Attila - Wikipedia

Attila - Wikipedia
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(Redirected from
Attila the Hun
"Atilla" and "Attila the Hun" redirect here. For other uses, see
Attila (disambiguation)
Atilla (disambiguation)
, and
Attila the Hun (disambiguation)
Ruler of the Hunnic Empire from 434 to 453
Attila
King Attila (
Chronicon Pictum
, 1358)
King and chieftain
of the
Hunnic Empire
Reign
434–453
Predecessor
Ruga
Successor
Ellac
Dengizich
Ernak
Co-ruler
Bleda
(434–445)
Born
c.
406
: 208
: 202
Died
453 (aged 46–47)
Spouse
Kreka
and
Ildico
Father
Mundzuk
Attila
ə-
TIL
-ə
or
AT
-il-ə
c. 406 – 453), frequently called
Attila the Hun
, was the ruler of the
Huns
from 434 until his death in early 453. He was also the leader of an empire consisting of Huns,
Ostrogoths
Alans
, and
Gepids
, among others, in
Central
and
Eastern Europe
As nephews to
Rugila
, Attila and his elder brother
Bleda
succeeded him to the throne in 435, ruling jointly until the death of Bleda in 445. During his reign, Attila was one of the most feared enemies of the
Western
and
Eastern
Roman Empires. He crossed the
Danube
twice and plundered the
Balkans
but was unable to take
Constantinople
. In 441, he led an invasion of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire, the success of which emboldened him to invade the West.
He also attempted to conquer
Roman Gaul
(modern France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (
Orléans
), before being stopped in the
Battle of the Catalaunian Plains
He subsequently invaded
Italy
, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take
Rome
. He planned for further campaigns against the
Romans
but died in 453. After Attila's death, his close adviser,
Ardaric
of the
Gepids
, led a Germanic revolt against Hunnic rule, after which the Hunnic Empire
quickly collapsed
. Attila lived on as a character in
Germanic heroic legend
Etymology
Most scholars have argued that the name
Attila
derives from
East Germanic
origin;
Attila
is formed from the
Gothic
or
Gepidic
noun
atta
, "father", by means of the diminutive suffix
-ila
, meaning "little father" (compare
Wulfila
from
wulfs
"wolf" and
-ila
, i.e. "little wolf").
: 386
: 29
10
: 46
11
The Gothic etymology was first proposed by
Jacob
and
Wilhelm Grimm
in the early 19th century.
12
: 211
Maenchen-Helfen notes that this derivation of the name "offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties",
: 386
and Gerhard Doerfer notes that the name is simply correct Gothic.
: 29
Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong (2020) similarly state that Attila's name "must have been Gothic in origin."
13
The name has sometimes been interpreted as a Germanization of a name of
Hunnic
origin.
: 29–32
Other scholars have argued for a
Turkic
origin of the name.
Omeljan Pritsak
considered
Ἀττίλα
(Attíla) a composite title-name which derived from Turkic *
es
(great, old), and *
til
(sea, ocean), and the suffix /a/.
14
: 444
The stressed back syllabic
til
assimilated the front member
es
, so it became *
as
14
: 444
It is a nominative, in form of
attíl-
(< *
etsíl
< *
es tíl
) with the meaning "the oceanic, universal ruler".
14
: 444
J. J. Mikkola
connected it with Turkic
āt
(name, fame).
12
: 216
As another Turkic possibility, H. Althof (1902) considered it was related to Turkish
atli
(horseman, cavalier), or Turkish
at
(horse) and
dil
(tongue).
12
: 216
Maenchen-Helfen argues that Pritsak's derivation is "ingenious but for many reasons unacceptable",
: 387
while dismissing Mikkola's as "too farfetched to be taken seriously".
: 390
M. Snædal similarly notes that none of these proposals has achieved wide acceptance.
12
: 215–216
Criticizing the proposals of finding Turkic or other etymologies for Attila, Doerfer notes that King
George VI
of the United Kingdom had a name of Greek origin, and
Süleyman the Magnificent
had a name of Arabic origin, yet that does not make them Greek or Arab: it is therefore plausible that Attila would have a name not of Hunnic origin.
: 31–32
Historian Hyun Jin Kim, however, has argued that the Turkic etymology is "more probable".
15
: 30
M. Snædal, in a paper that rejects the Germanic derivation but notes the problems with the existing proposed Turkic etymologies, argues that Attila's name could have originated from Turkic-
Mongolian
at
adyy/agta
gelding
warhorse
) and Turkish
atlı
(horseman, cavalier), meaning "possessor of geldings, provider of warhorses".
12
: 216–217
In 2025, Svenja Bonmann and Simon Fries, as part of their hypothesis that the Huns spoke a
Yeniseian language
, proposed that the name Attila could come from an Old
Arin
adjective
*atɨ-la
, meaning "quicker, quite quick, rather quick, quick-ish".
