Basalt - Wikipedia

Basalt - Wikipedia
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Magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock
For other uses, see
Basalt (disambiguation)
Basalt
Igneous rock
Composition
Primary
Mafic
plagioclase
amphibole
, and
pyroxene
Secondary
Sometimes
feldspathoids
or
olivine
Basalt
UK
ɔː
əl
US
ɔː
eɪ
ɔː
is an
aphanitic
(fine-grained)
extrusive
igneous rock
formed from the rapid cooling of low-
viscosity
lava
rich in
magnesium
and
iron
mafic
lava) exposed at or very near the
surface
of a
rocky planet
or
moon
. More than 90% of all
volcanic rock
on Earth is basalt. Rapid-cooling, fine-grained basalt has the same chemical composition and mineralogy as slow-cooling, coarse-grained
gabbro
. The eruption of basalt lava is observed by geologists at about 20 volcanoes per year. Basalt is also an important rock type on other planetary bodies in the
Solar System
. For example, the bulk of the plains of
Venus
, which cover ~80% of the surface, are basaltic; the
lunar maria
are plains of flood-basaltic
lava flows
; and basalt is a common rock on the surface of
Mars
Molten basalt lava has a low viscosity due to its relatively low
silica
content (between 45% and 52%), resulting in rapidly moving lava flows that can spread over great areas before cooling and solidifying.
Flood basalts
are thick sequences of many such flows that can cover hundreds of thousands of square kilometres and constitute the most voluminous of all volcanic formations.
Basaltic
magmas
within Earth are thought to originate from the
upper mantle
. The chemistry of basalts thus provides clues to processes deep in
Earth's interior
Definition and characteristics
QAPF diagram
with basalt/andesite field highlighted in yellow. Basalt is distinguished from andesite by SiO
< 52%.
Basalt is field B in the
TAS classification
Vesicular basalt at
Sunset Crater
, Arizona.
US quarter
(24mm) for scale.
Columnar basalt flows in
Yellowstone National Park
, US
Basalt is composed mostly of oxides of silicon, iron, magnesium, potassium, aluminum, titanium, and calcium.
Geologists
classify
igneous rock
by its mineral content whenever possible; the relative volume percentages of
quartz
(crystalline
silica
(SiO
)),
alkali feldspar
plagioclase
, and
feldspathoid
QAPF
) are particularly important. An
aphanitic
(fine-grained) igneous rock is classified as basalt when its QAPF fraction is composed of less than 10% feldspathoid and less than 20% quartz, and plagioclase makes up at least 65% of its feldspar content. This places basalt in the basalt/andesite field of the QAPF diagram. Basalt is further distinguished from andesite by its silica content of under 52%.
It is often not practical to determine the mineral composition of volcanic rocks, due to their very small grain size, in which case geologists instead classify the rocks chemically, with particular emphasis on the total content of alkali metal oxides and silica (
TAS
); in that context, basalt is defined as volcanic rock with a content of between 45% and 52% silica and no more than 5% alkali metal oxides. This places basalt in the B field of the TAS diagram.
Such a composition is described as
mafic
Basalt is usually dark grey to black in colour, due to a high content of
augite
or other dark-coloured
pyroxene
minerals,
10
11
but can exhibit a wide range of shading. Some basalts are quite light-coloured due to a high content of plagioclase; these are sometimes described as
leucobasalts
12
13
It can be difficult to distinguish between lighter-colored basalt and
andesite
, so
field researchers
commonly use a
rule of thumb
for this purpose, classifying it as basalt if it has a
color index
of 35 or greater.
14
The physical properties of basalt result from its relatively low silica content and typically high iron and magnesium content.
15
The average density of basalt is 2.9 g/cm
, compared, for example, to
granite
’s typical density of 2.7 g/cm
16
The viscosity of basaltic magma is relatively low—around 10
to 10
cP
—similar to the viscosity of
ketchup
, but that is still several orders of magnitude higher than the viscosity of water, which is about 1 cP).
