professors were seen as particularly troublesome. Perón fired over 2,000 university professors and faculty members from all major public education institutions.
94
Perón tried to bring most trade and labour unions under his thumb, regularly resorting to violence when needed. For instance, the meat-packers union leader,
Cipriano Reyes
, organised strikes in protest against the government after elected labour movement officials were forcefully replaced by Peronist puppets from the
Peronist Party
. Reyes was soon arrested on charges of terrorism, though the allegations were never substantiated. Reyes, who was never formally charged, was tortured in prison for five years and only released after the regime's downfall in 1955.
95
Perón
managed to get reelected in 1951
. His wife
Eva Perón
, who played a critical role in the party, died of cancer in 1952. As the economy continued to tank, Perón started losing popular support, and came to be seen as a threat to the national process. The Navy took advantage of Perón's withering political power, and
bombed the Plaza de Mayo
in 1955. Perón survived the attack, but a few months later, during the
Liberating Revolution
coup, he was deposed and went into
exile
in Spain.
96
Revolución Libertadora
Main article:
Revolución Libertadora
Civilian casualties after the
air attack and massacre on Plaza de Mayo
, June 1955
The new head of State,
Pedro Eugenio Aramburu
proscribed
Peronism and banned the party from any future elections.
Arturo Frondizi
from the
UCR
won the
1958 general election
97
He encouraged investment to achieve energetic and industrial self-sufficiency, reversed a chronic
trade deficit
and lifted the ban on Peronism; yet his efforts to stay on good terms with both the Peronists and the military earned him the rejection of both and a new coup forced him out.
98
Amidst the political turmoil, Senate leader
José María Guido
reacted swiftly and applied anti-
power vacuum
legislation, ascending to the presidency himself; elections were repealed and Peronism was prohibited once again.
Arturo Illia
was
elected in 1963
and led an increase in prosperity across the board; however he was overthrown in 1966 by another military
coup d'état
led by General
Juan Carlos Onganía
in the self-proclaimed
Argentine Revolution
, creating a new military government that sought to rule indefinitely.
99
Perón's return and death
Following several years of military rule,
Alejandro Agustín Lanusse
was appointed president by the
military junta
in 1971. Under increasing political pressure for the return of democracy, Lanusse called for elections in 1973. Perón was banned from running but the Peronist party was allowed to participate.
100
The presidential elections were won by Perón's surrogate candidate,
Hector Cámpora
, a left-wing Peronist, who took office on 25 May 1973. A month later, in June, Perón returned from Spain. One of Cámpora's first presidential actions was to grant amnesty to members of organisations that had carried out political assassinations and terrorist attacks, and to those who had been tried and sentenced to prison by judges. Cámpora's months-long tenure in government was beset by political and social unrest. Over 600 social conflicts,
strikes
, and
factory occupations
took place within a single month.
101
Even though far-left terrorist organisations had suspended their armed struggle, their joining with the
participatory democracy
process was interpreted as a direct threat by the Peronist right-wing faction.
102
Amid a state of political, social, and economic upheaval, Cámpora and Vice President Vicente Solano Lima resigned in July 1973, calling for new elections, but this time with Perón as the Justicialist Party nominee. Perón won the election with his wife
Isabel Perón
as vice president. Perón's third term was marked by escalating conflict between left and right-wing factions within the Peronist party, as well as the return of armed terror guerrilla groups such as the Guevarist
ERP
, leftist Peronist
Montoneros
, and the state-backed far-right
Triple A
. After a series of heart attacks and signs of pneumonia in 1974, Perón's health deteriorated quickly. He suffered a final heart attack on Monday, 1 July 1974, and died at 13:15. He was 78 years old. After his death,
Isabel Perón
, his wife and vice president, succeeded him in office. During her presidency, a military junta, along with the Peronists' far-right fascist faction, once again became the
de facto
head of state
. Isabel Perón served as President of Argentina from 1974 until 1976, when she was ousted by the military. Her short presidency was marked by the collapse of Argentine political and social systems, leading to a constitutional crisis that paved the way for a decade of instability, left-wing terrorist guerrilla attacks, and state-sponsored terrorism.
93
103
104
105
106
National Reorganization Process
Main articles:
National Reorganization Process
and
Dirty War
The "
first military junta
" – Admiral
Emilio Massera
, Lieutenant General
Jorge Videla
and Brigadier General
Orlando Agosti
(from left to right) – observing the
Independence Day
military parade on
Avenida del Libertador
, 9 July 1978
The "Dirty War" (Spanish:
Guerra Sucia
) was part of
Operation Condor
, which included the participation of other right-wing dictatorships in the
Southern Cone
. The Dirty War involved
state terrorism
in Argentina and elsewhere in the Southern Cone against political dissidents, with military and security forces employing urban and rural violence against left-wing guerrillas, political dissidents, and anyone believed to be associated with socialism or somehow contrary to the
neoliberal
economic policies of the regime.
107
108
109
Victims of the violence in Argentina alone included an estimated 15,000 to 30,000 left-wing activists and militants, including trade unionists, students, journalists,
Marxists
Peronist
guerrillas
110
and alleged sympathisers. Most of the victims were casualties of
state terrorism
. The opposing guerrillas' victims numbered nearly 500–540 military and police officials
111
and up to 230 civilians.
112
Argentina received technical support and military aid from the United States government during the
Johnson
Nixon
Ford
Carter
, and
Reagan
administrations.
The exact chronology of the
repression
is still debated, yet the roots of the long political war may have started in 1969 when trade unionists were targeted for assassination by Peronist and Marxist paramilitaries. Individual cases of
state-sponsored terrorism
against Peronism and the left can be traced back even further to the
Bombing of Plaza de Mayo
in 1955. The
Trelew massacre
of 1972, the actions of the
Argentine Anticommunist Alliance
commencing in 1973, and
Isabel Perón
's "annihilation decrees" against left-wing guerrillas during
Operativo Independencia
(Operation Independence) in 1975, are also possible events signaling the beginning of the Dirty War.
Onganía shut down Congress, banned all political parties, and dismantled student and worker unions. In 1969, popular discontent led to two massive protests: the
Cordobazo
and the
Rosariazo
. The terrorist guerrilla organisation
Montoneros
kidnapped and executed
Aramburu.
116
The newly chosen head of government,
Alejandro Agustín Lanusse
, seeking to ease the growing political pressure, allowed
Héctor José Cámpora
to become the Peronist candidate instead of Perón. Cámpora won the
March 1973 election
, issued
pardons
for condemned guerrilla members, and then secured Perón's return from his exile in Spain.
117
Argentine POWs after the surrender in 1982
On the day Perón returned to Argentina, the clash between Peronist internal factions—
right-wing
union leaders and
left-wing
youth from the Montoneros—resulted in the
Ezeiza Massacre
. Overwhelmed by political violence, Cámpora resigned and Perón won the following
September 1973 election
with his third wife
Isabel
as vice-president. He
expelled Montoneros from the party
118
and they became once again a clandestine organisation.
José López Rega
organised the
Argentine Anticommunist Alliance
(AAA) to fight against them and the
People's Revolutionary Army
(ERP).
119
120
Perón died in July 1974 and was succeeded by his wife, who signed a secret decree empowering the military and the police to "annihilate" the left-wing subversion,
121
stopping ERP's attempt
to start a rural insurgence in Tucumán province.
122
Isabel Perón was ousted
one year later by a junta of the combined armed forces, led by army general
Jorge Rafael Videla
. They initiated the
National Reorganization Process
, often shortened to
Proceso
123
The
Proceso
shut down Congress, removed the judges on the Supreme Court, banned political parties and unions, and resorted to employing the
forced disappearance
of suspected guerrilla members including individuals suspected of being associated with the left-wing. By the end of 1976, the Montoneros had lost nearly 2,000 members and by 1977, the ERP was completely subdued. Nevertheless, the severely weakened Montoneros launched a counterattack in 1979, which was quickly put down, effectively ending the guerrilla threat and securing the junta's position in power.
124
In March 1982, an Argentine force took control of the British territory of
South Georgia
and, on 2 April, Argentina
invaded the Falkland Islands
. The United Kingdom dispatched a task force to regain possession. Argentina surrendered on 14 June and its forces were taken home. Street riots in Buenos Aires followed the humiliating defeat and the military leadership stood down.
125
126
Reynaldo Bignone
replaced Galtieri and began to organise the transition to democratic governance.
127
Return to democracy
Main articles:
Presidency of Raúl Alfonsín
and
Argentine economic crisis (1999–2002)
Menem
(left) with
Fernando de la Rúa
on 10 December 1999 just after the latter became president
Raúl Alfonsín
won the
1983 elections
campaigning for the prosecution of those responsible for
human rights
violations during the
Proceso
: the
Trial of the Juntas
and other martial courts sentenced all the coup's leaders but, under military pressure, he also enacted the
Full Stop
and
Due Obedience
laws,
128
129
which halted prosecutions further down the
chain of command
. The worsening economic crisis and
hyperinflation
reduced his popular support and the Peronist
Carlos Menem
won the
1989 election
. Soon after,
riots forced Alfonsín to an early resignation
130
Civil unrest on
Plaza de Mayo
during the
Argentinazo riots
, which forced De La Rúa to resign on 21 December 2001
Menem embraced and enacted
neoliberal
policies:
131
fixed exchange rate
, business
deregulation
privatisations
, and the dismantling of
protectionist
barriers normalised the economy in the short term. He pardoned the officers who had been sentenced during Alfonsín's government. The
1994 Constitutional Amendment
allowed Menem to
be elected for a second term
. With the economy beginning to decline in 1995, and with increasing unemployment and recession,
132
the UCR, led by
Fernando de la Rúa
, returned to the presidency in the
1999 elections
133
De la Rúa left Menem's economic plan in effect despite the worsening crisis, which led to growing social discontent.
132
Massive
capital flight
from the country was responded to with a
freezing of bank accounts
, generating further turmoil. The
December 2001 riots
forced him to resign.
134
Congress appointed
Eduardo Duhalde
as acting president, who revoked the fixed exchange rate established by Menem,
135
causing many working- and middle-class Argentines to lose a significant portion of their savings. By late 2002, the economic crisis began to recede, but the assassination of two
piqueteros
by the police caused political unrest, prompting Duhalde to move elections forward.
136
Néstor Kirchner
was
elected as the new president
. On 26 May 2003, he was sworn in.
137
138
Kirchner
and his wife
Cristina Kirchner
just after
her presidency
began, 10 December 2007
Boosting the
neo-Keynesian
economic policies
136
laid by Duhalde, Kirchner ended the economic crisis attaining significant fiscal and trade surpluses, and rapid
GDP
growth.
139
Under his administration, Argentina
restructured its defaulted debt
with an unprecedented discount of about 70% on most bonds, paid off debts with the
International Monetary Fund
140
purged the military of officers with dubious human rights records,
141
nullified and voided
the Full Stop and Due Obedience laws,
142
ruled them as unconstitutional, and resumed legal prosecution of the Junta's crimes. He did not run for reelection, promoting instead the candidacy of his wife, senator
Cristina Kirchner
who won the
2007
and
2011
elections.
144
During
Kirchner's presidency
she promoted foreign relations with countries such as Venezuela, Iran, and Cuba, whilst US and UK relations were increasingly strained. Despite increased renewable energy production and subsidies during her tenure, the overall economy had been sluggish since 2011.
145
On 22 November 2015, after a tie in the first round of
presidential elections on 25 October
centre-right coalition
candidate
Mauricio Macri
won the first
ballotage
in Argentina's history, beating
Front for Victory
candidate
Daniel Scioli
and becoming president-elect.