11
Historiography and sources
Figure of Attila in a museum in Hungary.
A reconstructed Hun warrior (
Hungarian National Museum
Attila
exhibition, 2026)
Mór Than
's 19th century painting of
The Feast of Attila
, based on a fragment of
Priscus
The historiography of Attila is faced with a major challenge, in that the only complete sources are written in
Greek
and
Latin
by the enemies of the Huns. Attila's contemporaries left many testimonials of his life, but only fragments of these remain.
16
: 25
Priscus
was a
Byzantine
diplomat and historian who wrote in Greek, and he was both a witness to and an actor in the story of Attila, as a member of the embassy of
Theodosius II
at the Hunnic court in 449. He was obviously biased by his political position, but his writing is a major source for information on the life of Attila, and he is the only person known to have recorded a
physical description
of him. He wrote a history of the late Roman Empire in eight books covering the period from 430 to 476.
17
Only fragments of Priscus's work remain. It was cited extensively by 6th-century historians
Procopius
and
Jordanes
18
: 413
especially in Jordanes's
The Origin and Deeds of the Goths
, which contains numerous references to Priscus's history, and it is also an important source of information about the Hunnic empire and its neighbors. He describes the legacy of Attila and the Hunnic people for a century after Attila's death.
Marcellinus Comes
, a chancellor of
Justinian
during the same era, also describes the relations between the Huns and the
Eastern Roman Empire
16
: 30
Numerous ecclesiastical writings contain useful but scattered information, sometimes difficult to authenticate or distorted by years of hand-copying between the 6th and 17th centuries. The
Hungarian
writers of the 12th century wished to portray the Huns in a positive light as their glorious ancestors, and so repressed certain historical elements and added their own legends.
16
: 32
The literature and knowledge of the Huns themselves was transmitted orally, by means of epics and chanted poems that were handed down from generation to generation.
18
: 354
Indirectly, fragments of this
oral history
have reached us via the literature of the Scandinavians and Germans, neighbors of the Huns who wrote between the 9th and 13th centuries. Attila is a major character in many Medieval epics, such as the
Nibelungenlied
, as well as various
Eddas
and
sagas
16
: 32
18
: 354
Archaeological
investigation has uncovered some details about the lifestyle, art, and warfare of the Huns. There are a few traces of battles and sieges, but the tomb of Attila and the location of his capital have not yet been found.
16
: 33–37
Appearance and character
There is no surviving first-hand account of Attila's appearance, but there is a possible second-hand source provided by
Jordanes
, who cites a description given by
Priscus
19
20
He was a man born into the world to shake the nations, the scourge of all lands, who in some way terrified all mankind by the dreadful rumors noised abroad concerning him. He was haughty in his walk, rolling his eyes hither and thither, so that the power of his proud spirit appeared in the movement of his body. He was indeed a lover of war, yet restrained in action, mighty in counsel, gracious to suppliants and lenient to those who were once received into his protection. Short of stature, with a broad chest and a large head; his eyes were small, his beard thin and sprinkled with grey; and he had a flat nose and swarthy skin, showing evidence of his origin.
21
: 182–183
Some scholars have suggested that these features are typically
East Asian
, because in combination they fit the physical type of people from Eastern Asia, so Attila's ancestors may have come from there.
20
22
: 202
Other historians have suggested that the same features may have been typical of some
Scythian
people.
23
24
Early life and background
Main article:
Huns
Huns in battle with the
Alans
. An 1870s engraving after a drawing by
Johann Nepomuk Geiger
(1805–1880).
The Huns were a group of
Eurasian nomads
, appearing from east of the
Volga
, who migrated further into
Western Europe
c. 370 and built up an enormous empire there.
25
Their main military techniques were
mounted archery
and
javelin
throwing. They were in the process of developing
settlements
before their arrival in Western Europe, yet the Huns were a society of pastoral warriors
18
: 259
whose primary form of nourishment was meat and milk, products of their herds.
The origin and
language of the Huns
has been the subject of debate for centuries. According to some theories, their leaders at least may have spoken a
Turkic language
, perhaps closest to the modern
Chuvash language
14
: 444
According to the
Encyclopedia of European Peoples
, "the Huns, especially those who migrated to the west, may have been a combination of central Asian
Turkic
Mongolic
, and
Ugric
stocks".
26
Attila's father
Mundzuk
was the brother of kings
Octar
and
Ruga
, who reigned jointly over the Hunnic empire in the early fifth century. This form of
diarchy
was recurrent with the Huns, but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized, merely customary, or an occasional occurrence.