17
Basalt is often
porphyritic
, containing larger crystals (
phenocrysts
) that formed before the extrusion event that brought the magma to the surface, embedded in a finer-grained
matrix
. These phenocrysts are usually made of augite,
olivine
, or a calcium-rich plagioclase,
10
which have
the highest melting temperatures
of any of the
minerals
that can typically crystallize from the melt, and which are therefore the first to form solid crystals.
18
19
Basalt often contains
vesicles
; they are formed when dissolved gases bubble out of the magma as it decompresses during its approach to the surface; the erupted lava then solidifies before the gases can escape. When vesicles make up a substantial fraction of the volume of the rock, the rock is described as
scoria
20
21
The term
basalt
is at times applied to shallow
intrusive rocks
with a composition typical of basalt, but rocks of this composition with a
phaneritic
(coarser) groundmass are more properly referred to either as
diabase
(also called dolerite) or—when they are more coarse-grained (having crystals over 2 mm across)—as
gabbro
. Diabase and gabbro are thus the
hypabyssal
and
plutonic
equivalents of basalt.
22
Columnar basalt at Szent György Hill, Hungary
During the
Hadean
Archean
, and early
Proterozoic
eons
of Earth's history, the chemistry of erupted magmas was significantly different from what it is today, due to immature crustal and
asthenosphere
differentiation. The resulting
ultramafic
volcanic rocks, with silica (SiO
) contents below 45% and high magnesium oxide (MgO) content, are usually classified as
komatiites
23
24
Etymology
The word "basalt" is ultimately derived from
Late Latin
basaltes
, a misspelling of Latin
basanites
"very
hard
stone", which was imported from
Ancient Greek
βασανίτης
basanites
), from
βάσανος
basanos
, "
touchstone
").
25
The modern petrological term
basalt
, describing a particular composition of
lava
-derived rock, became standard because of its use by
Georgius Agricola
in 1546, in his work
De Natura Fossilium
. Agricola applied the term "basalt" to the volcanic black rock beneath the
Bishop of Meissen's
Stolpen castle
, believing it to be the same as the "basaniten" described by
Pliny the Elder
in AD 77 in
Naturalis Historiae
26
Types
Large masses must cool slowly to form a polygonal joint pattern, as here at the
Giant's Causeway
in Northern Ireland
Columns of basalt near
Bazaltove
, Ukraine
On Earth, most basalt is formed by
decompression melting
of the
mantle
27
The high pressure in the upper mantle (due to
the weight of the overlying rock
) raises the melting point of mantle rock, so that almost all of the upper mantle is solid. However, mantle rock is
ductile
(the solid rock slowly deforms under high stress). When
tectonic forces
cause hot mantle rock to creep upwards, pressure on the ascending rock decreases, and this can lower its melting point enough for the rock to
partially melt
, producing basaltic magma.
28
Decompression melting can occur in a variety of
tectonic settings
, including in continental
rift
zones, at
mid-ocean ridges
, above
geological hotspots
29
30
and in
back-arc basins
31
Basalt also forms in
subduction zones
, where mantle rock rises into a
mantle wedge
above the descending slab. The slab releases water vapor and other volatiles as it descends, which further lowers the melting point, further increasing the amount of decompression melting.
32
Each tectonic setting produces basalt with its own distinctive characteristics.
33
Tholeiitic basalt
, which is relatively rich in
iron
and poor in
alkali metals
and
aluminium
34
include most basalts of the
ocean
floor, most large
oceanic islands
35
and continental
flood basalts
such as the
Columbia River Plateau
36
High- and low-titanium basalt rocks, which are sometimes classified based on their
titanium
(Ti) content in High-Ti and Low-Ti varieties. High-Ti and Low-Ti basalt have been distinguished from each other in the
Paraná and Etendeka traps
37
and the
Emeishan Traps
38
Mid-ocean ridge
basalt (MORB) is a tholeiitic basalt that has almost exclusively erupted at ocean ridges; it is characteristically low in
incompatible elements
39
Although all MORBs are chemically similar, geologists recognize that they vary significantly in how depleted they are in incompatible elements. When they are present in close proximity along mid-ocean ridges, that is seen as evidence for mantle inhomogeneity.