146
Macri was the first democratically elected non-
peronist
president since 1916 that managed to complete his term in office without being overthrown.
147
He took office on 10 December 2015 and inherited an economy with a high inflation rate and in a poor shape.
148
In April 2016, the
Macri government
introduced neoliberal austerity measures intended to tackle
inflation
and overblown public deficits.
149
Under Macri's administration, economic recovery remained elusive with GDP shrinking 3.4%, inflation totalling 240%, billions of US dollars issued in sovereign debt, and mass poverty increasing by the end of his term.
150
151
He ran for reelection in 2019 but lost by nearly eight percentage points to
Alberto Fernández
, the Justicialist Party candidate.
152
Javier Milei
receiving
the presidency
from
Fernández
on
10 December 2023
Fernández and vice president Cristina Kirchner took office in December 2019,
153
just months before the
COVID-19 pandemic hit Argentina
and among accusations of
corruption
bribery
and
misuse of public funds during Néstor and Cristina Kirchner's presidencies
154
155
In November 2021, the centre-left coalition of Argentina's ruling Peronist party,
Frente de Todos
(Front for Everyone), lost its majority in Congress, for the first time in almost 40 years, in midterm
legislative elections
. The election victory of the centre-right coalition,
Juntos por el Cambio
(Together for Change) limited Fernández' power during his final two years in office. Losing control of the Senate made it difficult for him to make key appointments, including to the judiciary. It also forced him to negotiate with the opposition on every initiative send to the legislature.
156
157
In April 2023, Fernández announced that he would not seek reelection in the next
presidential election
158
The November
2023 election
run-off ended in a win for libertarian outsider
Javier Milei
with 55.7% of the vote against 44.4% to ruling coalition candidate
Sergio Massa
159
Milei's presidency
began on
10 December 2023
160
In October 2025, President Javier Milei's party,
La Libertad Avanza
, won a landslide victory in
midterm elections
, making it easier for Milei to push ahead with his programme of radical spending cuts and free-market reforms.
161
Geography
Main article:
Geography of Argentina
Topographical map of Argentina
With a mainland surface area of 2,780,400 km
(1,073,518 sq mi),
Argentina is located in
southern South America
, sharing land borders with Chile across the
Andes
to the west;
162
Bolivia and Paraguay to the north; Brazil to the northeast,
Uruguay
and the
South Atlantic Ocean
to the east;
163
and the
Drake Passage
to the south;
164
for an overall land border length of 9,376 km (5,826 mi). Its coastal border over the
Río de la Plata
and
South Atlantic Ocean
is 5,117 km (3,180 mi) long.
163
Argentina's highest point is
Aconcagua
in the
Mendoza province
(6,959 m (22,831 ft) above sea level),
165
also the highest point in the
Southern
and
Western Hemispheres
166
The lowest point is
Laguna del Carbón
in the
San Julián Great Depression
Santa Cruz province
(−105 m (−344 ft) below sea level,
165
also the lowest point in the Southern and Western Hemispheres, and the seventh lowest point on Earth).
167
The northernmost point is at the confluence of the
Grande de San Juan
and Mojinete rivers in
Jujuy province
; the southernmost is
Cape San Pío
in
Tierra del Fuego province
; the easternmost is northeast of
Bernardo de Irigoyen, Misiones
and the westernmost is within
Los Glaciares National Park
in Santa Cruz province.
163
The maximum north–south distance is 3,694 km (2,295 mi), while the maximum east–west one is 1,423 km (884 mi).
163
Some of the major rivers are the
Paraná
Uruguay
—which join to form the Río de la Plata,
Paraguay
Salado
Negro
Santa Cruz
Pilcomayo
Bermejo
and
Colorado
168
These rivers are discharged into the
Argentine Sea
, the shallow area of the Atlantic Ocean over the
Patagonian Shelf
, an unusually wide
continental platform
169
Its waters are influenced by two major ocean currents: the warm
Brazil Current
and the cold
Falklands Current
170
Biodiversity
Main article:
Environment of Argentina
Aconcagua
is the
highest mountain
outside of Asia, at 6,960.8 metres (22,837 ft), and the highest point in the
Southern Hemisphere
171
Los Cardones National Park
The ceibo flower (
Erythrina crista-galli
) is the national flower and tree of Argentina by Decree No. 13,847/42
172
Argentina is one of the most
biodiverse
countries in the world
173
hosting one of the greatest
ecosystem
varieties in the world: 15 continental zones, 2 marine zones, and the Antarctic region are all represented in its territory.
173
This huge ecosystem variety has led to a biological diversity that is among the world's largest:
173
174
9,372 catalogued
vascular plant
species (ranked 24th);
1,038 catalogued bird species (ranked 14th);
375 catalogued
mammal
species (ranked 12th);
338 catalogued
reptilian
species (ranked 16th); and 162 catalogued
amphibian
species (ranked 19th).
In Argentina
forest cover
is around 10% of the total land area, equivalent to 28,573,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 35,204,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 27,137,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 1,436,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be
primary forest
(consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 7% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 0% of the forest area was reported to be under
public ownership
, 4%
private ownership
and 96% with ownership listed as other or unknown.
175
176
The original
pampa
had virtually no trees; some imported species such as the
American sycamore
or
eucalyptus
are present along roads or in towns and country estates (
estancias
). The only tree-like plant native to the pampa is the evergreen
Ombú
. The surface soils of the pampa are a deep black colour, primarily
mollisols
, known commonly as
humus
. This makes the region one of the most agriculturally productive on Earth; however, this is also responsible for decimating much of the original ecosystem, to make way for commercial agriculture.
177
The western pampas receive less rainfall, this
dry pampa
is a plain of short grasses or
steppe
178
179
The
National Parks of Argentina
make up a network of 35
national parks
in Argentina. The parks cover a very varied set of terrains and
biotopes
, from
Baritú National Park
on the northern border with
Bolivia
to
Tierra del Fuego National Park
in the far south of the continent. The
Administración de Parques Nacionales
(National Parks Administration) is the agency that preserves and manages these national parks along with
Natural monuments
and
National Reserves
within the country.
180
Argentina had a 2018
Forest Landscape Integrity Index
mean score of 7.21/10, ranking it 47th globally out of 172 countries.
181
Climate
Main articles:
Climate of Argentina
and
Climatic regions of Argentina
Köppen climate classification
in Argentina
Argentina features geographical locations such as this glacier, known as the
Perito Moreno Glacier
182
In general, Argentina has four main climate types: warm
humid subtropical
, moderate humid subtropical,
arid
, and
cold
, all determined by the expanse across latitude, range in altitude, and relief features.
183
184
Although the most populated areas are generally
temperate
, Argentina has an exceptional amount of climate diversity,
185
ranging from
subtropical
in the north to
polar
in the far south.
186
Consequently, there is a wide variety of
biomes
in the country, including
Subtropical rainforests
semi-arid
and
arid
regions,
temperate plains
in the
Pampas
, and cold
subantarctic
in the south.
187
The average annual precipitation ranges from 150 millimetres (6 in) in the driest parts of
Patagonia
to over 2,000 millimetres (79 in) in the westernmost parts of Patagonia and the northeastern parts of the country.
185
Mean annual temperatures range from 5 °C (41 °F) in the far south to 25 °C (77 °F) in the north.
185
Major wind currents include the cool
Pampero Winds
blowing on the flat plains of Patagonia and the Pampas; following the cold front, warm currents blow from the north in middle and late winter, creating mild conditions.
188
The
Sudestada
usually moderates cold temperatures but brings very heavy rains, rough seas and
coastal flooding
. It is most common in late autumn and winter along the central coast and in the Río de la Plata estuary.
188
The
Zonda
, a
hot dry wind
, affects Cuyo and the central Pampas. Squeezed of all moisture during the 6,000 m (19,685 ft) descent from the Andes, Zonda winds can blow for hours with gusts up to 120 km/h (75 mph), fuelling wildfires and causing damage; between June and November, when the Zonda blows, snowstorms and
blizzard
viento blanco
) conditions usually affect higher elevations.
189
Climate change in Argentina
is predicted to have significant effects on the living conditions in Argentina.
190
: 30
The
climate of Argentina
is changing with regards to precipitation patterns and temperatures. The highest increases in precipitation (from the period 1960–2010) have occurred in the eastern parts of the country. The increase in precipitation has led to more variability in precipitation from year to year in the northern parts of the country, with a higher risk of prolonged
droughts
, disfavouring agriculture in these
regions
Government and politics
Main articles:
Politics of Argentina
and
Elections in Argentina
Javier Milei
President
Victoria Villarruel
Vice President
In the 20th century, Argentina experienced significant political turmoil and democratic reversals.
191
192
Between 1930 and 1976, the
armed forces
overthrew six governments in Argentina;
192
and the country alternated periods of democracy (1912–1930, 1946–1955, and 1973–1976) with periods of restricted democracy and
military rule
191
Following a
transition
that began in 1983,
193
full-scale democracy in Argentina was reestablished.
191
192
Argentina's democracy endured through the
2001–02 crisis
and to the present day; it is regarded as more robust than both its pre-1983 predecessors and other democracies in
Latin America
192
According to
International IDEA
's Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Argentina performs in the mid-range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in freedom of religion, inclusive suffrage, and civic engagement.
194
Moreover, according to the
V-Dem Democracy indices
, Argentina in 2023 was the second most
electoral democratic country in Latin America
195
Government
Main articles:
Government of Argentina
and
Ministries of the Argentine Republic
Casa Rosada
in Buenos Aires, workplace of the
Argentine president
The
National Congress
is composed of the
Senate
and the
Chamber of Deputies
196
Argentina is a
federal
constitutional republic and
representative democracy
197
The government is regulated by a system of
checks and balances
defined by the
Constitution of Argentina
, the country's supreme legal document. The
seat of government
is the city of
Buenos Aires
, as designated by
Congress
198
Suffrage is
universal
equal
secret
and
mandatory
199
The federal government is composed of three branches. The
Legislative
branch consists of the
bicameral
Congress, made up of the
Senate
and the
Chamber of Deputies
. The Congress makes
federal law
declares war
, approves
treaties
and has the
power of the purse
and of
impeachment
, by which it can remove sitting members of the government.
201
The Chamber of Deputies represents the people and has 257 voting members elected to a four-year term. Seats are apportioned among the provinces by population every tenth year.
202
As of 2014
[update]
ten provinces have just five deputies while the
Buenos Aires Province
, being the most populous one, has 70. The Chamber of Senators represents the provinces, and has 72 members elected
at-large
to six-year terms, with each province having three seats; one-third of Senate seats are up for election every other year.
203
At least one-third of the candidates presented by the parties must be women.
In the
Executive
branch, the
President
is the
commander-in-chief
of the military, can
veto
legislative bills
before they become law—subject to Congressional override—and appoints the
members of the Cabinet
and other officers, who administer and enforce federal laws and policies.
204
The President is elected
directly
by the vote of the people, serves a four-year term and may be elected to office no more than twice in a row.
205
The
Judicial
branch includes the
Supreme Court
and lower
federal courts
interpret laws and
overturn those
they find
unconstitutional
206
The Judicial is independent of the Executive and the Legislative. The Supreme Court has seven members appointed by the President—subject to Senate approval—who serve for life. The lower courts' judges are proposed by the
Council of Magistracy
(a secretariat composed of representatives of judges, lawyers, researchers, the Executive and the Legislative), and appointed by the president on Senate approval.
207
Provinces
Provinces of Argentina. Click to explore.