16
: 80
His family was from a noble lineage, but it is uncertain whether they constituted a royal
dynasty
. Attila's birthdate is debated; journalist
Éric Deschodt
and writer Herman Schreiber have proposed a date of 395.
27
28
However, historian
Iaroslav Lebedynsky
and archaeologist Katalin Escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and the first decade of the fifth century.
16
: 40
Several historians have proposed 406 as the date.
: 92
: 202
Attila grew up in a rapidly changing world. His people were nomads who had only recently arrived in Europe.
29
They crossed the
Volga
river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the
Alans
, then attacked the Gothic kingdom between the
Carpathian Mountains
and the
Danube
. They were a very mobile people, whose mounted archers had acquired a reputation for invincibility, and the
Germanic tribes
seemed unable to withstand them.
18
: 133–151
Vast populations fleeing the Huns moved from
Germania
into the Roman Empire in the west and south, and along the banks of the
Rhine
and Danube. In 376, the Goths crossed the Danube, initially submitting to the Romans but soon rebelling against Emperor
Valens
, whom they killed in the
Battle of Adrianople
in 378.
18
: 100
Large numbers of
Vandals
, Alans,
Suebi
, and
Burgundians
crossed the Rhine
and invaded Roman
Gaul
on December 31, 406, to escape the Huns.
16
: 233
The Roman Empire had been split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments, one based in
Ravenna
in the West, and the other in
Constantinople
in the East. The Roman Emperors, both East and West, were generally from the
Theodosian
family in Attila's lifetime (despite several power struggles).
30
: 13
The Huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a constellation of ethnically varied peoples. Some were assimilated to Hunnic nationality, whereas many retained their own identities and rulers but acknowledged the
suzerainty
of the king of the Huns.
30
: 11
The Huns were also the indirect source of many of the Romans' problems, driving various Germanic tribes into Roman territory, yet relations between the two empires were cordial: the Romans used the Huns as
mercenaries
against the Germans and even in their civil wars. Thus, the usurper
Joannes
was able to recruit thousands of Huns for his army against
Valentinian III
in 424. It was
Aëtius
, later Patrician of the West, who managed this operation. They exchanged ambassadors and hostages, the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the Romans numerous military victories.
18
: 111
The Huns considered the Romans to be paying them tribute, whereas the Romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered. The Huns had become a great power by the time that Attila came of age during the reign of his uncle Ruga, to the point that
Nestorius
, the Patriarch of Constantinople, deplored the situation with these words: "They have become both masters and slaves of the Romans".
18
: 128
Campaigns against the Eastern Roman Empire
The Empire of the Huns and subject tribes at the time of Attila.
The death of
Rugila
(also known as Rua or Ruga) in 434 left the sons of his brother
Mundzuk
, Attila and
Bleda
, in control of the united Hun tribes. At the time of the two brothers' accession, the Hun tribes were bargaining with Eastern Roman Emperor
Theodosius II
's envoys for the return of several
renegades
who had taken refuge within the
Eastern Roman Empire
, possibly Hunnic nobles who disagreed with the brothers' assumption of leadership.
The following year, Attila and Bleda met with the imperial legation at
Margus
Požarevac
), all seated on horseback in the Hunnic manner,
31
and negotiated an advantageous
treaty
. The Romans agreed to return the fugitives, to double their previous
tribute
of 350 Roman pounds (c. 115 kg) of gold, to open their markets to Hunnish traders, and to pay a ransom of eight
solidi
for each Roman taken prisoner by the Huns. The Huns, satisfied with the treaty, decamped from the Roman Empire and returned to their home in the
Great Hungarian Plain
, perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire. Theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the
walls of Constantinople
, building the city's first
sea wall
, and to build up his border defenses along the
Danube
The Huns remained out of Roman sight for the next few years while they invaded the
Sassanid Empire
. They were defeated in
Armenia
by the Sassanids, abandoned their invasion, and turned their attentions back to Europe. In 440, they reappeared in force on the borders of the Roman Empire, attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the Danube that had been established by the treaty of 435.
Crossing the Danube, they laid waste to the cities of
Illyricum
and forts on the river, including (according to
Priscus
Viminacium
, a city of
Moesia
. Their advance began at Margus, where they demanded that the Romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that Attila regarded as his. While the Romans discussed the bishop's fate, he slipped away secretly to the Huns and betrayed the city to them.
While the Huns attacked city-states along the Danube, the
Vandals
(led by
Geiseric
) captured the Western Roman province of Africa and its capital of
Carthage
. Africa was the richest province of the Western Empire and a main source of food for Rome. The
Sassanid
Shah
Yazdegerd II
invaded
Armenia
in 441.
citation needed
32
The Romans stripped the Balkan area of forces, sending them to Sicily in order to mount an expedition against the Vandals in Africa. This left Attila and Bleda a clear path through Illyricum into the Balkans, which they invaded in 441. The Hunnish army sacked Margus and Viminacium, and then took
Singidunum
Belgrade
) and
Sirmium
. During 442, Theodosius recalled his troops from
Sicily
and ordered a large issue of new coins to finance operations against the Huns. He believed that he could defeat the Huns and refused the Hunnish kings' demands.
