Papers by Aytekin Büyüközer
Muğla Kazı ve Araştırmaları I, 2025
Stratonikeia from Antiquity to Modern Times, 2024
Antik Dönemlerden Günümüze Stratonikeia, 2024
Anadolu / Anatolia 49, 2023
This article focuses on the defense strategy of the port cities in the region of Caria during the... more This article focuses on the defense strategy of the port cities in the region of Caria during the Hecatomnid Dynasty. The use of the ports of cities such as Kaunos, Knidos, Halicarnassus and Iasos, as a defense base by the Athenian, Spartan and Persian navies in the 5th and 4th centuries BC has clearly demonstrated how important the port cities are, both commercially and militarily. Hecatomnos and his successors, who were appointed as satrap in the Caria Region, which became an autonomous satrapy at the beginning of the 4th century BC, understood the importance of the port cities for the defense of the region and formed their defense strategies accordingly. Within the scope of the urbanization policy that started with Maussollos, either new port cities were established or existing cities were expanded and strengthened. The first of the determining factors in the selection of the location of these cities is that the surrounding of the settlement has peaks and ridges suitable for Geländemauer style of fortification. Another important factor is the existence of sheltered bays suitable for the creation of Limen Kleistos to ensure the safety of the city, the port, the navy and visiting ships. Securing the cities in this way also allowed the region, which is in a strategic position for maritime trade, to develop its commercial and cultural relations with the Aegean and Eastern Mediterranean. The Hecatomnids left the inner regions to a certain extent in order to create settlements that have direct contact with the sea or to enlarge and strengthen the existing settlements, and they generally built their defense strategies on port cities. In this context, the Hecatomnids were not limited to the mainland; they wanted to increase the potential of the region in both defense and trade by increasing the number of ports that could provide regular naval bases on nearby islands such as Kalymnos, Nisyros, Telos and Kos. Thus, they formed an effective line in the defense of the lands under the rule of the Hecatomnid Dynasty, with the region stretching from northern Caria to Lycia, and the port cities on the islands.
Befestigungsbauten im westlichen Kleinasien Fortifications in western Anatolia , 2023
This study includes the initial outcomes of our research on the defensive architecture of Knidos,... more This study includes the initial outcomes of our research on the defensive architecture of Knidos, one of Western Anatolia’s major port cities. Located at the tip of Datça Peninsula, the city was established on a sloping site facing south towards a small nearby island called Cape Krio. The city experienced a period of mobility in the 4th century BC, interpreted as a change of location by some researchers. Inside the city walls, which are categorized as the Geländemauer type, a new arrangement with an orthogonal structure was built upon the layers of the archaic and classical periods and nowadays accounts for the majority of the local ruins. According to our preliminary evaluations, the walls on the mainland, as well as the ones that can be found on Cape Krio, were built during the 4th century. The process of building those walls generally consisted of short construction phases and was usually finished in one stage. Due to differences in the workmanship of the towers, it is safe to say that the Acropolis walls should have been complete shortly after the walls on the mainland and Cape Krio. The step-by-step establishment of the defence system has enabled the implementation of innovations specific to the military architecture of the time in each new section.
TÜBA-AR 30, 2022
As a result of Persian rule in Western Anatolia, construction activities came to a standstill in ... more As a result of Persian rule in Western Anatolia, construction activities came to a standstill in the 5th century BC. From the first quarter of the 4th century BC, the conditions changed, and the wars between the Athenians, Spartans and Persians ended in favor of the Persians. After the King’s Peace in 387/6 BC, Athens had to give up its desire to control Western Anatolia and Anatolia was completely under Persian control. The King's Peace started a new period of prosperity and stability under Persian rule, and as a result, Western Anatolia experienced one of the most advanced periods in the history of architecture, called the “Ionian Renaissance”, when the Archaic Ionian culture began to revive with the Hekatomnid Dynasty. In this process, Hecatomnus and his successors managed to keep their regions away from the mixed political environment during their rule, as a result, new cities were established in the region or existing cities were rearranged and large-scale structures were started to be built again.