Main article:
Provinces of Argentina
Argentina is a federation of twenty-three provinces and one
autonomous city
, Buenos Aires. Provinces are divided for administration purposes into
departments
and
municipalities
, except for Buenos Aires Province, which is divided into
partidos
. The City of Buenos Aires is divided into
communes
Provinces hold all the power that they chose not to delegate to the federal government;
208
they must be representative republics and must not contradict the Constitution.
209
Beyond this they are fully autonomous: they enact their own constitutions,
210
freely organise their local governments,
211
and own and manage their natural and financial resources.
212
Some provinces have bicameral legislatures, while others have
unicameral
ones.
La Pampa
and Chaco became provinces in 1951. Misiones did so in 1953, and
Formosa
Neuquén
Río Negro
Chubut
and Santa Cruz, in 1955. The last national territory, Tierra del Fuego, became the
Tierra del Fuego, Antártida e Islas del Atlántico Sur Province
in 1990.
214
It has three components, although two are nominal because they are not under Argentine sovereignty. The first is the Argentine part of Tierra del Fuego; the second is an area of Antarctica claimed by Argentina that overlaps with similar areas claimed by the UK and Chile; the third comprises the two disputed British Overseas Territories of the
Falkland Islands
and
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
215
Foreign relations
Main article:
Foreign relations of Argentina
Cristina Kirchner
alongside the members of
BRICS
and
Union of South American Nations
in 2014
Foreign policy is handled by the
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship
, which answers to the
President
. The country is one of the
G-15
and
G-20 major economies
of the world, and a founding member of the
UN
WBG
WTO
and
OAS
In 2012
Argentina was elected again
to a two-year non-permanent position on the
United Nations Security Council
and is participating in major peacekeeping operations in
Haiti
Cyprus
Western Sahara
and the
Middle East
216
Argentina is described as a
middle power
22
217
A prominent Latin American
23
and Southern Cone
24
regional power
, Argentina cofounded
OEI
and
CELAC
It is also a founding member of the
Mercosur
block, having Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and
Venezuela
as partners. Since 2002 the country has emphasised its key role in
Latin American integration
, and the block—which has some supranational legislative functions—is its first international priority.
218
Argentina claims 965,597 km
(372,819 sq mi) in
Antarctica
, where it has the world's oldest
continuous state presence
, since 1904.
219
This overlaps claims by
Chile
and the
United Kingdom
, though all such claims fall under the provisions of the 1961
Antarctic Treaty
, of which Argentina is a founding signatory and permanent consulting member, with the
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
being based in Buenos Aires.
220
Argentina
disputes sovereignty
over the British possessions of the Falkland Islands,
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
221
222
Argentina is a party to the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court
223
Argentina is a
major non-NATO ally
since 1998
25
and an
OECD
candidate country since January 2022.
224
Military
Main article:
Armed Forces of the Argentine Republic
Lockheed Martin A-4AR Fightinghawk
operated by the
Argentine Air Force
Argentine destroyer
ARA
Sarandí
(D-13)
The president holds the title of commander-in-chief of the Argentine Armed Forces, as part of a legal framework that imposes a strict separation between national defence and internal security systems:
225
226
The
National Defence System
, an exclusive responsibility of the federal government,
227
coordinated by the
Ministry of Defence
, and comprising the
Army
, the
Navy
and the
Air Force
228
Ruled and monitored by Congress
229
through the Houses' Defence Committees,
230
it is organised on the essential principle of legitimate self-defence: the repelling of any external military aggression in order to guarantee freedom of the people, national sovereignty, and territorial integrity.
230
Its secondary missions include committing to multinational operations within the framework of the United Nations, participating in internal support missions, assisting friendly countries, and establishing a sub-regional defence system.
230
Military service
is voluntary, with enlistment age between 18 and 24 years old and no
conscription
231
Argentina's defence has historically been one of the best equipped in the region, even managing
its own weapon research facilities, shipyards, ordnance, tank and plane factories
232
However, real military expenditures declined steadily after the defeat in the
Falklands/Malvinas War
and the defence budget in 2011 was only about 0.74% of GDP, a historical minimum,
233
below the Latin American average. Within the defence budget itself, funding for training and even basic maintenance has been significantly cut, a factor contributing to the
accidental loss of the Argentine submarine San Juan
in 2017. The result has been a steady erosion of Argentine military capabilities, with some arguing that Argentina had, by the end of the 2010s, ceased to be a capable military power.
234
The
Interior Security System
is jointly administered by the federal and subscribing provincial governments.
226
At the federal level it is coordinated by the Interior,
Security
and Justice ministries, and monitored by Congress.
226
It is enforced by the
Federal Police
; the
Prefecture
, which fulfills
coast guard
duties; the
Gendarmerie
, which serves
border guard
tasks; and the
Airport Security Police
235
At the provincial level it is coordinated by the respective internal security ministries and enforced by local police agencies.
226
Argentina was the only South American country to send warships and cargo planes in 1991 to the
Gulf War
under
UN
mandate and has remained involved in
peacekeeping
efforts in multiple locations such as
UNPROFOR
in
Croatia
Bosnia
Gulf of Fonseca
UNFICYP
in
Cyprus
(where among Army and Marines troops the Air Force provided the UN Air contingent since 1994) and
MINUSTAH
in
Haiti
. Argentina is the only Latin American country to maintain troops in
Kosovo
during
SFOR
(and later
EUFOR
) operations where
combat engineers
of the Argentine Armed Forces are embedded in an
Italian brigade
In 2007, an Argentine contingent including helicopters, boats and water purification plants was sent to help
Bolivia
against their worst floods in decades.
236
In 2010 the Armed Forces were also involved in
Haiti
and
Chile
humanitarian responses after their respective earthquakes.
237
Economy
Main article:
Economy of Argentina
See also:
Industry in Argentina
and
Argentine foreign trade
The
Puerto Madero
business complex in
Buenos Aires CBD
Benefiting from rich
natural resources
, a highly literate population, a diversified industrial base, and an export-oriented agricultural sector, Argentina's economy is Latin America's third-largest,
238
and the second-largest in
South America
239
In 1913, Argentina was one of the wealthiest countries in the world by GDP per capita.
240
It has a "
very high
" rating on the Human Development Index
12
and ranks 66th by
nominal GDP per capita
241
with a considerable
internal market
size and a growing share of the
high-tech
sector. As a
middle emerging economy
and one of the world's top developing nations, it is a member of the
G-20 major economies
242
vineyard
in
Mendoza
. Argentina is the
sixth-largest producer of wine
243
Argentina is the largest producer in the world of
yerba mate
(due to the large domestic consumption of
mate
), one of the five largest producers in the world of
soybeans
maize
sunflower seed
lemon
and
pear
, one of the ten largest producers in the world of
barley
grape
artichoke
tobacco
and
cotton
, and one of the 15 largest producers in the world of
wheat
sugarcane
sorghum
and
grapefruit
. It is the largest producer in South America of wheat, sunflower seed, barley, lemon and pear.
244
245
In
wine
, Argentina is usually among the ten
largest producers in the world
246
Argentina is a traditional meat exporter, having been, in 2019, the 4th world producer of
beef
, with a production of 3 million tons (only behind US, Brazil and China), the 4th world producer of
honey
, and the 10th world producer of
wool
, in addition to other relevant productions.
247
248
Veladero mine
is a
gold
mine in
San Juan Province
Fiat
factory in
Córdoba, Argentina
The
mining industry
of Argentina is less prominent compared to other countries but stands out as the fourth-largest producer of
lithium
249
the 11th-largest of
silver
250
and 17th-largest of
gold
251
worldwide. Argentina excels in
natural gas
production, being the largest producer in South America and the 18th-largest globally. Argentina produces an average of 500,000 barrels/day of
petroleum
, despite the under-utilisation of the Vaca Muerta field due to technical and financial limitations in resource extraction.
252
253
In 2012
[update]
manufacturing
accounted for 20.3% of GDP—the largest sector in Argentina's economy.
254
Well-integrated into Argentine agriculture, half of the industrial exports have rural origin.
254
With a 6.5% production growth rate in 2011
[update]
255
the diversified manufacturing sector rests on a steadily growing network of
industrial parks
, 314 in 2013.
256
257
In 2012, the leading sectors by volume were: food processing, beverages and tobacco products; motor vehicles and auto parts;
textiles
and leather;
refinery products
and
biodiesel
; chemicals and pharmaceuticals;
steel
aluminium
and
iron
; industrial and farm machinery; home appliances and furniture; plastics and tires; glass and cement; and recording and print media.
254
Argentina has since long been one of the top five wine-producing countries in the world.
254
Argentina ranks 85th out of 180 countries in the
Transparency International
's 2017
Corruption Perceptions Index
258
an improvement of 22 positions over its 2014 rankings.
259
Argentina settled its long-standing debt default crisis in 2016 with the so-called
vulture funds
after the election of Mauricio Macri, allowing Argentina to enter capital markets for the first time in a decade.
260
The government of Argentina defaulted in May 2020 by failing to pay a $500 million bill by its due date to its creditors. Negotiations for the restructuring of $66 billion of its debt continue.
261
High
inflation
—a weakness of the Argentine economy for decades—has become a trouble once again,
262
recently peaking at 220% in 2024.
263
Approximately 43% of the Argentina's population lived below the poverty line in 2023.
264
To deter it and support the peso, the government imposed foreign currency control.
265
Income distribution
, having improved since 2002, is classified as "medium", although it is still considerably unequal.
11
On 10 December 2023,
Javier Milei
was sworn in as president. He pursued deregulation policies to alleviate the national economic crisis.
266
267
In January 2024, Argentina's poverty rate reached 57.4%, the highest poverty rate in the country since 2004.
268
By the second semester of 2024, however, poverty levels had fallen sharply to 38%, the lowest since 2022.
269
In November 2024, Argentina's monthly inflation rate slowed to 2.4%, the lowest in over four years. Annual inflation was expected to end 2024 closer to 100%.
270
Favourable results and normalisation in Argentina's economy are expected to continue in 2025. The annual inflation rate is expected to be below 30% in 2025. Economic activity has also begun to recover after the severe recession at the beginning of 2024. The economy is expected to expand by more than 4% in 2025.
271
Tourism
Main article:
Tourism in Argentina
Argentina had 5.57 million visitors in 2013, the top international tourist destination in
South America
, and the second in
Latin America
after Mexico.
272
Revenues from international tourists reached
US$4.41
billion in 2013, down from
US$4.89
billion in 2012.
272
Argentina's capital city,
Buenos Aires
, is the most visited city in
South America
273
There are 30
National Parks of Argentina
including many
World Heritage Sites
A panorama of the
Nahuel Huapi National Park
and the
Nahuel Huapi Lake
from Cerro Campanario,
Bariloche
Transport
Main article:
Transport in Argentina
A stretch of
National Route 9
between
Rosario
and
Córdoba
Trenes Argentinos
CNR CKD8G
at
Mar del Plata railway station
In 2004, Buenos Aires, all provincial capitals except Ushuaia, and all medium-sized towns were interconnected by 69,412 km (43,131 mi) of paved roads, out of a road network of 231,374 km (143,769 mi).
274
In 2021, Argentina had about 2,800 km (1,740 mi) of
dual carriageways
, most leaving the capital
Buenos Aires
, linking it with cities such as
Rosario
and
Córdoba
Santa Fe
Mar del Plata
and
Paso de los Libres
(bordering Brazil). There are also
dual carriageways
leaving from
Mendoza
towards the capital, and between Córdoba and Santa Fé, among other locations.
275
Nevertheless, this road infrastructure is still inadequate and cannot handle the sharply growing demand caused by deterioration of the railway system.