Attila responded with a campaign in 443.
33
For the first time (as far as the Romans knew) his forces were equipped with
battering rams
and rolling siege towers, with which they successfully assaulted the military centers of Ratiara and Naissus (
Niš
) and massacred the inhabitants.
Priscus
said "When we arrived at Naissus we found the city deserted, as though it had been sacked; only a few sick persons lay in the churches. We halted at a short distance from the river, in an open space, for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war."
34
Advancing along the
Nišava River
, the Huns next took Serdica (
Sofia
), Philippopolis (
Plovdiv
), and Arcadiopolis (
Lüleburgaz
). They encountered and destroyed a Roman army outside Constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the Eastern capital. They defeated a second army near Callipolis (
Gelibolu
).
Theodosius, unable to make effective armed resistance, admitted defeat, sending the
Magister militum per Orientem
Anatolius
to negotiate peace terms. The terms were harsher than the previous treaty: the Emperor agreed to hand over 6,000 Roman pounds (c. 2000 kg) of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion; the yearly tribute was tripled, rising to 2,100 Roman pounds (c. 700 kg) in gold; and the ransom for each Roman prisoner rose to 12
solidi
Their demands were met for a time, and the Hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire. Bleda died following the Huns' withdrawal from Byzantium (probably around 445). Attila then took the throne for himself, becoming the sole ruler of the Huns.
35
Solitary kingship
In 447, Attila again rode south into the
Eastern Roman Empire
through
Moesia
. The
Roman army
, under
Gothic
magister militum
Arnegisclus
, met him in the
Battle of the Utus
and was defeated, though not without inflicting heavy losses. The Huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the Balkans as far as
Thermopylae
Constantinople itself was saved by the
Isaurian
troops of
magister militum per Orientem
Zeno
and protected by the intervention of prefect
Constantinus
, who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and, in some places, to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old. Callinicus, in his
Life of Saint Hypatius
, wrote:
The barbarian nation of the Huns, which was in
Thrace
, became so great that more than a hundred cities were captured and Constantinople almost came into danger and most men fled from it. ... And there were so many murders and blood-lettings that the dead could not be numbered. Ay, for they took captive the churches and monasteries and slew the monks and maidens in great numbers.
In the west
The general path of the Hun forces in the invasion of
Gaul
In 450, Attila proclaimed his intent to attack the
Visigoth
kingdom of
Toulouse
by making an
alliance
with Emperor
Valentinian III
. He had previously been on good terms with the
Western Roman Empire
and its influential general
Flavius Aëtius
. Aëtius had spent a brief
exile
among the Huns in 433, and the troops that Attila provided against the
Goths
and
Bagaudae
had helped earn him the largely honorary title of
magister militum
in the west. The gifts and diplomatic efforts of
Geiseric
, who opposed and feared the Visigoths, may also have influenced Attila's plans.
However, Valentinian's sister was
Honoria
, who had sent the Hunnish king a plea for help—and her engagement ring—in order to escape her forced betrothal to a
Roman senator
in the spring of 450. Honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage, but Attila chose to interpret her message as such. He accepted, asking for half of the western Empire as dowry.
When Valentinian discovered the plan, only the influence of his mother
Galla Placidia
convinced him to exile Honoria, rather than killing her. He also wrote to Attila, strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal. Attila sent an emissary to
Ravenna
to proclaim that Honoria was innocent, that the proposal had been legitimate, and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his.
Attila interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a Frankish ruler. Attila supported the elder son, while Aëtius supported the younger. (The location and identity of these kings is not known and subject to conjecture.) Attila gathered his
vassals
Gepids
Ostrogoths
Rugians
Scirians
Heruls
Thuringians
Alans
Burgundians
, among others—and began his march west. In 451, he arrived in
Belgica
with an army exaggerated by
Jordanes
to half a million strong.
Roman villa
in Gaul sacked by Attila's hordes, by French historicist painter
Georges Rochegrosse
On April 7, he captured
Metz
. He also captured
Strasbourg
. Other cities attacked can be determined by the
hagiographic
vitae
written to commemorate their bishops:
Nicasius
was slaughtered before the altar of his church in
Rheims
Servatus
is alleged to have saved
Tongeren
with his prayers, as Saint
Genevieve
is said to have saved Paris.
36
Lupus
, bishop of
Troyes
, is also credited with saving his city by meeting Attila in person.