The aim of this study is to determine the reflections of the period called “Ionian Renaissance” in Knidos. In this context, firstly, the examples of the Karian-Ionian lewis hole in the city with the double corner bond technique, which is one of the characteristic applications of the Ionian Renaissance, will be emphasized. It is thought that the details of the double corner bond technique applied in the towers of Knidos will make an important contribution to the historical development of this masonry. In addition to the characteristic applications, the general characteristics of the period in question in the city will also be briefly evaluated.
Olba XXX, 2022
The necropoleis of Knidos are relatively well-preserved compared to the necropoleis of Western An... more The necropoleis of Knidos are relatively well-preserved compared to the necropoleis of Western Anatolia. In the eastern necropolis, hundreds of monumental tombs still exist, and one can observe numerous examples regarding the traditional tomb architecture of Knidos. The common characteristics of these tombs are the simple grave cells surrounded by walls, sometimes with “U” formed walls with one side open and enclosed mostly by four-sided walls. This traditional form in Knidos was referred to as temenos or peribolos type of tombs. As one of the circular walled Tumuli only represented with three examples in the Knidos necropolies, the Tumulus of Saranda and its findings constitute the subject of the study. According to the evaluations conducted on the burial findings, the circular wall, dromos, and two tombs at the center of the tumulus (Tombs II and III) must have been built in the second half of the 3rd century BC. The same area was used again as a second burial around the middle of the 2nd century BC or a little later. The last comprehensive construction and burial site in the Tumulus were built in the 2nd century AC. The form is the only difference between the circular walled tumuli and the traditional architecture of tombs in Knidos. Therefore, rather than the observed form of these walls, it’s the meaning that they give to the tomb, which is important in the traditional tomb architecture of the city. Based on the circular walled tumulus, which is the subject of this article, it can be stated that although it is observed as a different tomb type, the same tradition continued in the necropolis of Knidos. Either in rectangular or in circular form, these walls aimed to separate the family graves from others and to bring a monumental view to these non-extravagant tombs.
Lycus 4, 2021
In this study, the historical process of Koranza, which is located in the territory of Stratonike... more In this study, the historical process of Koranza, which is located in the territory of Stratonikeia, is discussed. The name Koranza is one of the most common centers seen as a demotic name in the inscriptions found in the region. As a result of both the studies carried out in the past years and the data obtained from the archaeological surveys that have been continuing since 2018, it has been determined that Koranza has a history ating back to the 2nd millennium BC. In the studies carried out in Western Anatolia, the spread of the finds belonging to the last phase of the Mycenaean culture in the Aegean geography was limited to the Eastern Aegean islands and the coastline of Western Anatolia. However, the finds discovered in Çine-Tepecik Höyük in recent years and showing that the relations with the Mycenaean culture were effective, revealed that this geographical border also includes the Çine (Marsyas) region. The data obtained from the excavations carried out in Stratonikeia and its surroundings and the potteries dated to the GH IIIC period, which we identified during the surveys we conducted in the region, show that the Yatağan Plain should be included in the spread of Mycenaean potteries. The name Koranza, with its different pronunciations, begins to appear in the 4th century BC. While
Koranza used to be an independent city with its own branches and ruled by an archon, it became the deme of Stratonikeia due to the establishment of Stratonikeia in the 3rd century BC and subsequently being the political ruler of the region. The name of Koranza, which has the sanctuary of Artemis and Apollo since at least the 4th century BC, is seen as a place name associated with the goddess Artemis, as we understand from the epigraphic data. The cult of Artemis was the most important cult of the region until the Temple of Hekate in Lagina was built. Although the cult of Artemis lost its importance after the cult of Hecate came to the fore, the inscriptions recovered from the region show that the cult of Artemis continued until the Roman Imperial Period.