276
Argentina has the largest
railway system
in Latin America, with 36,966 km (22,970 mi) of operating lines in 2008
[update]
, out of a network of almost 48,000 km (29,826 mi).
277
This system links all 23 provinces, plus Buenos Aires City, and connects with all neighbouring countries.
276
There are four incompatible
gauges
in use; this forces virtually all interregional freight traffic to pass through Buenos Aires.
276
The system has been in decline since the 1940s: regularly running up large budgetary deficits. By 1991, it was transporting 1,400 times less goods than it did in 1973.
276
However, in recent years the system has experienced a
greater degree of investment
from the state, in both commuter rail lines and long-distance lines, renewing rolling stock and infrastructure.
278
279
In April 2015, by overwhelming majority the
Argentine Senate
passed a law which recreated
Ferrocarriles Argentinos
, effectively renationalising the country's railways, a move which saw support from all major political parties on both sides of the political spectrum.
280
281
282
In 2012, there were about 11,000 km (6,835 mi) of
waterways
283
mostly comprising the La Plata, Paraná, Paraguay and Uruguay rivers, with Buenos Aires,
Zárate
Campana
, Rosario, San Lorenzo, Santa Fe,
Barranqueras
and San Nicolas de los Arroyos as the main
fluvial ports
Some of the largest
sea ports
are
La Plata
Ensenada
, Bahía Blanca,
Mar del Plata
Quequén
Necochea
Comodoro Rivadavia
Puerto Deseado
Puerto Madryn
, Ushuaia and
San Antonio Oeste
Buenos Aires has historically been the most important port. Since the 1990s the Up-River port region has become dominant: stretching along 67 km (42 mi) of the Paraná river shore in Santa Fe province, it includes 17 ports and in 2013 accounted for 50% of all exports.
In 2013, there were 161 airports with paved runways
284
out of more than a thousand.
276
The
Ezeiza International Airport
, about 35 km (22 mi) from downtown Buenos Aires,
285
is the largest in Argentina, followed by
Cataratas del Iguazú
in Misiones, and
El Plumerillo
in Mendoza.
276
Aeroparque
, in the city of Buenos Aires, is the most important domestic airport.
286
Energy
Main article:
Electricity sector in Argentina
Atucha Nuclear Power Plant
was the first nuclear power plant in
Latin America
287
In 2020, more than 60% of Argentina's electricity came from non-renewable sources such as natural gas, oil and coal. 27% came from
hydropower
, 7.3% from wind and solar energy and 4.4% from nuclear energy.
288
At the end of 2021 Argentina was the 21st country in the world in terms of installed hydroelectric power (11.3 GW), the 26th country in the world in terms of installed wind energy (3.2 GW) and the 43rd country in the world in terms of installed solar energy (1.0 GW).
289
The wind potential of the Patagonia region is considered gigantic, with estimates that the area could provide enough electricity to sustain the consumption of a country like Brazil alone. However, Argentina has faced infrastructural challenges in transferring electricity from wind-rich rural areas to its population hubs.
290
In 1974, Argentina was the first country in Latin America to put a commercial nuclear power plant online,
Atucha I
. Although the Argentine-built parts for that station amounted to 10% of the total, the nuclear fuel it uses are from Argentina. Later nuclear power stations employed a higher percentage of Argentine-built components.
Embalse
, finished in 1983, used 30% and the 2011
Atucha II
reactor used 40%.
291
Science and technology
Main article:
Science and technology in Argentina
Luis Federico Leloir
(left) and his staff toast his 1970
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
Argentines have received three
Nobel Prizes
in the Sciences.
Bernardo Houssay
, the first Latin American recipient, discovered the role of
pituitary hormones
in regulating
glucose
in animals, and shared the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
in 1947.
Luis Leloir
discovered how organisms store energy converting glucose into
glycogen
and the compounds which are fundamental in
metabolising
carbohydrates
, receiving the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry
in 1970.
César Milstein
did extensive research in
antibodies
, sharing the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1984. Argentine research has led to treatments for
heart diseases
and several forms of cancer.
Domingo Liotta
designed and developed the first
artificial heart
that was successfully implanted in a human being in 1969.
René Favaloro
developed the techniques and performed the world's first
coronary bypass surgery
Argentina was the first country in Latin America to design and build a
research reactor
with homegrown technology, the
RA-1 Enrico Fermi
. This reliance on the development of its own nuclear-related technologies, instead of buying them abroad, was a constant of Argentina's nuclear programme conducted by the civilian
National Atomic Energy Commission
(CNEA). Nuclear facilities with Argentine technology have been built in Peru, Algeria, Australia and Egypt. In 1983, Argentina admitted having the capability of producing weapon-grade
uranium
, a major step needed to assemble
nuclear weapons
. Since then, Argentina has pledged to use nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
292
As a member of the Board of Governors of the
International Atomic Energy Agency
, Argentina supports nuclear non-proliferation efforts
293
and is committed to global nuclear security.
294
The
SAOCOM 1A
inside the facilities of
CEATSA
Despite its modest budget and numerous setbacks, academics and the sciences in Argentina have enjoyed international respect since the 1900s, when
Luis Agote
devised the first safe and effective means of
blood transfusion
as well as
René Favaloro
, who was a pioneer in the improvement of the
coronary artery bypass surgery
. Argentine scientists are still on the cutting edge in fields such as
nanotechnology
physics
computer sciences
, molecular biology, oncology, ecology and cardiology.
Juan Maldacena
, an Argentine-American scientist, is a leading figure in
string theory
Space research has become increasingly active in Argentina. Argentine-built satellites include
LUSAT-1
es
(1990),
Víctor-1
es
(1996),
PEHUENSAT-1
(2007),
295
and those developed by
CONAE
, the Argentine space agency, of the SAC series.
296
Argentina has its own satellite programme, nuclear power station designs (4th generation) and public nuclear energy company
INVAP
, which provides several countries with nuclear reactors.
297
Established in 1991, the
CONAE
has since launched two satellites successfully.
298
In June 2009, CONAE secured an agreement with the
European Space Agency
for the installation of a 35-m diametre antenna and other mission support facilities at the
Pierre Auger Observatory
, the world's foremost
cosmic ray
observatory.
299
The facility will contribute to numerous ESA space probes, as well as CONAE's own, domestic research projects. Chosen from 20 potential sites and one of only three such ESA installations in the world, the new antenna will create a triangulation which will allow the ESA to ensure mission coverage around the clock.
300
Argentina was ranked 76th in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2024,
301
and was ranked 77th in 2025.
302
Argentine Society for the Study of Mammals
The Sociedad Argentina para el Estudio de los Mamíferos, SAREM (Argentine Society for the Study of Mammals) in
Mendoza
, in collaboration with the Center for Science and Technology, Mendoza (CCT), the
National Council of Science and Technology
(CONICET), and the
International Federation of Mammalogists
(IFM), hosted the 2009 International Mammalogical Congresses in Mendoza. The Latin American Mammalogy Network (Red Latinoamericana de Mastozoología, or RELAM) was created during the 2009 IMC Congress, cofounded by SAREM and the Asociación Boliviana de Investigadores en Mamíferos (Bolivian Association of Mammal Researchers, ABIMA).
303
The electronic scientific journal
Therya
, conceived during IMC 10, began publication by the Mexican Association of Mammalogy (AMMAC), in 2010. Doctor William Z. Lidicker Jr., who presided over IMC 10, was the editor.
304
Demographics
Main articles:
Demographics of Argentina
and
Argentines
A map of Argentina's population density, 2022
The 2022
census
INDEC
counted 46,044,703 inhabitants, up from 40,117,096 in 2010.
305
306
The population in 2024 is estimated to have increased to 47,067,441 inhabitants.
307
Argentina ranks third in South America in total population, fourth in Latin America and 33rd globally. Its population density of 15 persons per square kilometre of land area is well below the world average of 50 persons. The population growth rate in 2010 was an estimated 1.03% annually, with a birth rate of 17.7 live births per 1,000 inhabitants and a mortality rate of 7.4 deaths per 1,000 inhabitants. Since 2010, the crude
net migration rate
has ranged from below zero to up to four immigrants per 1,000 inhabitants per year.
308
Argentina is in the midst of a
demographic transition
to an older and slower-growing population. The proportion of people under 15 is 25.6%, a little below the world average of 28%, and the proportion of people 65 and older is relatively high at 10.8%. In Latin America, this is second only to
Uruguay
and well above the world average, which is currently 7%. Argentina has a comparatively low
infant mortality rate
. Argentina's 2010 birth rate of 2.3 children per woman was considerably below the high of 7.0 children born per woman in 1895,
309
though still nearly twice as high as in Spain or Italy, which are culturally and demographically similar.
310
311
In 2015, the median age was 31.9 years and
life expectancy
at birth was 77.14 years.
312
Attitudes towards
LGBT people are generally positive
within Argentina.
313
In 2010, Argentina became the first country in Latin America, the second in the Americas, and the tenth worldwide to legalise
same-sex marriage
314
315
Urbanisation
See also:
List of cities in Argentina by population
and
List of cities in Argentina
Argentina is highly urbanised, with 92% of its population living in cities:
316
the ten largest metropolitan areas account for half of the population.
About 3 million people live in the city of Buenos Aires. The Greater Buenos Aires metropolitan area has around 13 million, making it one of the largest urban areas in the world.
317
The metropolitan areas of Córdoba and Rosario have around 1.3 million inhabitants each.
317
Mendoza, San Miguel de Tucumán, La Plata, Mar del Plata, Salta and Santa Fe have at least half a million people each.
317
The population is unequally distributed: about 60% live in the Pampas region (21% of the total area), including 15 million people in Buenos Aires province. The provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fe, and the city of Buenos Aires have 3 million each. Seven other provinces have over one million people each: Mendoza, Tucumán, Entre Ríos, Salta, Chaco, Corrientes and Misiones. With 64.3 inhabitants per square kilometre (167/sq mi), Tucumán is the only Argentine province more densely populated than the world average. By contrast, the southern province of Santa Cruz has around 1.1/km
(2.8/sq mi).
318
Largest cities or towns in Argentina
(2025
INDEC
metro area estimate)
319
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Buenos Aires
(Autonomous city)
3,006,000
11
Resistencia
Chaco
427,000
Córdoba
Córdoba
1,609,000
12
Santiago del Estero
Santiago del Estero
419,000
Rosario
Santa Fe
1,360,000
13
Corrientes
Corrientes
394,000
Mendoza
Mendoza
1,063,000
14
Posadas
Misiones
393,000
La Plata
Buenos Aires
942,000
15
San Salvador de Jujuy
Jujuy
362,000
San Miguel de Tucumán
Tucumán
929,000
16
Neuquén
Neuquén
326,000
Salta
Salta
672,000
17
Bahía Blanca
Buenos Aires
323,000
Mar del Plata
Buenos Aires
669,000
18
Paraná
Entre Ríos
288,000
San Juan
San Juan
559,000
19
Formosa
Formosa
265,000
10
Santa Fe
Santa Fe
554,000
20
Comodoro Rivadavia
Chubut
258,000
Ethnography
Main article:
Argentines
See also:
Ethnography of Argentina
and
Immigration to Argentina
Proportion of European and indigenous ancestry in Argentina
Argentina is considered a country of immigrants.
320
321
322
Argentines usually refer to the country as a
crisol de razas
(crucible of races, or
melting pot
). A 2010 study conducted on 218 individuals by the Argentine geneticist
Daniel Corach
established that the average genetic ancestry of Argentines is 79% European (mainly Italian and Spanish), 18% indigenous and 4.3% African. 63.6% of the tested group had at least one ancestor
who was Indigenous
323
324
The majority of Argentines descend from multiple European ethnic groups, primarily of
Italian
and
Spanish
descent, with over 25 million Argentines, almost 60% of the population, having some partial Italian origins.