37
Aëtius moved to oppose Attila, gathering troops from among the
Franks
, the
Burgundians
, and the
Celts
. A mission by
Avitus
and Attila's continued westward advance convinced the Visigoth king
Theodoric I
(Theodorid) to ally with the Romans. The combined armies reached
Orléans
ahead of Attila, thus checking and turning back the Hunnish advance. Aëtius gave chase and caught the Huns at a place usually assumed to be near Catalaunum (modern
Châlons-en-Champagne
). Attila decided to fight the Romans on plains where he could use his cavalry.
38
The two armies clashed in the
Battle of the Catalaunian Plains
, the outcome of which is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the Visigothic–Roman alliance. Theodoric was killed in the fighting, and Aëtius failed to press his advantage, according to Edward Gibbon and Edward Creasy, because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming Visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat. From Aëtius's point of view, the best outcome was what occurred: Theodoric died, Attila was in retreat and disarray, and the Romans had the benefit of appearing victorious.
Invasion of Italy and death
Attila is
besieging
Aquileia
Chronicon Pictum
, 1358).
Raphael
's
The Meeting between Leo the Great and Attila
depicts Leo, escorted by
Saint Peter
and
Saint Paul
, meeting with the
Hun
emperor outside Rome.
Attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with
Honoria
, invading and ravaging Italy along the way. Communities became established in what would later become
Venice
as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the
Venetian Lagoon
. His army sacked numerous cities and razed
Aquileia
so completely that it was afterwards hard to recognize its original site.
39
: 159
Aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle, but managed to harass and slow Attila's advance with only a shadow force. Attila finally halted at the
River Po
. By this point, disease and starvation may have taken hold in Attila's camp, thus hindering his war efforts and potentially contributing to the cessation of invasion.
40
Emperor
Valentinian III
sent three envoys, the high civilian officers
Gennadius Avienus
and Trigetius, as well as
Pope Leo I
, who met Attila at
Mincio
in the vicinity of
Mantua
and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from Italy and negotiate peace with the Emperor.
41
Prosper of Aquitaine
gives a short description of the historic meeting, but gives all the credit to Leo for the successful negotiation. Priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of
Alaric
gave him pause—as Alaric died shortly after sacking Rome in 410.
Italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and crops were a little better in 452. Attila's devastating invasion of the plains of northern Italy this year did not improve the harvest.
39
: 161
To advance on Rome would have required supplies which were not available in Italy, and taking the city would not have improved Attila's supply situation. Therefore, it was more profitable for Attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland.
39
: 160–161
Furthermore, an East Roman force had crossed the Danube under the command of another officer also named Aetius—who had participated in the
Council of Chalcedon
the previous year—and proceeded to defeat the Huns who had been left behind by Attila to safeguard their home territories. Attila, hence, faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire "from Italy without ever setting foot south of the
Po
".
39
: 163
As
Hydatius
writes in his
Chronica Minora
The Huns, who had been plundering Italy and who had also stormed a number of cities, were victims of divine punishment, being visited with heaven-sent disasters: famine and some kind of disease. In addition, they were slaughtered by auxiliaries sent by the Emperor
Marcian
and led by Aetius, and at the same time, they were crushed in their [home] settlements ... Thus crushed, they made peace with the Romans.
42
The
Huns
, led by Attila, invade Italy (
Attila, the Scourge of God
, by
Ulpiano Checa
, 1887).
Death
Death of Attila
(Ferenc Pazcka, 1884)
In the Eastern Roman Empire, Emperor
Marcian
succeeded Theodosius II, and stopped paying tribute to the Huns. Attila withdrew from Italy to his palace across the Danube, while making plans to strike at Constantinople once more to reclaim tribute.
43
However, he died in the early months of 453.
The conventional account from Priscus says that Attila was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage, this time to the beautiful young
Ildico
(the name suggests
Gothic
or
Ostrogoth
origins).
39
: 164
In the midst of the revels, however, he suffered severe bleeding and died. He may have had a
nosebleed
and choked to death in a stupor. Or he may have succumbed to
internal bleeding
, possibly due to ruptured
esophageal varices
. Esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the
esophagus
, often caused by years of excessive alcohol consumption; they are fragile and can easily rupture, leading to death by hemorrhage.
44
Another account of his death was first recorded 80 years after the events by Roman chronicler
Marcellinus Comes
. It reports that "Attila, King of the Huns and ravager of the provinces of Europe, was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife".