Çağlar Boyunca Nehirler, Denizler ve Göller, 2021
In this study, we focus on the new city image of Knidos emerging in the Late Classical Period, th... more In this study, we focus on the new city image of Knidos emerging in the Late Classical Period, the defense system and its ports, which are the basic elements of the city’s establishment. As a result of the Peace of Antalcidas in 387/6 BC, Western Anatolia experienced great changes economically, politically, and strategically. With the end of the chaotic environment, peace, and stability prevailed once again in the region, and the cities developed economically and commercially under Persian rule. As a result, large-scale structures started to be built again in Western Anatolia. According to some researchers, in the IVth century BCE, Knidos experienced a hectic period which was related to the re-planning of the city and change of location according to others. It is observed that Knidos was also affected by the urbanization policy initiated by the Hekatomnid Dynasty, and the lands were taken under protection with a city wall like Geländemauer, just like in Halikarnassos, and the city was organized with an orthogonal planning like Halikarnassos. The focus of the new planning is sea and ports. The sea has an important place in trade, traffic and communication area from antiquity to the present day. The sea is of great importance in the transfer of people, products and thoughts as a political and military field. The decisive factor in the selection of the location of Knidos as a settlement is the presence of areas that can form a port where they can do sea trade.
Olba XXVIII, 2020
Cnidus, one of the coastal cities of the Carian region, is located at the endpoint of the Datça p... more Cnidus, one of the coastal cities of the Carian region, is located at the endpoint of the Datça peninsula. The city is built on a sloping terrain descending towards the sea which faces south toward the small island (Cape Krio) just in front of it. In the 4th century BC, Cnidus experienced a civic movement that was interpreted as a transfer by some researchers. A reorganization of a vast majority of the ruins visible today was undertaken according to an orthogonal plan on the ruins of the Archaic and Classical Periods. This arrangement was protected by a city wall of the Geländemauer type. In this study, the curtain walls and towers of Cape Krio, which are an important part of the city wall, will be examined, and a new proposal will be presented on the function of tower 56 (?) at the eastern end of Cape Krio, about which there is a discussion whether it is a tower or a lighthouse. Finally, the construction date of the city wall which is dated back to 330 BC will be discussed.
Cape Krio has the appearance of a hill just next to the mainland, ending with a steep cliff in the south, easy to defend and rising from north to south. Some researchers have concluded that Cape Krio was the location of the first settlement in Cnidus. Whether the first settlement in the city was in Cape Krio or not will be clarified as a result of the ongoing archaeological excavations; in any case the importance of this small island for the city cannot be ignored. For this reason, the island was included in the defense system along with the mainland within the framework of the reconstruction activities in the 4th century BC, and suitable areas for the structures were created with the terraces formed on the northern slope. The topographic structure of Cape Krio provided the island with a natural defense, and missing sections were supported by walls and towers. The west and east of the island have lines of defense independent from one another. The land is very steep in the south of Cape Krio, and it turns into vertical cliffs in most places. For this reason, no defense line was needed in the south. The walls begin from the southwest starting point of the fault scarp in the west of the island, follow the fault scarp and connect to the tower at the entrance of the Military Port. Along this line, the walls form steps and offsets by changing directions in some sections following the topography. There are 8 towers from the beginning of the walls to the entrance of the Military Port. While the curtain walls have a mixed wall technique consisting of trapezoidal, rectangular and polygonal blocks, an isodomic technique from rectangular blocks almost without exception was preferred in the towers. There are only 2 towers in the east of the island. A mixed wall technique consisting of trapezoidal, rectangular and polygonal blocks was used in the walls starting from the second fault scarp at the east end, which is used as a quarry for the construction of the southern breakwater of the Trade Port, and continuing towards the south. In the towers with extremely poor protection, isodomic walls from rectangular blocks were preferred. Different wall techniques are seen in Cnidus curtain walls and towers, and different possibilities are suggested as to the reason for this practice. The most valid possibility for this is that the land was shared by different groups to complete the project in a short time.