40
Enriched MORB (E-MORB) is defined as MORB that is relatively undepleted in incompatible elements. It was once thought to be mostly located in hot spots along mid-ocean ridges, such as Iceland, but it is now known to be located in many other places along those ridges.
41
Normal MORB (N-MORB) is defined as MORB that has an average amount of incompatible elements.
D-MORB, depleted MORB, is defined as MORB that is highly depleted in incompatible elements.
Alkali basalt
is relatively rich in alkali metals. It is
silica-undersaturated
and may contain
feldspathoids
34
alkali feldspar
phlogopite
, and
kaersutite
. Augite in alkali basalts is titanium-enriched augite; low-calcium pyroxenes are never present.
42
They are characteristic of continental rifting and hotspot volcanism.
43
High-alumina basalt has greater than 17%
alumina
(Al
) and is intermediate in composition between tholeiitic basalt and alkali basalt. Its relatively alumina-rich composition is based on rocks without phenocrysts of
plagioclase
. These represent the low-silica end of the
calc-alkaline magma series
and are characteristic of
volcanic arcs
above subduction zones.
44
Boninite
is a high-
magnesium
form of basalt that is erupted generally in
back-arc basins
; it is distinguished by its low titanium content and trace-element composition.
45
Ocean island basalts
include both tholeiites and alkali basalts; the tholeiites predominate early in the eruptive history of the island. These basalts are characterized by elevated concentrations of incompatible elements, which suggests that their source mantle rock has produced little magma in the past (it is
undepleted
).
46
Petrology
Photomicrograph
of a
thin section
of basalt from
Bazaltove
, Ukraine
The mineralogy of basalt is characterized by a preponderance of calcic plagioclase
feldspar
and
pyroxene
Olivine
can also be a significant constituent.
47
Accessory
minerals
present in relatively minor amounts include
iron oxides
and iron-titanium oxides, such as
magnetite
ulvöspinel
, and
ilmenite
42
Because of the presence of such
oxide
minerals, basalt can acquire strong
magnetic
signatures as it cools, and
paleomagnetic
studies have made extensive use of basalt.
48
In
tholeiitic basalt
, pyroxene (
augite
and
orthopyroxene
or
pigeonite
) and
calcium
-rich plagioclase are common phenocryst minerals. Olivine may also be a phenocryst, and when present, may have rims of pigeonite. The
groundmass
contains interstitial quartz or
tridymite
or
cristobalite
Olivine tholeiitic basalt
has augite and orthopyroxene or pigeonite with abundant olivine, but olivine may have rims of pyroxene and is unlikely to be present in the
groundmass
42
Alkali basalts
typically have mineral assemblages that lack orthopyroxene but contain olivine. Feldspar phenocrysts typically are
labradorite
to
andesine
in composition. Augite is rich in titanium compared to augite in tholeiitic basalt. Minerals such as
alkali feldspar
leucite
nepheline
sodalite
phlogopite
mica, and
apatite
may be present in the groundmass.
42
Basalt has high
liquidus
and
solidus
temperatures—values at the Earth's surface are near or above 1200 °C (liquidus)
49
and near or below 1000 °C (solidus); these values are higher than those of other common igneous rocks.
50
The majority of tholeiitic basalts are formed at approximately 50–100 km depth within the mantle. Many alkali basalts may be formed at greater depths, perhaps as deep as 150–200 km.
51
52
The origin of high-alumina basalt continues to be controversial, with disagreement over whether it is a
primary melt
or derived from other basalt types by fractionation.