325
Argentina is home to a notable
Asian
population, the majority of whom are descended from either West Asians, namely
Lebanese
and
Syrians
326
or East Asians, such as the
Chinese
327
Koreans
, and the
Japanese
328
The latter of whom number around 180,000 individuals. The total number of
Arab Argentines
(most of whom are of Lebanese or Syrian origin) is estimated to be 1.3 to 3.5 million. Many immigrated from Asian countries to Argentina during the latter half of 19th century, and the first half of the 20th century.
329
330
Most Arab Argentines belong to the Catholic Church, including both the Latin Church and the
Eastern Catholic Churches
, or the
Eastern Orthodox Church
. A minority are
Muslims
. In 2018, there were 180,000
Alawites
in Argentina.
331
332
Since the 1970s, immigration has mostly been coming from
Bolivia
Paraguay
and
Peru
, with smaller numbers from the
Dominican Republic
, Ecuador and
Romania
333
In 2008, the Argentine government estimated that 750,000 inhabitants lack official documents and has launched a programme
334
to encourage illegal immigrants to declare their status in return for two-year residence visas—so far over 670,000 applications have been processed under the programme.
335
As of July 2023, more than 18,500 Russians have come to Argentina after the
Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022
336
Languages
Main article:
Languages of Argentina
Dialectal variants of the
Spanish language
in Argentina
The
de facto
official language is
Spanish
, spoken by almost all Argentines.
337
Argentina is the largest
Spanish-speaking society
that universally employs
voseo
, the use of the
pronoun
vos
instead of
tú
("you"), which imposes the use of alternative verb forms as well.
Owing to the extensive Argentine geography, Spanish has a strong variation among regions, although the prevalent dialect is
Rioplatense
, primarily spoken in the Pampean and Patagonian regions and accented similarly to the
Neapolitan language
338
Italian and other European immigrants influenced
Lunfardo
—the regional slang—permeating the vernacular vocabulary of other Latin American countries as well.
There are several second languages in widespread use among the Argentine population:
(by 2.8 million people);
339
Italian
(by 1.5 million people);
337
Arabic
(specifically its
Northern Levantine dialect
, by one million people);
337
Standard German
(by 200,000 people);
337
Guaraní
(by 200,000 people,
337
mostly in Corrientes and Misiones);
Catalan
(by 174,000 people);
337
Quechua
(by 65,000 people, mostly in the Northwest);
337
Wichí
(by 53,700 people, mainly in Chaco
337
where, along with
Kom
and
Moqoit
, it is official
de jure
);
340
Vlax Romani
(by 52,000 people);
337
Albanian
(by
40,000 people
);
341
Japanese
(by 32,000 people);
337
Aymara
(by 30,000 people, mostly in the Northwest);
337
and
Ukrainian
(by 27,000 people).
337
Religion
Main article:
Religion in Argentina
Francis
, the first pope from the Americas, was born and raised in Argentina.
Christianity
is the largest religion in Argentina. The Constitution guarantees
freedom of religion
342
Although it enforces neither an official nor a state faith,
343
it gives
Roman Catholicism
a preferential status.
344
In 2008, Argentines were 76.5%
Catholic
, 11.3%
Agnostics
and
Atheists
, 9%
Evangelical Protestants
, 1.2%
Jehovah's Witnesses
, and 0.9%
Mormons
, while 1.2% followed other religions, including
Islam
Judaism
and
Buddhism
346
These figures appear to have changed quite significantly in recent years: in 2017, Catholics were 66% of the population, indicating a drop of 10.5% in nine years, and the nonreligious in the country standing at 21% of the population, indicating an almost doubling over the same period.
347
In 2024, Catholics were 63% of the population. 20% of Argentines are irreligious, 9% are Protestants, and 8% follow another religion or didn't answer.
348
Argentina is home to both one of the
largest Muslim
345
and
largest Jewish
communities in Latin America, the latter being the seventh most populous in the world.
349
Argentina is a member of the
International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance
345
Argentines show high individualisation and deinstitutionalisation of religious beliefs.
350
23.8% claim to always attend religious services; 49.1% seldom do and 26.8% never do.
351
On 13 March 2013, Argentine
Jorge Mario Bergoglio
, the
Cardinal
Archbishop of Buenos Aires
, was
elected
Bishop of Rome
and
Supreme Pontiff
of the
Catholic Church
. He took the name "
Francis
", and he became the first Pope from either the
Americas
or from the
Southern Hemisphere
. He is the first Pope born outside of Europe since the
election
of
Pope Gregory III
, who was
Syrian
, in 741.
352
Education
Main article:
Education in Argentina
Faculty of Law
of the
University of Buenos Aires
The Argentine education system consists of four levels.
353
An initial level for children between 45 days to 5 years old, with the last two years
354
being compulsory. An elementary or
lower school
mandatory level lasting 6 or 7 years.
In 2010, the
literacy rate
was 98.07%.
355
A secondary or
high school
mandatory level lasts 5 or 6 years.
In 2010, 38.5% of people over age 20 had completed secondary school.
356
Higher education is divided into tertiary, university and post-graduate sub-levels. In 2013, there were 47
national public universities
across the country, and 46 private ones.
357
In 2010, 7.1% of people over age 20 had graduated from university.
356
The public universities of
Buenos Aires
Córdoba
La Plata
Rosario
, and the
National Technological University
are some of the most important. The Argentine state guarantees universal, secular and free-of-charge public education for all levels.
Responsibility for educational supervision is organised at the federal and individual provincial states. In the last decades the role of the private sector has grown across all educational stages.
Health
Main article:
Health care in Argentina
Clemente Álvarez Emergency Hospital
in
Rosario
Healthcare is provided through a combination of employer and labour union-sponsored plans (
Obras Sociales
), government insurance plans, public hospitals and clinics and through private health insurance plans. Healthcare cooperatives number over 300 (of which 200 are related to
labour unions
) and provide healthcare for half the population; the national INSSJP (popularly known as PAMI) covers nearly all of the five million senior citizens.
358
There are more than 153,000 hospital beds, 121,000 physicians and 37,000 dentists, ratios comparable to
developed nations
359
360
The relatively high access to medical care has historically resulted in mortality patterns and trends similar to developed nations': from 1953 to 2005, deaths from
cardiovascular disease
increased from 20% to 23% of the total, those from
tumors
from 14% to 20%,
respiratory
problems from 7% to 14%,
digestive
maladies (non-infectious) from 7% to 11%, strokes a steady 7%, injuries, 6%, and
infectious
diseases, 4%. Causes related to
senility
led to many of the rest. Infant deaths have fallen from 19% of all deaths in 1953 to 3% in 2005.
359
361
The availability of healthcare has also reduced
infant mortality
from 70 per 1000 live births in 1948
362
to 12.1 in 2009
359
and raised
life expectancy
at birth from 60 years to 76.
362
Though these figures compare favourably with global averages, they fall short of levels in developed nations and in 2006, Argentina ranked fourth in Latin America.
360
Culture
Main article:
Culture of Argentina
See also:
List of Argentines
The
Sun of May
on the
first Argentine coin
, 1813
Argentina is a
multicultural country
with significant European influences. Modern Argentine culture has been largely influenced by
Italian
Spanish
and other European immigration from
France
Russia
United Kingdom
, among others. Its cities are largely characterised by both the prevalence of people of European descent, and of conscious imitation of American and European styles in fashion, architecture and design.
363
Museums, cinemas, and galleries are abundant in all the large urban centres, as well as traditional establishments such as literary bars, or bars offering
live music
of a variety of genres although there are lesser elements of
Amerindian
and
African
influences, particularly in the fields of music and art.
364
The other big influence is the
gauchos
and their traditional country lifestyle of self-reliance.
365
Indigenous American traditions have been absorbed into the general cultural milieu.
Argentine writer
Ernesto Sabato
has reflected on the nature of the culture of Argentina as follows:
With the primitive Hispanic American reality fractured in La Plata Basin due to immigration, its inhabitants have come to be somewhat dual with all the dangers but also with all the advantages of that condition: because of our European roots, we deeply link the nation with the enduring values of the Old World; because of our condition of Americans we link ourselves to the rest of the continent, through the folklore of the interior and the old Castilian that unifies us, feeling somehow the vocation of the
Patria Grande
San Martín and Bolívar once imagined.
Ernesto Sabato
La cultura en la encrucijada nacional
(1976)
366
Literature
Main article:
Argentine literature
Four Argentine writers. Top left to bottom right:
Julio Cortázar
Victoria Ocampo
Jorge Luis Borges
, and
Adolfo Bioy Casares
Although Argentina's rich literary history began around 1550,
367
it reached full independence with
Esteban Echeverría
's
El Matadero
, a
romantic
landmark that played a significant role in the development of 19th century's Argentine narrative,
368
split by the ideological divide between the popular, federalist epic of
José Hernández
Martín Fierro
and the elitist and cultured discourse of
Sarmiento
's masterpiece,
Facundo
369
The
Modernist
movement advanced into the 20th century including exponents such as
Leopoldo Lugones
and poet
Alfonsina Storni
370
it was followed by
Vanguardism
, with
Ricardo Güiraldes
's
Don Segundo Sombra
as an important reference.
371
Jorge Luis Borges
, Argentina's most acclaimed writer and one of the foremost figures in the
history of literature
372
found new ways of looking at the modern world in
metaphor
and philosophical debate and his influence has extended to authors all over the globe. Short stories such as
Ficciones
and
The Aleph
are among his most famous works. He was a friend and collaborator of
Adolfo Bioy Casares
, who wrote one of the most praised
science fiction
novels
The Invention of Morel
373
Julio Cortázar
, one of the leading members of the
Latin American Boom
and a major name in 20th century literature,
374
influenced an entire generation of writers in the Americas and Europe.
375
A remarkable episode in Argentine literary history is the social and literarial dialectica between the so-called
Florida group
, named this way because its members used to meet together at
Confitería Richmond
at Florida street and published in the
Martín Fierro
magazine, such as
Jorge Luis Borges
Leopoldo Marechal
Antonio Berni
(artist), among others; versus the
Boedo group
es
of
Roberto Arlt
César Tiempo
Homero Manzi
(tango composer), that used to meet at the
Café El Japonés
es
and published their works with the
Editorial Claridad
es
, with both the cafe and the publisher located at Boedo Avenue.
Other highly regarded Argentine writers, poets and
essayists
include
Estanislao del Campo
Eugenio Cambaceres
Pedro Bonifacio Palacios
Hugo Wast
Benito Lynch
Enrique Banchs
Oliverio Girondo
Ezequiel Martínez Estrada
Victoria Ocampo
Leopoldo Marechal
Silvina Ocampo
Roberto Arlt
Eduardo Mallea
Manuel Mujica Láinez
Ernesto Sábato
Silvina Bullrich
Rodolfo Walsh
María Elena Walsh
Tomás Eloy Martínez
Manuel Puig
Alejandra Pizarnik
, and
Osvaldo Soriano
376
Music
Main article:
Music of Argentina
Photograph of
Mercedes Sosa
by
Annemarie Heinrich
Tango
, a
Rioplatense
musical genre with European and African influences,
377
is one of Argentina's international cultural symbols.
378
The golden age of tango, from 1930 to the mid-1950s, mirrored that of
jazz
and
swing
in the United States, featuring large orchestras such as those of
Osvaldo Pugliese
Aníbal Troilo
Francisco Canaro
Julio de Caro
and
Juan d'Arienzo
379
After 1955, virtuoso
Astor Piazzolla
popularised
Nuevo tango
, a subtler and more intellectual trend for the genre.