The function of tower 56 on the east of Cape Krio is controversial. There are theories about the structure being a lighthouse or a defensive tower. However, the evaluations made considering its location, measurements, wall technique and plan have shown that the structure is similar to those found in temenos or peribolos type graves, which are commonly seen in the architectural repertoire of Cnidus, especially in the eastern necropolis. For this reason, even though the city is located within the city wall, we think that the structure is an example of the typical temenos/peribolos graves of Cnidus.
In connection with the idea that the city had been relocated, the walls of Cnidus were dated back to 330 BC, and this date was accepted by different researchers without question. However, the idea that the city had been transferred and therefore the date in question, are open to discussion. Regardless of the discussions of the transfer of the city and considering the important structures in the period when it was reorganized on an orthogonal plan as well as sculpture in these structures, we can definitively assert that this planning had taken place at an earlier date. Considering that urban planning cannot be carried out independent of the defense system, and that the defense problem must be solved first to organize a settlement, the city walls must have been completed in the second quarter of the 4th century BC.
Arkhaia Anatolika 3, 2020
This paper discusses the tombs that were identified during archaeological surveys conducted in th... more This paper discusses the tombs that were identified during archaeological surveys conducted in the northwest of the border of Yatağan district in 2018 and 2019, many of which have not been subject to any scientific study. Two of these tombs are subterranean chamber tombs; one is a tumulus with krepis walls while five are rock-cut tombs bearing different features. The first of the subterranean chamber tombs is located on theborders of Koranza, just north of Lagina. The tomb consisting of one vestibule and a burial chamber, was built using limestone and conglomerate blocks. In the tomb, which marble was preferred for the burial beds, it is seen that both the top cover and the furnishings inside the tomb feature simple arrangements. The Taşkesik tomb in the southwest of Lagina was built entirely of marble and consists of a front chamber and a main tomb chamber. Although it is difficult to determine some details on the top cover and the interior furnishing of the tomb featuring quite high-quality workmanship due to the destruction caused by unlicensed excavations, it is clear that it has greater detailed workmanship than the Koranza tomb. During the study, the architecture of the tombs, the functions of the rooms, the applications preferred in the entrances located in the passage between the rooms, the findings related to the burial beds and the top cover were evaluated by means of comparison with other examples in the region. Though the burial chambers under tumuli are not foreign to the Caria Region, it is a new type for our research region. The circular krepis wall surrounding the tomb chamber in Gökgedik Tumulus consists of a dromos and a chamber. These walls that form the boundary of tombs in the circular shaped tumuli featuring krepis walls, documented in almost every region of Anatolia, both prevent the decomposition and erosion of the material that forms the top of the tomb and provide a monumental appearance to the structure by forming a platform.
The rock-cut tombs in the region present different features. While the Deliklitaşini rock-cut tomb presents a unique example with the lack of the north wall, the İmize and Zeytinköy rock-cut tombs are the representatives of a very common type in the region with their plain facade and Π-shaped interior furnishings. The Kurudere rock-cut tomb is an important example with its different applications in its interior furnishing, but what is more important is the terrace formed in front of the tomb for the dead cult. The Hankuyu rock-cut tomb, on the other hand, constitutes the rural example of a tomb type seen very commonly after Stratonikeia was liberated from Rhodes and gained its political and economic independence. While the tombs found during the 2018 and 2019 surveys show that the active families in the rural settlement took as example the tombs of the aristocratic segment living in cities, each of these tombs are like a symbol of the statuses held by those in the tombs at the time they were alive.