45
One modern analyst suggests that he was assassinated,
46
but most reject these accounts as no more than hearsay, preferring instead the account given by Attila's contemporary Priscus, recounted in the 6th century by
Jordanes
On the following day, when a great part of the morning was spent, the royal attendants suspected some ill and, after a great uproar, broke in the doors. There they found the death of Attila accomplished by an effusion of blood, without any wound, and the girl with downcast face weeping beneath her veil. Then, as is the custom of that race, they plucked out the hair of their heads and made their faces hideous with deep wounds, that the renowned warrior might be mourned, not by effeminate wailings and tears, but by the blood of men. Moreover a wondrous thing took place in connection with Attila's death. For in a dream some god stood at the side of Marcian, Emperor of the East, while he was disquieted about his fierce foe, and showed him the bow of Attila broken in that same night, as if to intimate that the race of Huns owed much to that weapon. This account the historian Priscus says he accepts upon truthful evidence. For so terrible was Attila thought to be to great empires that the gods announced his death to rulers as a special boon.
His body was placed in the midst of a plain and lay in state in a silken tent as a sight for men's admiration. The best horsemen of the entire tribe of the Huns rode around in circles, after the manner of circus games, in the place to which he had been brought and told of his deeds in a funeral dirge in the following manner: "The chief of the Huns, King Attila, born of his sire Mundiuch, lord of bravest tribes, sole possessor of the Scythian and German realms—powers unknown before—captured cities and terrified both empires of the Roman world and, appeased by their prayers, took annual tribute to save the rest from plunder. And when he had accomplished all this by the favor of fortune, he fell, not by wound of the foe, nor by treachery of friends, but in the midst of his nation at peace, happy in his joy and without sense of pain. Who can rate this as death, when none believes it calls for vengeance?"
When they had mourned him with such lamentations, a strava, as they call it, was celebrated over his tomb with great reveling. They gave way in turn to the extremes of feeling and displayed funereal grief alternating with joy. Then in the secrecy of night they buried his body in the earth. They bound his coffins, the first with gold, the second with silver and the third with the strength of iron, showing by such means that these three things suited the mightiest of kings; iron because he subdued the nations, gold and silver because he received the honors of both empires. They also added the arms of foemen won in the fight, trappings of rare worth, sparkling with various gems, and ornaments of all sorts whereby princely state is maintained. And that so great riches might be kept from human curiosity, they slew those appointed to the work—a dreadful pay for their labor; and thus sudden death was the lot of those who buried him as well as of him who was buried.
21
: 254–259
Descendants
Attila's sons
Ellac
Dengizich
and
Ernak
, "in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike destroyed his empire".
21
: 259
They "were clamoring that the nations should be divided among them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate".
21
: 259
Against the treatment as "slaves of the basest condition" a Germanic alliance led by the Gepid ruler
Ardaric
(who was noted for great loyalty to Attila
21
: 199
) revolted and fought with the Huns in Pannonia in the
Battle of Nedao
454 AD.
21
: 260–262
Attila's eldest son Ellac was killed in that battle.
21
: 262
Attila's sons "regarding the Goths as deserters from their rule, came against them as though they were seeking fugitive slaves", attacked Ostrogothic co-ruler
Valamir
(who also fought alongside Ardaric and Attila at the Catalaunian Plains
21
: 199
), but were repelled, and some group of Huns moved to Scythia (probably those of Ernak).
21
: 268–269
His brother Dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across the Danube in 468 AD, but was defeated at the
Battle of Bassianae
by the Ostrogoths.
21
: 272–273
Dengizich was killed by Roman-Gothic general
Anagast
the following year, after which the Hunnic dominion ended.
: 168
Many of Attila's close relatives are known by name, and some even by deeds, but valid genealogical sources are rare, and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace Attila's descendants beyond a few generations. This has not stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a
valid line of descent
to various medieval rulers. One of the most credible claims has been that of the
Nominalia of the Bulgarian khans
for mythological
Avitohol
and
Irnik
from the
Dulo clan
of the
Bulgars
47
: 103
15
: 59, 142
48
The Hungarian
Árpád dynasty
also claimed to be a direct descendant of Attila.
49
Medieval Hungarian chronicles from the
Hungarian royal court
like
Gesta Hungarorum
Gesta Hunnorum et Hungarorum
Chronicon Pictum
Buda Chronicle
Chronica Hungarorum
claimed that the
Árpád dynasty
and the
Aba clan
are the descendants of Attila.
50
Later folklore and iconography
Further information:
Attila in popular culture
The name has many variants in several languages: Atli and Atle in
Old Norse
; Etzel in
Middle High German
Nibelungenlied
); Ætla in
Old English
; Attila, Atilla, and Etele in
Hungarian
(Attila is the most popular); Attila,
Atilla
, Atilay, or Atila in
Turkish
; and Adil and Edil in
Kazakh
or Adil ("same/similar") or Edil ("to use") in
Mongolian
Attila and Hun tradition in the medieval Hungarian Royal Court
King Attila on the throne (
Chronicon Pictum
, 1358).