379
Tango enjoys worldwide popularity nowadays with groups such as
Gotan Project
Bajofondo
and
Tanghetto
Argentina developed strong classical music and dance scenes that gave rise to renowned artists such as
Alberto Ginastera
, composer;
Alberto Lysy
, violinist;
Martha Argerich
and
Eduardo Delgado
, pianists;
Daniel Barenboim
, pianist and
symphonic orchestra
director;
José Cura
and
Marcelo Álvarez
, tenors; and to
ballet dancers
Jorge Donn
José Neglia
Norma Fontenla
Maximiliano Guerra
Paloma Herrera
Marianela Núñez
Iñaki Urlezaga
and
Julio Bocca
379
A national Argentine folk style emerged in the 1930s from dozens of regional musical genres and went on to influence the entirety of
Latin American music
. Some of its interpreters, such as
Atahualpa Yupanqui
and
Mercedes Sosa
, achieved worldwide acclaim. The
romantic ballad
genre included singers of international fame such as
Sandro de América
Tenor saxophonist
Leandro "Gato" Barbieri
and composer and
big band
conductor
Lalo Schifrin
are among the most internationally successful Argentine jazz musicians.
Argentine rock
developed as a distinct musical style in the mid-1960s, when Buenos Aires and Rosario became cradles of aspiring musicians.
Founding bands such as
Los Gatos
Sui Generis
Almendra
and
Manal
were followed by
Seru Giran
Los Abuelos de la Nada
Soda Stereo
and
Patricio Rey y sus Redonditos de Ricota
, with prominent artists including
Gustavo Cerati
Litto Nebbia
Andrés Calamaro
Luis Alberto Spinetta
Charly García
Fito Páez
and
León Gieco
379
A dance and a musical genre popular at present is
Cachengue
, a subgenre of
Argentine cumbia
and
reggaeton
spreading in popularity in nearby countries such as
Uruguay
Chile
Paraguay
, and
Bolivia
380
Theatre and cinema
Main articles:
Theatre in Argentina
and
Cinema of Argentina
Andy Muschietti
, director of
It
, the
highest-grossing horror film of all time
381
382
Buenos Aires is one of the great theatre capitals of the world,
383
with a scene of international caliber centred on
Corrientes Avenue
, "the street that never sleeps", sometimes referred to as the
Broadway
of Buenos Aires.
384
Teatro Colón
is a global landmark for
opera
and classical performances; its acoustics are considered among the world's top five.
385
The Argentine film industry has historically been one of the three most developed in
Latin American cinema
, along with those produced in
Mexico
and
Brazil
386
387
It started in 1896. By the early 1930s, it was Latin America's leading film producer, a place it kept until the early 1950s.
388
The world's first
animated feature films
were made and released in Argentina, by cartoonist
Quirino Cristiani
, in 1917 and 1918.
389
Argentine films have achieved worldwide recognition: Argentina has won two
Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film
, for
The Official Story
(1985) and
The Secret in Their Eyes
(2009). Argentine composers
Luis Enrique Bacalov
and
Gustavo Santaolalla
have been honoured with
Academy Awards for Best Original Score
, and
Armando Bó
and
Nicolás Giacobone
shared in the
Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay
for 2014.
The
Argentine French
actress
Bérénice Bejo
received a nomination for the
Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress
in 2011 and won the
César Award for Best Actress
and won the
Best Actress
award in the
Cannes Film Festival
for her role in the film
The Past
390
Argentina has won seventeen
Goya Awards for Best Spanish Language Foreign Film
, being by far the most awarded country in
Latin America
with twenty-four nominations. Many other Argentine films have been acclaimed by international critique. In 2013, about 100 full-length motion pictures were being created annually.
391
Visual arts and architecture
See also:
Argentine painting
and
Architecture of Argentina
Las Nereidas Font
by
Lola Mora
Some of the best-known Argentine painters are
Cándido López
and
Florencio Molina Campos
Naïve style
);
Ernesto de la Cárcova
and
Eduardo Sívori
Realism
);
Fernando Fader
Impressionism
);
Pío Collivadino
Atilio Malinverno
and
Cesáreo Bernaldo de Quirós
Postimpressionism
);
Emilio Pettoruti
Cubism
);
Julio Barragán
Concretism
and Cubism)
Antonio Berni
Neofigurativism
);
Roberto Aizenberg
and
Xul Solar
Surrealism
);
Gyula Košice
Constructivism
);
Eduardo Mac Entyre
Generative art
);
Luis Seoane
Carlos Torrallardona
Luis Aquino
Alfredo Gramajo Gutiérrez
Modernism
);
Lucio Fontana
Spatialism
);
Tomás Maldonado
Guillermo Kuitca
Abstract art
);
León Ferrari
Marta Minujín
Conceptual art
);
Gustavo Cabral
Fantasy art
), and
Fabián Pérez (Neoemotionalism)
In 1946, Gyula Košice and others created The
Madí Movement
in Argentina, which then spread to Europe and the United States, where it had a significant impact.
392
Tomás Maldonado was one of the main theorists of the
Ulm Model
of design education, still highly influential globally. Other Argentine artists of worldwide fame include
Adolfo Bellocq
, whose
lithographs
have been influential since the 1920s, and
Benito Quinquela Martín
, the quintessential port painter, inspired by the immigrant-bound
La Boca
neighbourhood. Internationally laureate sculptors
Erminio Blotta
Lola Mora
and
Rogelio Yrurtia
authored many of the classical evocative monuments of the Argentine cityscape.
393
394
The colonisation brought the
Spanish Baroque architecture
, which can still be appreciated in its simpler
Rioplatense
style in the
reduction
of
San Ignacio Miní
, the
Cathedral of Córdoba
, and the Cabildo of Luján. Italian and French influences increased at the beginning of the 19th century with strong
eclectic
overtones that gave the local architecture a unique feeling.
395
Mass media
Main article:
Communications in Argentina
Headquarters of the
Channel 7
, the first television station in the country
The print media industry is highly developed in Argentina, with more than two hundred newspapers. The major national ones include
Clarín
(centrist, Latin America's best-seller and the second most widely circulated in the Spanish-speaking world),
La Nación
(centre-right),
Página/12
(leftist),
La Voz del Interior
(centre).
396
397
Argentina began
the world's first regular radio broadcasting
on 27 August 1920, when
Richard Wagner
's
Parsifal
was aired by a team of medical students led by
Enrique Telémaco Susini
in Buenos Aires'
Teatro Coliseo
398
In 2002, there were 260
AM
and 1150
FM
registered radio stations in Argentina.
399
The
Argentine television
industry is large, diverse and popular across Latin America, with many productions and
TV formats
having been exported abroad. Since 1999 Argentines have enjoyed the highest availability of cable and satellite television in Latin America.
400
In 2014, 87.4% of Argentina's households had access, a rate similar to those in the United States, Canada and Europe.
401
As of early 2024, internet penetration in Argentina stood at 88.4% of the total population, and the ratio of cellular mobile connections to the total population was 135.3% (62.14 million active connections).
402
Cuisine
Main article:
Argentine cuisine
Argentine beef
as
asado
Besides many of the pasta, sausage and dessert dishes common to continental Europe, Argentines enjoy a wide variety of Indigenous and
Criollo
creations, including
empanadas
(a small stuffed pastry),
locro
(a mixture of corn, beans, meat, bacon, onion, and gourd),
humita
and
mate
403
The country has the highest consumption of
red meat
in the world,
404
traditionally prepared as
asado
, the Argentine barbecue. It is made with various types of meats, often including
chorizo
sweetbread
chitterlings
, and
blood sausage
405
Common desserts include
facturas
Viennese-style
pastry),
cakes
and
pancakes
filled with
dulce de leche
(a sort of milk
caramel
jam),
alfajores
(shortbread cookies sandwiched together with chocolate,
dulce de leche
or a fruit paste), and
tortas fritas
(fried cakes)
406
Argentine wine
, one of the world's finest,
407
is an integral part of the local menu.
Malbec
Torrontés
Cabernet Sauvignon
Syrah
and
Chardonnay
are some of the most sought-after
varieties
408
Sport
Main article:
Sport in Argentina
Footballer
Lionel Messi
, eight-time
Ballon d'Or
winner, is the current captain of the
Argentina national football team
Pato
is the
national sport
409
an ancient horseback game locally originated in the early 1600s and predecessor of
horseball
410
411
The most popular sport is
football
. Along with
Brazil
Germany
and
France
, the
men's national team
is the only one to have won each of the
World Cup
(in
1978
1986
and
2022
),
Confederations Cup
, and the
Olympic gold
. They have also won 16
Copas América
, 7
Pan American Gold Medals
and many other trophies.
412
Alfredo Di Stéfano
Diego Maradona
and
Lionel Messi
are widely considered to be among the best players in the game's history.
413
The country's
women's field hockey team
Las Leonas
, is one of the world's most successful with four
Olympic medals
, two
World Cups
, a
World League
and seven
Champions Trophy
414
Luciana Aymar
is recognised as the best female player in the history of the sport,
415
being the only player to have received the
FIH Player of the Year Award
eight times.
416
Basketball
is a very popular sport. The
men's national team
is the only one in the
FIBA Americas
zone that has won the quintuplet crown:
World Championship
Olympic Gold Medal
Diamond Ball
Americas Championship
, and
Pan American Gold Medal
. It has also conquered 13
South American Championships
, and many other tournaments.
417
Emanuel Ginóbili
Luis Scola
Andrés Nocioni
Fabricio Oberto
Pablo Prigioni
Carlos Delfino
and
Juan Ignacio Sánchez
are a few of the country's most acclaimed players, all of them part of the
NBA
414
Argentina hosted the
Basketball World Cup
in 1950 and 1990.
Rugby
is another popular sport in Argentina. As of 2017
[update]
, the
men's national team
, known as 'Los Pumas' has competed at the
Rugby World Cup
each time it has been held, achieving their highest-ever result in
2007
when they came third. Since
2012
, the Los Pumas have competed against
Australia
New Zealand
South Africa
in
The Rugby Championship
, the premier international Rugby competition in the Southern Hemisphere. Since 2009 the
secondary men's national team
known as the 'Jaguares' has competed against the
US
Canada
, and
Uruguay
first teams in the
Americas Rugby Championship
, which Los Jaguares have won six out of eight times it has taken place.
Argentine Polo Open Championship
Argentina has produced some of the most formidable champions for
boxing
, including
Carlos Monzón
, the best
middleweight
in history;
418
Pascual Pérez
, one of the most decorated
flyweight
boxers of all times;
Horacio Accavallo
, the former
WBA
and
WBC
world flyweight champion;
Víctor Galíndez
, as of 2009
[update]
, record holder for consecutive world
light heavyweight
title defences and
Nicolino Locche
, nicknamed "The Untouchable" for his masterful defence; they are all inductees into the
International Boxing Hall of Fame
419
Tennis
has been quite popular among people of all ages.
Guillermo Vilas
is the greatest Latin American player of the
Open Era
420
while
Gabriela Sabatini
is the most accomplished Argentine female player of all time—having reached number 3 in the
WTA ranking
421
are both inductees into the
International Tennis Hall of Fame
422
Argentina has won the
World Team Cup
four times, in 1980, 2002,
2007
and
2010
and has reached the semifinals of the
Davis Cup
7 times in the last 10 years, losing the finals against Russia in
2006
and Spain in
2008
and
2011
; the Argentine team also played the final in
1981
, where they lost against the United States. The national squad won the
2016 Davis Cup
Argentina reigns undisputed in
polo
, having won more international championships than any other country and been seldom beaten since the 1930s.