Lycus I, 2020
In this study, a bronze figurine found in the South Propylon in Lagina in 2011 was discussed. The... more In this study, a bronze figurine found in the South Propylon in Lagina in 2011 was discussed. The figurine is depicted from the front in an archaic style. It has polos on its head and a veil (shawl) attached to it. The arms of the figure in a narrow garment that surrounds the body are adhered to the body, and the hands are extended symmetrically by breaking from the elbow. The most characteristic part of the figurine is oval objects, clustered in the chest and abdomen, made in four rows. In the left hand of the figurine, there is an object with a broken upper part, which may be the wand. The object in her right hand is missing. Although this definition immediately brought to mind the Artemis Ephesia among the depictions of gods and goddesses with countless depictions in ancient times, comprehensive studies revealed that this depiction was not limited to Artemis Ephesia. The pectoral ornament, which we can see mainly in the area of the chest of the Lagina figurine are only seen in Artemis Ephesia and Zeus Labraundos among gods and goddesses with the same iconographic features. The object the Lagina figurine holds in her left hand, the fact that the facial details cannot be chosen and the similarities with the Zeus Labraundos relief in Stratonikeia prevent us from directly associating the figurine with the Artemis Ephesia. For this reason, it will be tried to reach a result by comparing the figurine with the depictions of Artemis Ephesia and Zeus Labraundos.
Arkhaia Anatolika 2, 2019
“lonian Renaissance” is characterized by a revival of Archaic Anatolian architecture influenced b... more “lonian Renaissance” is characterized by a revival of Archaic Anatolian architecture influenced by both contemporaneous mainland Greek architecture and substantial technical features introduced by the Hekatomnids and their architects. In this period, new construction programs were undertaken in many cities, and some characteristic construction techniques came to the forefront in these new buildings, such as the double-binder system in the corners, the Karian-Ionian lewis holes, and visible dovetail clamps, which are generally applied on stairs and stylobate blocks. Even though the chronological boundaries of the Ionian Renaissance cannot be precisely defined, the generally accepted view is that it started during the reign of Mausolus and continued until about 200 BC. The Karian-Ionian lewis holes, one of the characteristic applications of the Ionian Renaissance, were used in the Temple of Hecate and visible dovetail clamps were used in the Propylon . The fact that these techniques, which are chronologically limited to about 200 BC, are seen in the temple dating back to the late Hellenistic period and in the Propylon dating back to the early imperial period makes the applications in Lagina important. Researchers have assumed the use of these technical details in Lagina to be evidence that the structures belong to an earlier period or early stages of construction. However, such an association is not possible when the inscriptions in the sacred area, stylistic conventions on the architectural decorations of the structures and the historical course of Stratonikeia and Lagina are considered. It should not be concluded from the uses in Lagina that the temple dates back to an earlier date due to the Karian-Ionian lewis cuttings and the Propylon dates back to an earlier date due to the visible clamps. Here, it should be concluded that these techniques continued to be used long after 200 BC as they were applied in the structures dating back to the late Hellenistic and early imperial periods.
Cedrus VII, 2019
Öz: Knidos, Datça Yarımadası'nın en uç noktasında, güneye bakan ve denize doğru alçalan eğimli bi... more Öz: Knidos, Datça Yarımadası'nın en uç noktasında, güneye bakan ve denize doğru alçalan eğimli bir arazi ile hemen önündeki küçük ada üzerine kurulmuştur. Topoğrafik yapısından kaynaklı bu özelliği nedeniyle Strabon tarafından çifte şehir olarak adlandırılan kentin yaklaşık olarak 4 km'lik uzunluğa sahip bir savunma hattı vardır. Kent surları planlanırken stratejik düşünce ve arazinin sağladığı imkanlardan faydalanılmış, arazinin şekli surların yapımında belirleyici olmuştur. Topoğrafya dikkate alınarak araziye oturtulan surlarda doğal tahkimli uçurum veya kayalık gibi bölümler akılcı bir şekilde sur hattına dahil edilmiştir. Surlar arazinin jeomorfolojik yapısına bağlı olarak yerel kireç taşı bloklardan örülmüştür. Bununla birlikte yer yer konglamera blokların kullanıldığı bölümler de bulunmaktadır. Kulelerin tamamı, sur bedenlerinin bir kısmı rektogonal bloklardan isodomos teknikte örülmüştür. Sur bedenlerinin büyük bir bölümünün ise polygonal bloklardan örüldüğü görülmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Knidos kent surlarının bir parçası olan ticari ve askeri liman çevresindeki duvarlar ve kuleler ele alınacaktır. Antikçağda Strabon'un aktarımlarından bildiğimiz kadarıyla ana karadan Kap Krio'ya doğru inşa edilen bir mendirekle ada ile ana kara birleştirilmiş arada ise dar bir kanal bırakılmıştır. Ana kara ve Kap Krio'nun birleştirilmesi ile kıstağın doğusunda ve batısında iki koy meydana gelmiştir. Oluşan koyların ağız kısımlarında yapılan düzenlemelerle koylar koruma altına alınarak birer liman elde edilmiştir. Söz konusu limanlar MÖ IV. yüzyılın 2. çeyreğinde başlayan imar faaliyetleri çerçevesinde planlanan savunma sisteminin içine dahil edilmiştir. Özellikle Askeri Liman çevresindeki ve girişindeki kulelerle "limen kleistos" olarak bilinen "kapalı veya kapatılabilen liman" olgusunun en iyi örneklerinden biridir.