The basic premise of the Hungarian medieval chronicle tradition that the
Huns
, i.e. the
Hungarians
coming out twice from
Scythia
, the guiding principle of the chronicles was the Hun-Hungarian continuity.
51
The Hungarian state founder royal dynasty, the
Árpád dynasty
claimed to be a direct descendant of the great Hun leader Attila.
49
52
53
Medieval Hungarian chronicles claimed that Grand Prince
Árpád of Hungary
was the descendant of Attila.
50
In the 401st year of Our Lord's birth, in the 28th year since the arrival of the Hungarians in Pannonia, according to the custom of the Romans, the Huns, namely the Hungarians exalted Attila as king above themselves, the son of Bendegúz, who was before among the captains. And he made his brother Buda a prince and a judge from the River Tisza to the River Don. Calling himself the King of the Hungarians, the Fear of the World, the Scourge of God: Attila, King of the Huns, Medes, Goths and Danes…
Mark of Kalt
Chronicon Pictum
54
Árpád
, Grand Prince of the Hungarians says in the
Gesta Hungarorum
The land stretching between the Danube and the Tisza used to belong to my forefather, the mighty Attila.
Anonymus
Gesta Hungarorum
55
King
Matthias of Hungary
(1458–1490) was happy to be described as "the second Attila".
56
The
Chronica Hungarorum
by
Johannes Thuróczy
set the goal of glorifying Attila, which was undeservedly neglected, moreover, he introduced the famous "Scourge of God" characterization to the later Hungarian writers, because the earlier chronicles remained hidden for a long time. Thuróczy worked hard to endear Attila, the Hun king with an effort far surpassing his predecessor chroniclers. He made Attila a model for his victorious ruler, King Matthias of Hungary who had Attila's abilities, with this he almost brought "the hammer of the world" to life.
51
Legends about Attila and the sword of Mars
During the reign of King
Solomon of Hungary
, in the autumn of 1063, Queen Mother
Anastasia
presented a richly decorated sabre to
Otto of Nordheim
, Duke of Bavaria. This weapon was esteemed in the Hungarian royal court as the
Sword of Attila
57
According to the
Kunsthistorisches Museum
, actually a Hungarian
sabre
from the first half of the 10th.
58
Jordanes
embellished the report of
Priscus
, reporting that Attila had possessed the "Holy War Sword of the
Scythians
", which was given to him by
Mars
and made him a "prince of the entire world".
59
60
The German chronicler
Lampert of Hersfeld
, in his
Annales
written up to 1077, recounts that
Anastasia
, the mother of King
Solomon of Hungary
, gave the
Sword of Attila
to
Otto of Nordheim
, Duke of Bavaria, as a token of gratitude for helping Solomon ascend to the throne.
61
62
This sword, a cavalry
sabre
now in the
Kunsthistorisches Museum
in Vienna, appears to be the work of Hungarian goldsmiths of the ninth or tenth century.
63
Legends about Attila and his meeting with Pope Leo I
Meeting of Attila with Pope
Leo
Chronicon Pictum
, 1358).
An anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting of
Pope Leo
and Atilla as attended also by
Saint Peter
and
Saint Paul
, "a miraculous tale calculated to meet the taste of the time"
64
This apotheosis was later portrayed artistically by the Renaissance artist
Raphael
and sculptor
Algardi
, whom eighteenth-century historian
Edward Gibbon
praised for establishing "one of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition".
65
According to a version of this narrative related in the
Chronicon Pictum
, a mediaeval Hungarian chronicle,
the Pope
promised Attila that if he left Rome in peace, one of his successors would receive a holy crown (which has been understood as referring to the
Holy Crown of Hungary
).
Attila in Germanic heroic legend
Some histories and chronicles describe Attila as a great and noble king, and he plays major roles in three Norse texts:
Atlakviða
66
Volsunga saga
67
and
Atlamál
66
The
Polish Chronicle
represents Attila's name as
Aquila
68
Frutolf of Michelsberg
and
Otto of Freising
pointed out that some songs as "vulgar fables" and made
Theoderic the Great
, Attila and
Ermanaric
contemporaries, when any reader of Jordanes knew that
this was not the case
69
This refers to the so-called historical poems about
Dietrich von Bern
(Theoderic), in which Etzel (German for Attila) is Dietrich's refuge in exile from his wicked uncle Ermenrich (Ermanaric). Etzel is most prominent in the poems
Dietrichs Flucht
and the
Rabenschlacht
. Etzel also appears as
Kriemhild
's second noble husband in the
Nibelungenlied
, in which Kriemhild causes the destruction of both the Hunnish kingdom and that of her Burgundian relatives.