423
The
Argentine Polo Championship
is the sport's most important international team trophy. The country is home to most of the world's top players, among them
Adolfo Cambiaso
, the best in Polo history.
424
Historically, Argentina has had a strong showing within
auto racing
Juan Manuel Fangio
was a five-time
Formula One
world champion under four different teams, winning 102 of his 184 international races, and is widely ranked as the greatest driver of all time.
425
Other distinguished racers were
Oscar Alfredo Gálvez
Juan Gálvez
José Froilán González
and
Carlos Reutemann
426
See also
Argentina portal
Latin America portal
Outline of Argentina
Notes
The total area claimed is 3,669,710.7 km
of which the American continental part is 2,780,084.6 km
(including
Tierra del Fuego Province
). Area does not include territorial claims in
Antarctica
(873,718.4 km
, including the
South Orkney Islands
and the
South Shetland Islands
) and the South Atlantic Islands (15,907.7 km
, including the
Falkland Islands
, the
South Georgia Island
and the
South Sandwich Islands
).
Spanish pronunciation:
[aɾxenˈtina]
Article 35 of the
Argentine Constitution
gives equal recognition to the names "
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata
", "Argentine Republic" and "
Argentine Confederation
" and using "Argentine Nation" in the making and enactment of laws.
13
Spanish:
República Argentina
Spanish pronunciation:
[reˈpuβlika
aɾxenˈtina]
The poem's full name is
La Argentina y conquista del Río de la Plata, con otros acaecimientos de los reinos del Perú, Tucumán y estado del Brasil
Also stated in article 35 of all subsequent amendments: 1866, 1898, 1949, 1957, 1972 and 1994 (current)
San Martín's military campaigns, together with those of
Simón Bolívar
in
Gran Colombia
, are collectively known as the
Spanish American wars of independence
62
Citations discussing this include:
93
113
114
115
The Full Stop and Due Obedience laws had been abrogated by Congress in 1998.
143
Includes higher plants only:
ferns
and fern allies,
conifers
and
cycads
, and
flowering plants
174
Includes only birds that breed in Argentina, not those that migrate or winter there.
174
Excludes marine mammals.
174
Since 2012 suffrage is optional for ages 16 and 17.
200
Although not a province, the
City of Buenos Aires
is a federally
autonomous city
, and as such its local organisation has similarities with provinces: it has its own constitution, an elected mayor and representatives to the Senate and Deputy chambers.
213
As
federal capital
of the nation it holds the status of
federal district
The other top developing nations being Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, South Africa and Turkey.
242
Though not declared official
de jure
, the Spanish language is the only one used in the wording of laws, decrees, resolutions, official documents and public acts.
Many elder people also speak a
macaronic language
of Italian and Spanish called
cocoliche
, which was originated by the Italian immigrants in the late 19th century.
It gave origin to a mixture of Spanish and German called
Belgranodeutsch
In practice this privileged status amounts to tax-exempt school subsidies and licensing preferences for radio broadcasting frequencies.
345
Level duration depends on jurisdiction.
The post-graduate sub-level of higher education is usually paid.
The other top venues being Berlin's
Konzerthaus
, Vienna's
Musikverein
, Amsterdam's
Concertgebouw
and Boston's
Symphony Hall
385
References
Crow 1992
, p. 457: "In the meantime, while the crowd assembled in the plaza continued to shout its demands at the cabildo, the sun suddenly broke through the overhanging clouds and clothed the scene in brilliant light. The people looked upward with one accord and took it as a favorable omen for their cause. This was the origin of the "sun of May" which has appeared in the center of the Argentine flag and on the Argentine coat of arms ever since.";
Kopka 2011
, p. 5: "The sun's features are those of
Inti
, the
Incan
sun god. The sun commemorates the appearance of the sun through cloudy skies on 25 May 1810, during the first mass demonstration in favor of independence."
Ley No. 5598
de la Provincia de Corrientes, 22 October 2004
(in Spanish)
La educación intercultural bilingüe en Santiago del Estero, ¿mito o realidad?
La cámara de diputados de la provincia sanciona con fuerza de ley.
] (in Spanish). Cámara de Diputados de la Nación. p. 1. Archived from
the original
on 7 August 2020
. Retrieved
30 May
2020
Declárase de interés oficial la preservación, difusión, estímulo, estudio y práctica de la lengua Quíchua en todo el territorio de la provincia [..]
Enseñanza y desarrollo continuo del idioma galés en la provincia del Chubut. Expresión de beneplácito. Menna, Quetglas y Austin
Teaching and continuous development of the Welsh language in the province of Chubut. Expression of approval. Menna, Quetglas and Austin.
(PDF)
(in Spanish). Cámara de Diputados de la Nación. p. 1. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 11 May 2020
. Retrieved
17 December
2019
Declarar de interés de la Honorable Cámara de Diputados de la Nación la enseñanza y desarrollo continuo del idioma galés en la provincia del Chubut...
"Argentina Religions – Demographics"
Archived
from the original on 12 March 2024
. Retrieved
12 March
2024
"3.1. Datos Nacionales (2020): Total (3,669,710.7 km
); Argentina Continental (2,780,084.6 km
); Islas del Atlántico Sur (15,907.7 km
); Antártida Argentina (873,718.4 km
) [pg.23]"
(PDF)
www.ign.gob.ar
(in Spanish).
es:Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Argentina)
– IGN. 2022.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 December 2023
. Retrieved
9 February
2025
"Superficie total del país: Total (3,669,710.9 km
); Parte continental americana (2,780,084.8 km
); Islas del Atlántico Sur (15,907.7 km
); Sector antártico argentino (873,718.4 km
)"
(XLS)
www.indec.gob.ar
(in Spanish). Census 2022.
INDEC
. 2024
. Retrieved
9 February
2025
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: others (
link
"Sistema Estadístico de Población: Estructura de la población identificada con residencia en Argentina"
RENAPER - Dirección Nacional de Población
. Retrieved
26 May
2025
"El INDEC difundió los resultados provisionales Censo 2022: 4 datos claves sobre la población argentina"
Página/12
Archived
from the original on 31 January 2023
. Retrieved
31 January
2023
La población argentina tiene actualmente 46.044.703 habitantes, es decir, 5.927.607 de personas más que las relevadas en el último censo, en 2010. En mayo de 2022, pocos días después del relevamiento, el INDEC había difundido los primeros resultados preliminares, que indicaban que la población argentina tenía 47.327.407 habitantes. Sin embargo el dato fue corregido esta tarde.
"World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition)"
www.imf.org
International Monetary Fund
. 14 April 2026
. Retrieved
19 April
2026
"GINI index (World Bank estimate) – Argentina"
World Bank
Archived
from the original on 22 November 2022
. Retrieved
19 December
2022
"Human Development Report 2025"
(PDF)
United Nations Development Programme
. 6 May 2025.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 May 2025
. Retrieved
6 May
2025
Constitution of Argentina
, art. 35.
Abad de Santillán 1971
, p. 17.
Borrero, Luis (September 1999).
"The Prehistoric Exploration and Colonization of Fuego-Patagonia"
Journal of World Prehistory
13
(3):
321–
355 – via JSTOR.
Crow 1992
, p. 128.
Levene 1948
, p. 11: "[After the Viceroyalty became] a new period that commenced with the revolution of 1810, whose plan consisted in declaring the independence of a nation, thus turning the legal bond of vassalage into one of citizenship as a component of sovereignty and, in addition, organizing the democratic republic.";
Sánchez Viamonte 1948
, pp. 196–97: "The Argentine nation was a unity in colonial times, during the Viceroyalty, and remained so after the revolution of May 1810. [...] The provinces never acted as independent sovereign states, but as entities created within the nation and as integral parts of it, incidentally affected by internal conflicts.";
Vanossi 1964
, p. 11: "[The Argentine nationality is a] unique national entity, successor to the Viceroyalty, which, after undergoing a long period of anarchy and disorganization, adopted a decentralized form in 1853–1860 under the Constitution."
Gordon A. Bridger (2013).
Britain and the Making of Argentina
. WIT Press. p. 101.
ISBN
9781845646844
Archived
from the original on 27 October 2023
. Retrieved
19 August
2021
Some 86% identify themselves as being of European descent, of whom 60% would claim Italian links
Departamento de Derecho y Ciencias Políticas de la
Universidad Nacional de La Matanza
(14 November 2011).
"Historias de inmigrantes italianos en Argentina"
(in Spanish). infouniversidades.siu.edu.ar.
Archived
from the original on 26 December 2021
. Retrieved
9 October
2018
Se estima que en la actualidad, el 90% de la población argentina tiene alguna ascendencia europea y que al menos 25 millones están relacionados con algún inmigrante de Italia.
"Italiani nel Mondo: diaspora italiana in cifre"
[Italians in the World: Italian diaspora in figures]
(PDF)
(in Italian). Migranti Torino. 30 April 2004. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 27 February 2008
. Retrieved
22 September
2012
O.N.I. – Department of Education of Argentina
Archived
15 September 2008 at the
Wayback Machine
Wood 1988
, p. 18;
Solomon 1997
, p. 3.
Huntington 2000
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. Retrieved
2 May
2014
"Digital 2024: Argentina"
DataReportal – Global Digital Insights
. 23 February 2024
. Retrieved
6 November
2025
McCloskey & Burford 2006
, pp. 79, 199, 221.
Steiger, Carlos (2006).
"Modern Beef Production in Brazil and Argentina"
Choices Magazine
. Milwaukee, WI.
Archived
from the original on 2 December 2013.
McCloskey & Burford 2006
, p. 79.
Aeberhard, Benson & Phillips 2000
, p. 31;
McCloskey & Burford 2006
, pp. 80, 143.
Cannavan, Tom.
"About Argentine wine"
. Wine Pages. Archived from
the original
on 11 December 2012.
McCloskey & Burford 2006
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Decreto No. 17468/1953, 25 September 1953, B.O., (17490)
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"Pato, Argentina's national sport"
Argentina – Portal público de noticias de la República Argentina
. Buenos Aires: Secretaría de Medios de Comunicación – Presidencia de la Nación. 18 November 2008. Archived from
the original
on 6 July 2011.
In 1610, thirty years after
Buenos Aires
' second foundation and two hundred years before the
May Revolution
, a document drafted by the military anthropologist
Félix de Azara
described a
pato
sport scene taking place in the city.
Nauright & Parrish 2012
, pp. 14–23.
Friedman 2007
, pp. 56, 127.
Nauright & Parrish 2012
, p. 11.
"Meet Luciana Aymar – Las Leonas (Argentina)"
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the original
on 16 June 2014
. Retrieved
11 August
2014
"Amazing Aymar lands eighth FIH Player of the Year crown"
. Lausanne, Switzerland: FIH – Fédération Internationale de Hockey sur Gazon [International Hockey Federation]. 8 December 2013.
Archived
from the original on 12 December 2013.
"Argentina – Profile"
. Mies, Switzerland: FIBA – Fédération Internationale de Basket-ball [International Basketball Federation]. 2014. Archived from
the original
on 16 June 2014.
Fischer, Doug (30 September 2011).
"10: Best middleweight titleholders of the last 50 years"
. Blue Bell, PA: The Ring. Archived from
the original
on 15 June 2014.
Rodríguez 2009
, pp. 164–65.
Nauright & Parrish 2012
, p. 144.
Nauright & Parrish 2012
, p. 135.
"Hall of Fame Members"
. Newport, RI: International Tennis Hall of Fame and Museum. 2014.