Çağlar Boyunca Üretim ve Ticaret: Prehistorya’dan Bizans Dönemi’ne, 2019
Elinizdeki bu kitap, Prehistorya'dan Bizans Dönemi'ne kadar geçen süreçteki üretim ve ticaretle i... more Elinizdeki bu kitap, Prehistorya'dan Bizans Dönemi'ne kadar geçen süreçteki üretim ve ticaretle ilgili konuları kapsamaktadır. Bu kitapta Anadolu özelinde, Antik Dünya'nın ticari ürünleri, üretim aşamaları ve ticaret yolları ile birlikte üretim ve ticaret olgusunun eski çağ top-lumlarının sosyo-ekonomik hayatına etkileri üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu kitaba Arkeoloji, Tarih, Sanat Tarihi, Coğrafya, Jeoloji gibi bilim dallarında, alanında uzman pek çok bilim insanı çalışmalarıyla kat-kı sağlamıştır. İçeriğinde yer alan birbirinden kıymetli çalışmalar ile "Çağlar Boyunca" ana başlığı altındaki kitap serisinin ilkini siz değerli okuyuculularımıza sunmanın mutluluğunu yaşıyoruz.
Arkhaia Anatolika 1, 2018
Öz: Bu çalışmada Konya merkezde bulunan ve bezeme unsurları ile sıra dışı özelliğe sahip olan bir... more Öz: Bu çalışmada Konya merkezde bulunan ve bezeme unsurları ile sıra dışı özelliğe sahip olan bir mimari blok ele alınmıştır. Çalışma kapsamında öncelikle mimari bloğun başlık olarak mı, yoksa kaide olarak mı kullanıl-dığı sorgulanmıştır. Çünkü dört cephesi de akanthus yaprakları ile kaplı olan bu blok hem biçimi hem de cep-he dizaynı ile normal korinth başlıklarından ayrılmakta-dır. Bunun yanı sıra korinth başlıklarında görmeye alış-kın olduğumuz kaulis ile heliks gibi bölümler yerine be-zeme alanının tamamen büyük boyutlu tek akanthus yaprağı ile kaplanması da farklı bir uygulamadır. Bloğun üst kısmının büyük oranda tahrip edilmiş olması, hem volütler hem de abakus'un varlığına dair bir iz tespit edil-mesini güçleştirmektedir. Köşelere yerleştirilen alt sıra akanthus yapraklarının kavislendirilmesi suretiyle sekiz-gen bir form elde edilen bezemeli blok biçimi, bezeme şeması ve oranları bakımından korinth başlıkları ile kar-şılaştırılmış, özellikle bloğun biçimi ve bezeme şemasın-dan hareketle de bunun korinth başlığından ziyade Ana-dolu'da Hellenistik Dönem'den itibaren varlığı bilinen akanthus bezemeli paye kaidesi olduğu sonucuna varıl-mıştır. Yapılan değerlendirmeler, kaidenin Augustus Dönemi'nin ikinci yarısına ait stil özelliklerine sahip ol-duğunu göstermektedir. Abstract: This study addresses a unique decorated architectural block found in the centre of Konya. In the initial stage of this study, it was questioned if this architectural block was employed as a base or as a capital, because the block, which is decorated with carved acan-thus leaves, differs from the usual Corinthian capital both in its design and in its shape. A further difference is that it is decorated with a single and sizable acanthus leaf all over the surface, instead of the caules and helices usually employed on Corinthian capitals. As the upper side of the block is severely damaged, it is difficult to find traces