53
: 65
Geochemistry
Relative to most common igneous rocks, basalt compositions are rich in
MgO
and
CaO
and low in
SiO
and the alkali oxides, i.e.,
Na
, consistent with their
TAS classification
. Basalt contains more silica than
picrobasalt
and most
basanites
and
tephrites
but less than
basaltic andesite
. Basalt has a lower total content of alkali oxides than
trachybasalt
and most basanites and tephrites.
Basalt generally has a composition of 45–52
wt%
SiO
, 2–5 wt% total alkalis,
0.5–2.0 wt%
TiO
, 5–14 wt%
FeO
and 14 wt% or more
Al
. Contents of CaO are commonly near 10 wt%, those of MgO commonly in the range 5 to 12 wt%.
54
High-alumina basalts have aluminium contents of 17–19 wt% Al
boninites
have
magnesium
(MgO) contents of up to 15 percent. Rare
feldspathoid
-rich
mafic
rocks, akin to alkali basalts, may have Na
O + K
O contents of 12% or more.
55
The abundances of the
lanthanide
or
rare-earth elements
(REE) can be a useful diagnostic tool to help explain the history of mineral crystallisation as the melt cooled. In particular, the relative abundance of europium compared to the other REE is often markedly higher or lower, and called the
europium anomaly
. It arises because Eu
2+
can substitute for Ca
2+
in plagioclase feldspar, unlike any of the other lanthanides, which tend to only form
3+
cations
56
Mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORB) and their intrusive equivalents, gabbros, are the characteristic igneous rocks formed at mid-ocean ridges. They are tholeiitic basalts particularly low in total alkalis and in
incompatible
trace elements, and they have relatively flat REE patterns normalized to mantle or
chondrite
values. In contrast, alkali basalts have normalized patterns highly enriched in the light REE, and with greater abundances of the REE and of other incompatible elements. Because MORB basalt is considered a key to understanding
plate tectonics
, its compositions have been much studied. Although MORB compositions are distinctive relative to average compositions of basalts erupted in other environments, they are not uniform. For instance, compositions change with position along the
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
, and the compositions also define different ranges in different ocean basins.
57
Mid-ocean ridge basalts have been subdivided into varieties such as normal (NMORB) and those slightly more enriched in incompatible elements (EMORB).
58
Isotope
ratios of
elements
such as
strontium
neodymium
lead
hafnium
, and
osmium
in basalts have been much studied to learn about the evolution of the
Earth's mantle
59
Isotopic ratios of
noble gases
, such as
He
He, are also of great value: for instance, ratios for basalts range from 6 to 10 for mid-ocean ridge tholeiitic basalt (normalized to atmospheric values), but to 15–24 and more for ocean-island basalts thought to be derived from
mantle plumes
60
Source rocks for the partial melts that produce basaltic magma probably include both
peridotite
and
pyroxenite
61
Morphology and textures
An active basalt lava flow
The shape, structure and
texture
of a basalt is diagnostic of how and where it erupted—for example, whether into the sea, in an explosive
cinder
eruption or as creeping
pāhoehoe
lava flows, the classic image of
Hawaiian
basalt eruptions.
62
Subaerial eruptions
Main article:
Subaerial eruption
Basalt that erupts under open air (that is,
subaerially
) forms three distinct types of lava or volcanic deposits:
scoria
ash
or cinder (
breccia
);
63
and lava flows.
64
Basalt in the tops of subaerial lava flows and
cinder cones
will often be highly
vesiculated
, imparting a lightweight "frothy" texture to the rock.
65
Basaltic cinders are often red, coloured by oxidized
iron
from weathered iron-rich minerals such as
pyroxene
66
ʻAʻā
types of blocky cinder and breccia flows of thick, viscous basaltic
lava
are common in Hawaiʻi. Pāhoehoe is a highly fluid, hot form of basalt which tends to form thin aprons of molten lava which fill up hollows and sometimes forms
lava lakes
Lava tubes
are common features of pāhoehoe eruptions.