Archived
from the original on 14 February 2014.
Aeberhard, Benson & Phillips 2000
, pp. 50–51.
Nauright & Parrish 2012
, p. 128.
Nauright & Parrish 2012
, p. 98;
Dougall 2013
, pp. 170–171.
Arbena 1999
, p. 147;
Dougall 2013
, pp. 170–171, 195.
Bibliography
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Bolt, Jutta; Van Zanden, Jan Luiten (2013).
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Books
Main page:
Category:Books about Argentina
Abad de Santillán, Diego
(1971).
Historia Argentina
(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Tipográfica Editora Argentina.
Adler, Emanuel; Greve, Patricia (2009). "When security community meets balance of power: overlapping regional mechanisms of security governance". In Fawn, Rick (ed.).
Globalising the Regional, Regionalising the Global
. Review of International Studies. Vol. 35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
59–
84.
ISBN
978-0-521-75988-5
Aeberhard, Danny; Benson, Andrew; Phillips, Lucy (2000).
The rough guide to Argentina
. London: Rough Guides.
ISBN
978-1-85828-569-6
Akstinat, Björn (2013).
Handbuch der deutschsprachigen Presse im Ausland
(in German). Berlin: IMH–Verlag.
ISBN
978-3-9815158-1-7
Anderson, Sean K.;
Sloan, Stephen
(3 August 2009).
Historical Dictionary of Terrorism
Scarecrow Press
ISBN
9780810863118
Archived
from the original on 29 November 2023
. Retrieved
19 December
2022
Arbena, Joseph (1999).
Latin American sport: an annotated bibliography, 1988–1998
. Bibliographies and indexes on sports history. Vol. 3. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
ISBN
978-0-3132-9611-6
Arbena, Joseph. "In Search of the Latin American Female Athlete". In
Arbena & LaFrance (2002)
, pp. 219–232.
Arbena, Joseph; LaFrance, David Gerald, eds. (2002).
Sport in Latin America and the Caribbean
. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
ISBN
978-0-8420-2821-9
Barnes, John (1978).
Evita, First Lady: A Biography of Eva Perón
. New York: Grove Press.
ISBN
978-0-8021-3479-0
Bidart Campos, Germán J. (2005).
Manual de la Constitución Reformada
(in Spanish). Vol. I. Buenos Aires: Ediar.
ISBN
978-950-574-121-2
Bloom, Harold (1994).
The Western Canon:la The Books and School of the Ages
. New York: Harcourt Brace & Company.
ISBN
978-1-57322-514-4
Boughton, James M. (2012).
Tearing Down Walls. The International Monetary Fund 1990–1999
. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund.
ISBN
978-1-61635-084-0
Crow, John A. (1992).
The Epic of Latin America
(4th ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
ISBN
978-0-520-07723-2
Díaz Alejandro, Carlos F. (1970).
Essays on the Economic History of the Argentine Republic
. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
ISBN
978-0-300-01193-7
Dougall, Angus (2013).
The Greatest Racing Driver
. Bloomington, IN: Balboa Press.
ISBN
978-1-4525-1096-5
Edwards, Todd L. (2008).
Argentina: A Global Studies Handbook
. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
ISBN
978-1-85109-986-3
Epstein, Edward; Pion-Berlin, David (2006). "The Crisis of 2001 and Argentine Democracy". In Epstein, Edward; Pion-Berlin, David (eds.).
Broken Promises?: The Argentine Crisis and Argentine Democracy
. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. pp.
3–
26.
ISBN
978-0-7391-0928-1
Fayt, Carlos S.
(1985).
Derecho Político
(in Spanish). Vol. I (6th ed.). Buenos Aires: Depalma.
ISBN
978-950-14-0276-6
Fearns, Les; Fearns, Daisy (2005).
Argentina
. London: Evans Brothers.
ISBN
978-0-237-52759-4
Foster, David W.; Lockhart, Melissa F.; Lockhart, Darrell B. (1998).
Culture and Customs of Argentina
. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group.
ISBN
978-0-313-30319-7
Friedman, Ian C. (2007).
Latino Athletes
. New York: Infobase Publishing.
ISBN
978-1-4381-0784-4
Galasso, Norberto
(2011).
Historia de la Argentina, vol. I&II
(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Colihue.
ISBN
978-950-563-478-1
Huntington, Samuel P.
(2000). "Culture, Power, and Democracy". In Plattner, Marc; Smolar, Aleksander (eds.).
Globalization, Power, and Democracy
. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.
3–
13.
ISBN
978-0-8018-6568-8
King, John (2000).
Magical Reels: A History of Cinema in Latin America
. Critical Studies in Latin American & Iberian Cultures. London: Verso.
ISBN
978-1-85984-233-1
Kopka, Deborah (2011).
Central & South America
. Dayton, OH: Lorenz Educational Press.
ISBN
978-1-4291-2251-1
Lake, David (2009). "Regional Hierarchies: Authority and Local International Order". In Fawn, Rick (ed.).
Globalising the Regional, Regionalising the Global
. Review of International Studies. Vol. 35. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp.
35–
58.
ISBN
978-0-521-75988-5
Levene, Ricardo (1948).
Desde la Revolución de Mayo a la Asamblea de 1813–15
. Historia del Derecho Argentino (in Spanish). Vol. IV. Buenos Aires: Editorial G. Kraf.
Lewis, Daniel K. (2003).
The History of Argentina
. Palgrave Essential Histories Series. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN
978-1-4039-6254-6
Lewis, M. Paul; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2014).
Ethnologue: Languages of the World
(17th ed.). Dallas, TX: Summer Institute of Linguistics International.
Lewis, Paul (1990).
The Crisis of Argentine Capitalism
. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN
978-0-8078-4356-7
Maldifassi, José O.; Abetti, Pier A. (1994).
Defense industries in Latin American countries: Argentina, Brazil, and Chile
. Praeger.
ISBN
978-0-275-94729-3
McCloskey, Erin; Burford, Tim (2006).
Argentina
. Guilford, CT: Bradt Travel Guides.
ISBN
978-1-84162-138-8
McKinney, Kevin (1993).
Everyday geography
. New York: GuildAmerica Books.
ISBN
978-1-56865-032-6
Menutti, Adela; Menutti, María Mercedes (1980).
Geografía Argentina y Universal
(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Edil.
Miller, Marilyn Grace (2004).
Rise and Fall of the Cosmic Race
. University of Texas Press. pp.
82–
89.
ISBN
0-292-70572-7
Archived
from the original on 29 November 2023
. Retrieved
22 March
2009
Morris, Michael (1988). Mangone, Gerard (ed.).
The Strait of Magellan
. International Straits of the World. Vol. 11. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff Publishes.
ISBN
978-0-7923-0181-3
Mosk, Sanford A. (1990). "Latin America and the World Economy, 1850–1914". In Hanke, Lewis; Rausch, Jane M. (eds.).
People and Issues in Latin American History
. Vol. II: From Independence to the Present. New York: Markus Wiener Publishing. pp.
86–96
ISBN
978-1-55876-018-9
Nauright, John; Parrish, Charles, eds. (2012).
Sports around the World: History, Culture, and Practice
. Vol. 3. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
ISBN
978-1-59884-301-9
Nierop, Tom (2001). "The Clash of Civilisations". In Dijkink, Gertjan; Knippenberg, Hans (eds.).
The Territorial Factor
. Amsterdam: Vossiuspers UvA – Amsterdam University Press. pp.
51–
76.
ISBN
978-90-5629-188-4
O'Donnell, Pacho (1998).
El Aguila Guerrera: La Historia Argentina Que No Nos Contaron
(in Spanish) (3rd ed.). Editorial Sudamericana.
ISBN
978-9500714617
Papadopoulos, Anestis (2010).
The International Dimension of EU Competition Law and Policy
. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-19646-8
Rey Balmaceda, Raúl (1995).
Mi país, la Argentina
(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Arte Gráfico Editorial Argentino.
ISBN
978-84-599-3442-8
Rivas, José Andrés (1989).
Santiago en sus letras: antología criticotemática de las letras santiagueñas
(in Spanish). Santiago del Estero, SE, Argentina: Universidad Nacional de Santiago del Estero.
Robben, Antonius C.G.M. (2011).
Political Violence and Trauma in Argentina
. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN
978-0-8122-0331-8
Rock, David
(1987).
Argentina, 1516–1987: From Spanish Colonization to the Falklands War
. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
ISBN
978-0-520-06178-1
Rodríguez, Robert G. (2009).
The Regulation of Boxing: A History and Comparative Analysis of Policies Among American States
. Jefferson, NC: McFarland.
ISBN
978-0-7864-5284-2
Rosenblat, Ángel
(1964).
El nombre de la Argentina
(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: EUDEBA – Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires.
Ruiz-Dana, Alejandra; Goldschag, Peter; Claro, Edmundo; Blanco, Hernán (2009). "Regional Integration, Trade and Conflicts in Latin America". In Khan, Shaheen Rafi (ed.).
Regional Trade Integration and Conflict Resolution
. New York: Routledge. pp.
15–
44.
ISBN
978-0-415-47673-7
Sánchez Viamonte, Carlos (1948).
Historia Institucional Argentina
(in Spanish) (2nd ed.). Mexico D. F.: Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Traba, Juan (1985).
Origen de la palabra "¿¡Argentina!?"
(in Spanish). Rosario, SF, Argentina: Escuela de Artes Gráficas del Colegio San José.
Vanossi, Jorge R. (1964).
Situación actual del federalismo: aspectos institucionales y económicos, en particular sobre la realidad argentina
. Cuadernos de ciencia política de la Asociación Argentina de Ciencia Política (in Spanish). Vol. 2. Buenos Aires: Ediciones Depalma.
Wilson, Jonathan (23 August 2016).
Angels with Dirty Faces: How Argentinian Soccer Defined a Nation and Changed the Game Forever
PublicAffairs
ISBN
9781568585529
Archived
from the original on 18 April 2023
. Retrieved
19 December
2022
Wood, Bernard (1988).
The middle powers and the general interest
. Ottawa: North–South Institute.
ISBN
978-0-920494-81-3
Young, Richard; Cisneros, Odile (2010).
Historical Dictionary of Latin American Literature and Theater
. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press.
ISBN
978-0-8108-7498-5
Young, Ronald (2005). "Argentina". In McColl, Robert W. (ed.).
Encyclopedia of World Geography
. Vol. I. New York: Golson Books. pp.
51–
53.
ISBN
978-0-8160-7229-3
Further reading
Calvo, Carlos (1864).
Anales históricos de la revolucion de la América latina, acompañados de los documentos en su apoyo. Desde el año 1808 hasta el reconocimiento de la independencia de ese extenso continente
(in Spanish). Vol. 2. Paris: A. Durand.
Crooker, Richard A. (2009).
Argentina
. New York: Infobase Publishing.
ISBN
978-1-4381-0481-2
Ferro, Carlos A. (1991).
Historia de la Bandera Argentina
(in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Ediciones Depalma.
ISBN
978-950-14-0610-8
Lamoureux, Andrew Jackson;
Edmundson, George
(1911).
"Argentina"
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp.
460–
475.
Maddison, Angus
(1995).
Monitoring the World Economy 1820–1992
. Paris: OECD Publishing.
ISBN
978-92-64-14549-8
Maddison, Angus
(2001).
The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective
. OECD Publishing.
ISBN
978-92-64-18654-5
Margheritis, Ana (2010).
Argentina's foreign policy: domestic politics and democracy promotion in the Americas
. Boulder, CO: FirstForumPress.
ISBN
978-1-935049-19-7
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