of the volutes or of an abacus. The block had an octagonal shape, indicated by the curving leaves of the lower acanthus row at the corners. In this study the shape, decoration pattern, and ratios of the block were compared with other Corinthian capitals and, due to the shape and the pattern of decoration, it was concluded that this carved block was most probably a pier base with acanthus leaves, of a type found in Anatolia during the Hellenistic period. This base however has stylistic features which suggests it dates from the second half of the reign of Augustus. Anahtar Kelimeler: Ikonium • Akanthus • Kaide • Başlık • Paye • Korinth
Cedrus III, 2015
Öz: Bu çalışmada, Lagina Hekate Kutsal Alanı'nda 2011 yılında açığa çıkarılan ve bulunduğu alan n... more Öz: Bu çalışmada, Lagina Hekate Kutsal Alanı'nda 2011 yılında açığa çıkarılan ve bulunduğu alan nedeniyle Güney Propylon olarak adlandırılan yapı ele alınmıştır. Güney Stoa'nın arka duvarına entegre edilmiş olan yapı, tristylos prostylos planlı, dor düzeninde ve tek cepheli bir mimariye sahiptir. Augustus Dönemi'ne tarihlendirilen yapı, plan özellikleri bakımından Hellenistik Dönem'in prostylos planlı propylon'larının geleneğini sürdürmektedir. Ancak Hellenistik Dönem propylon'larında genel olarak tetrastylos prostylos plan uygulanırken, Lagina Güney Propylon'un tristylos prostylos planı, yapıya has bir özellik olarak karşımıza çıkmaktadır. Plandaki bu sıra dışı özellik cephe mimarisinde de kendini göstermektedir. Yapı, dor düzeninde inşa edilmiş olmasına karşın, sütun yivlerinin ionik işlenmesi, arşitravların faskia'lara ayrılması, arşitrav taenia'sının devamına, friz bloklarında ise triglif ve metop taeniasının üst sınırına eklenen profiller ionik özelliklerdir. Hellenistik Dönem öncesinde propylon'ların inşasında genel olarak dor düzeni tercih edilmiştir. Hellenistik Dönem ile birlikte bu yapılarda ion ve korinth düzenleri de görülmeye başlar. Roma Dönemi'nde ise dor düzeni büyük oranda terk edilmiş, yerini ion, korinth ve kompozit gibi daha estetik düzenlere bırakmıştır. Augustus Dönemi'ne tarihlendirdiğimiz Lagina Güney Propylon, dorik cephe mimarisi ile Anadolu'da Roma Dönemi'nde görülen az sayıdaki örnekten biridir.
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Papers by Aytekin Büyüközer
The aim of this study is to determine the reflections of the period called “Ionian Renaissance” in Knidos. In this context, firstly, the examples of the Karian-Ionian lewis hole in the city with the double corner bond technique, which is one of the characteristic applications of the Ionian Renaissance, will be emphasized. It is thought that the details of the double corner bond technique applied in the towers of Knidos will make an important contribution to the historical development of this masonry. In addition to the characteristic applications, the general characteristics of the period in question in the city will also be briefly evaluated.