64
Basaltic
tuff
or
pyroclastic
rocks are less common than basaltic lava flows. Usually basalt is too hot and fluid to build up sufficient pressure to form explosive lava eruptions but occasionally this will happen by trapping of the lava within the volcanic throat and buildup of
volcanic gases
. Hawaiʻi's
Mauna Loa
volcano erupted in this way in the 19th century, as did
Mount Tarawera
, New Zealand in its violent 1886 eruption.
Maar
volcanoes are typical of small basalt tuffs, formed by explosive eruption of basalt through the crust, forming an apron of mixed basalt and wall rock breccia and a fan of basalt tuff further out from the volcano.
67
Amygdaloidal structure is common in relict
vesicles
and beautifully
crystallized
species of
zeolites
quartz
or
calcite
are frequently found.
68
Columnar basalt
Main article:
Columnar jointing
See also:
List of places with columnar basalt
The
Giant's Causeway
in Northern Ireland
Columnar
jointed
basalt in
Turkey
Columnar basalt at
Cape Stolbchaty
, Russia
During the cooling of a thick lava flow, contractional
joints
or fractures form.
69
If a flow cools relatively rapidly, significant
contraction
forces build up. While a flow can shrink in the vertical dimension without fracturing, it cannot easily accommodate shrinking in the horizontal direction unless cracks form; the extensive fracture network that develops results in the formation of
columns
. These structures, or
basalt prisms
, are predominantly hexagonal in cross-section, but polygons with three to twelve or more sides can be observed.
70
The size of the columns depends loosely on the rate of cooling; very rapid cooling may result in very small (<1 cm diameter) columns, while slow cooling is more likely to produce large columns.
71
Submarine eruptions
Main article:
Submarine eruption
Pillow basalts on the Pacific seafloor
The character of submarine basalt eruptions is largely determined by depth of water, since increased pressure restricts the release of volatile gases and results in effusive eruptions.
72
It has been estimated that at depths greater than 500 metres (1,600 ft), explosive activity associated with basaltic magma is suppressed.
73
Above this depth, submarine eruptions are often explosive, tending to produce
pyroclastic rock
rather than basalt flows.
74
These eruptions, described as Surtseyan, are characterised by large quantities of steam and gas and the creation of large amounts of
pumice
75
Pillow basalts
Main article:
Pillow lava
When basalt erupts underwater or flows into the sea, contact with the water quenches the surface and the lava forms a distinctive
pillow
shape, through which the hot lava breaks to form another pillow. This "pillow" texture is very common in underwater basaltic flows and is diagnostic of an underwater eruption environment when found in ancient rocks. Pillows typically consist of a fine-grained core with a glassy crust and have radial jointing. The size of individual pillows varies from 10 cm up to several metres.
76
When
pāhoehoe
lava enters the sea it usually forms pillow basalts. However, when
ʻaʻā
enters the ocean it forms a
littoral cone
, a small cone-shaped accumulation of tuffaceous debris formed when the blocky
ʻaʻā
lava enters the water and explodes from built-up steam.
77
The island of
Surtsey
in the
Atlantic Ocean
is a basalt volcano which breached the ocean surface in 1963. The initial phase of Surtsey's eruption was highly explosive, as the magma was quite fluid, causing the rock to be blown apart by the boiling steam to form a tuff and cinder cone. This has subsequently moved to a typical pāhoehoe-type behaviour.
78
79
Volcanic glass
may be present, particularly as rinds on rapidly chilled surfaces of lava flows, and is commonly (but not exclusively) associated with underwater eruptions.
80
Pillow basalt is also produced by some
subglacial
volcanic eruptions.
80
Distribution
Earth
Basalt is the most common volcanic rock type on Earth, making up over 90% of all volcanic rock on the planet.
81
The
crustal
portions of
oceanic
tectonic plates
are composed predominantly of basalt, produced from upwelling mantle below the
ocean ridges
82
Basalt is also the principal volcanic rock in many
oceanic islands
, including the islands of
Hawaiʻi
35
the
Faroe Islands
83
and
Réunion
84
The eruption of basalt lava is observed by geologists at about 20 volcanoes per year.