Early modern and modern reception
A painting of Attila riding a pale horse, by French Romantic artist
Eugène Delacroix
(1798–1863).
In 1812,
Ludwig van Beethoven
conceived the idea of writing an opera about Attila and approached
August von Kotzebue
to write the libretto. It was, however, never written.
70
In 1846,
Giuseppe Verdi
wrote the
opera
, loosely based on episodes in Attila's invasion of Italy.
In World War I, Allied propaganda referred to Germans as the "
Huns
", based on a
1900 speech
by
Emperor Wilhelm II
praising Attila the Hun's military brutality and might, according to
Jawaharlal Nehru
's
Glimpses of World History
71
Der Spiegel
commented on 6 November 1948, that the
Sword of Attila
was hanging menacingly over
Austria
72
American writer
Cecelia Holland
wrote
The Death of Attila
(1973), a historical novel in which Attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply affect the protagonists, a young Hunnic warrior and a Germanic one.
In modern
Hungary
and in
Turkey
, "Attila" and its Turkish variation "Atilla" are commonly used as a male first name. In Hungary, several public places are named after Attila; for instance, in
Budapest
there are 10 Attila Streets, one of which is an important street behind the
Buda Castle
. When the
Turkish Armed Forces
invaded
Cyprus
in 1974, the operations were named after Attila ("The Attila Plan").
73
The 1954
Universal International
film
Sign of the Pagan
starred
Jack Palance
as Attila.
See also
Onegesius
Bleda
Mundzuk
Attila the Hun in popular culture
Notes
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(January 1996).
"Medieval Sourcebook: Leo I and Attila"
Fordham University
Archived
from the original on 28 January 2014
. Retrieved
20 May
2014
Gibbon, Edward (1776–1789).
History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
Milman, Rev. H. H.
(notes). London: Strahan & Cadell.
Archived
from the original on 27 March 2013
. Retrieved
20 May
2014
"Atlakvitha en Grönlenzka"
[The Greenland Lay of Atli].
The Poetic Edda
. Translated by
Bellows, Henry Adams
. Internet Sacred Text Archive. 1936.
Archived
from the original on 9 April 2014
. Retrieved
20 May
2014
"Völsunga Saga"
. Translated by
Morris, William
Magnússon, Eiríkr
. The Northvegr Foundation. 1888. Archived from
the original
(Online)
on 25 July 2013
. Retrieved
20 May
2014
Urbańczyk, Przemysław (1997).
Early christianity in central and east Europe: Volume 1 of Christianity in east central Europe and its relations with the west and the east
. Instytut Europy Środkowo-Wschodniej. p. 200.
ISBN
978-83-86951-33-8
Innes, Matthew
(2000).
Hen, Yitzhak
; Innes, Matthew (eds.).
The Uses of the Past in the Early Middle Ages
Cambridge University Press
. p.
245
ISBN
978-0-521-63998-9
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock
(1991) [1921].
Forbes, Elliot
(ed.).
Thayer's Life of Beethoven
(Revised 1967 ed.).
Princeton University Press
. p. 524.
ISBN
978-0-691-02717-3
... I could not refrain from the lively wish to possess an opera from your unique talent .... I should prefer one from the darker periods, Attila, etc., for instance, ...
Nehru, Jawaharlal
(1934).
Glimpses of World History
. London: Penguin Books India (published 30 March 2004). p. 919.
ISBN
978-0-14-303105-5
{{
cite book
}}
ISBN / Date incompatibility (
help
"Attilas Schwert über Oesterreich: Mit ferngelenktem "New Look"
[Attila's Sword over Austria: With remote-controlled "New Look"]
(Online)
Vol. 45/1948
(in German). Vol. 45.
Der Spiegel
. 6 November 1948.
Archived
from the original on 20 May 2014
. Retrieved
20 May
2014
Martin, Elizabeth, ed. (December 2006).
A Dictionary of World History
(2nd ed.).
Oxford University Press
. p. 41.
ISBN
978-0-19-920247-8
The invasion, which was likened to the action of Attila the Hun, put into effect Turkey's scheme for the partition of Cyprus (Atilla Plan).
Sources
Frazee, Charles A. (2002).
Two Thousand Years Ago: the World at the Time of Jesus
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company
ISBN
978-0-8028-4805-5
Heather, Peter
(2010).
Empires and Barbarians: The Fall of Rome and the Birth of Europe
Oxford University Press
ISBN
978-0-19-975272-0
Heather, Peter
(2007).
The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History of Rome and the Barbarians
Oxford University Press
ISBN
978-0-19-532541-6
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Attila
Wikiquote has quotations related to
Attila
Hodgkin, Thomas
(1911).
"Attila"
Encyclopædia Britannica
. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp.
885–
886.
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