Koranza used to be an independent city with its own branches and ruled by an archon, it became the deme of Stratonikeia due to the establishment of Stratonikeia in the 3rd century BC and subsequently being the political ruler of the region. The name of Koranza, which has the sanctuary of Artemis and Apollo since at least the 4th century BC, is seen as a place name associated with the goddess Artemis, as we understand from the epigraphic data. The cult of Artemis was the most important cult of the region until the Temple of Hekate in Lagina was built. Although the cult of Artemis lost its importance after the cult of Hecate came to the fore, the inscriptions recovered from the region show that the cult of Artemis continued until the Roman Imperial Period.
Cape Krio has the appearance of a hill just next to the mainland, ending with a steep cliff in the south, easy to defend and rising from north to south. Some researchers have concluded that Cape Krio was the location of the first settlement in Cnidus. Whether the first settlement in the city was in Cape Krio or not will be clarified as a result of the ongoing archaeological excavations; in any case the importance of this small island for the city cannot be ignored. For this reason, the island was included in the defense system along with the mainland within the framework of the reconstruction activities in the 4th century BC, and suitable areas for the structures were created with the terraces formed on the northern slope. The topographic structure of Cape Krio provided the island with a natural defense, and missing sections were supported by walls and towers. The west and east of the island have lines of defense independent from one another. The land is very steep in the south of Cape Krio, and it turns into vertical cliffs in most places. For this reason, no defense line was needed in the south. The walls begin from the southwest starting point of the fault scarp in the west of the island, follow the fault scarp and connect to the tower at the entrance of the Military Port. Along this line, the walls form steps and offsets by changing directions in some sections following the topography. There are 8 towers from the beginning of the walls to the entrance of the Military Port. While the curtain walls have a mixed wall technique consisting of trapezoidal, rectangular and polygonal blocks, an isodomic technique from rectangular blocks almost without exception was preferred in the towers. There are only 2 towers in the east of the island. A mixed wall technique consisting of trapezoidal, rectangular and polygonal blocks was used in the walls starting from the second fault scarp at the east end, which is used as a quarry for the construction of the southern breakwater of the Trade Port, and continuing towards the south. In the towers with extremely poor protection, isodomic walls from rectangular blocks were preferred. Different wall techniques are seen in Cnidus curtain walls and towers, and different possibilities are suggested as to the reason for this practice. The most valid possibility for this is that the land was shared by different groups to complete the project in a short time.
The function of tower 56 on the east of Cape Krio is controversial. There are theories about the structure being a lighthouse or a defensive tower. However, the evaluations made considering its location, measurements, wall technique and plan have shown that the structure is similar to those found in temenos or peribolos type graves, which are commonly seen in the architectural repertoire of Cnidus, especially in the eastern necropolis. For this reason, even though the city is located within the city wall, we think that the structure is an example of the typical temenos/peribolos graves of Cnidus.
In connection with the idea that the city had been relocated, the walls of Cnidus were dated back to 330 BC, and this date was accepted by different researchers without question. However, the idea that the city had been transferred and therefore the date in question, are open to discussion. Regardless of the discussions of the transfer of the city and considering the important structures in the period when it was reorganized on an orthogonal plan as well as sculpture in these structures, we can definitively assert that this planning had taken place at an earlier date. Considering that urban planning cannot be carried out independent of the defense system, and that the defense problem must be solved first to organize a settlement, the city walls must have been completed in the second quarter of the 4th century BC.
The rock-cut tombs in the region present different features. While the Deliklitaşini rock-cut tomb presents a unique example with the lack of the north wall, the İmize and Zeytinköy rock-cut tombs are the representatives of a very common type in the region with their plain facade and Π-shaped interior furnishings. The Kurudere rock-cut tomb is an important example with its different applications in its interior furnishing, but what is more important is the terrace formed in front of the tomb for the dead cult. The Hankuyu rock-cut tomb, on the other hand, constitutes the rural example of a tomb type seen very commonly after Stratonikeia was liberated from Rhodes and gained its political and economic independence. While the tombs found during the 2018 and 2019 surveys show that the active families in the rural settlement took as example the tombs of the aristocratic segment living in cities, each of these tombs are like a symbol of the statuses held by those in the tombs at the time they were alive.