85
Paraná Traps
Brazil
Basalt is the rock most typical of
large igneous provinces
. These include
continental flood basalts
, the most voluminous basalts found on land.
36
Examples of continental flood basalts included the
Deccan Traps
in
India
86
the
Chilcotin Group
in
British Columbia
87
Canada
, the
Paraná Traps
in Brazil,
88
the
Siberian Traps
in
Russia
89
the
Karoo
flood basalt
province in South Africa,
90
and the
Columbia River Plateau
of
Washington
and
Oregon
91
Basalt is also prevalent across extensive regions of the Eastern
Galilee
Golan
, and
Bashan
in
Israel
and
Syria
92
Basalt also is common around volcanic arcs, specially those on thin
crust
93
Ancient
Precambrian
basalts are usually only found in fold and thrust belts, and are often heavily metamorphosed. These are known as
greenstone belts
94
95
because low-grade
metamorphism
of basalt produces
chlorite
actinolite
epidote
and other green minerals.
96
Other bodies in the Solar System
As well as forming large parts of the Earth's crust, basalt also occurs in other parts of the Solar System. Basalt commonly erupts on
Io
(the third largest moon of
Jupiter
),
97
and has also formed on the
Moon
Mars
Venus
, and the asteroid
Vesta
The Moon
Lunar
olivine
basalt collected by
Apollo 15
astronauts
The dark areas visible on Earth's
moon
, the
lunar maria
, are plains of
flood basaltic
lava flows. These rocks were sampled both by the crewed American
Apollo program
and the robotic Russian
Luna program
, and are represented among the
lunar meteorites
98
Lunar basalts differ from their Earth counterparts principally in their high iron contents, which typically range from about 17 to 22 wt% FeO. They also possess a wide range of titanium concentrations (present in the mineral
ilmenite
),
99
100
ranging from less than 1 wt% TiO
, to about 13 wt.%. Traditionally, lunar basalts have been classified according to their titanium content, with classes being named high-Ti, low-Ti, and very-low-Ti. Nevertheless, global geochemical maps of titanium obtained from the
Clementine mission
demonstrate that the lunar maria possess a continuum of titanium concentrations, and that the highest concentrations are the least abundant.
101
Lunar basalts show exotic textures and mineralogy, particularly
shock metamorphism
, lack of the
oxidation
typical of terrestrial basalts, and a complete lack of
hydration
102
Most of the
Moon
's basalts erupted between about 3 and 3.5 billion years ago, but the oldest samples are 4.2 billion years old, and the youngest flows, based on the age dating method of
crater counting
, are estimated to have erupted only 1.2 billion years ago.
103
Venus
From 1972 to 1985, five
Venera
and two
VEGA
landers successfully reached the surface of Venus and carried out geochemical measurements using X-ray fluorescence and gamma-ray analysis. These returned results consistent with the rock at the landing sites being basalts, including both tholeiitic and highly alkaline basalts. The landers are thought to have landed on plains whose radar signature is that of basaltic lava flows. These constitute about 80% of the surface of Venus. Some locations show high reflectivity consistent with unweathered basalt, indicating basaltic volcanism within the last 2.5 million years.
104
Mars
Basalt is also a common rock on the surface of
Mars
, as determined by data sent back from the planet's surface,
105
and by
Martian meteorites
106
107
Vesta
Analysis of
Hubble Space Telescope
images of Vesta suggests this
asteroid
has a basaltic crust covered with a brecciated
regolith
derived from the crust.
108
Evidence from Earth-based telescopes and the
Dawn mission
suggest that Vesta is the source of the
HED meteorites
, which have basaltic characteristics.
109
Vesta is the main contributor to the inventory of basaltic asteroids of the main Asteroid Belt.
110
Io
Lava flows represent a major volcanic terrain on
Io
111
Analysis of the
Voyager
images led scientists to believe that these flows were composed mostly of various compounds of molten sulfur. However, subsequent Earth-based
infrared
studies and measurements from the
Galileo
spacecraft indicate that these flows are composed of basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic compositions.
112
This conclusion is based on temperature measurements of Io's "hotspots", or thermal-emission locations, which suggest temperatures of at least 1,300 K and some as high as 1,600 K.
113
Initial estimates suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2,000 K
114
have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to model the temperatures.
113
115
Alteration of basalt
Weathering
See also:
Weathering
Kaolinized basalt near Hungen, Vogelsberg, Germany
Compared to granitic rocks exposed at the Earth's surface, basalt
outcrops
weather relatively rapidly. This reflects their content of minerals that crystallized at higher temperatures and in an environment poorer in water vapor than granite. These minerals are less stable in the colder, wetter environment at the Earth's surface. The finer grain size of basalt and the
volcanic glass
sometimes found between the grains also hasten weathering. The high iron content of basalt causes weathered surfaces in humid climates to accumulate a thick crust of
hematite
or other iron oxides and hydroxides, staining the rock a brown to rust-red colour.
116
117
118
119
Because of the low potassium content of most basalts, weathering converts the basalt to calcium-rich
clay
montmorillonite
) rather than potassium-rich clay (
illite
). Further weathering, particularly in tropical climates, converts the montmorillonite to
kaolinite
or
gibbsite
. This produces the distinctive tropical
soil
known as
laterite
116
The ultimate weathering product is
bauxite
, the principal ore of aluminium.
120
Chemical weathering also releases readily water-soluble cations such as
calcium
sodium
and
magnesium
, which give basaltic areas a strong
buffer capacity
against
acidification
121
Calcium released by basalts binds
CO
from the atmosphere forming
CaCO
acting thus as a CO
trap.
122
Metamorphism
Metamorphosed basalt from an
Archean
greenstone belt
in Michigan, US. The minerals that gave the original basalt its black colour have been metamorphosed into green minerals.
Intense heat or great pressure transforms basalt into its
metamorphic rock
equivalents. Depending on the temperature and pressure of metamorphism, these may include
greenschist
amphibolite
, or
eclogite
. Basalts are important rocks within metamorphic regions because they can provide vital information on the conditions of
metamorphism
that have affected the region.
123
Metamorphosed basalts are important hosts for a variety of
hydrothermal
ores
, including deposits of gold, copper and
volcanogenic massive sulfides
124
Life on basaltic rocks
The common corrosion features of underwater volcanic basalt suggest that microbial activity may play a significant role in the chemical exchange between basaltic rocks and seawater. The significant amounts of reduced iron, Fe(II), and manganese, Mn(II), present in basaltic rocks provide potential energy sources for
bacteria
. Some Fe(II)-oxidizing bacteria cultured from iron-sulfide surfaces are also able to grow with basaltic rock as a source of Fe(II).
125
Fe- and Mn- oxidizing bacteria have been cultured from weathered submarine basalts of
Kamaʻehuakanaloa Seamount
(formerly Loihi).
126
The impact of bacteria on altering the chemical composition of basaltic glass (and thus, the
oceanic crust
) and seawater suggest that these interactions may lead to an application of
hydrothermal vents
to the
origin of life
127
Uses
The
Code of Hammurabi
was engraved on a
2.25 m (7 ft
in) tall basalt
stele
in around 1750 BC.
Basalt is used in construction (e.g. as building blocks or in the
groundwork
),
128
making
cobblestones
(from columnar basalt)
129
and in making
statues
130
131
Heating and
extruding
basalt yields
stone wool
, which has potential to be an excellent
thermal insulator
132
133
134
135
Carbon sequestration
in basalt has been studied as a means of removing carbon dioxide, produced by human industrialization, from the atmosphere. Underwater basalt deposits, scattered in seas around the globe, have the added benefit of the water serving as a barrier to the re-release of CO
into the atmosphere.
136
137
See also
Basalt fan structure
– Formation of columnar jointed igneous rock
Basalt fiber
– Structural fibres spun from molten basalt
Bimodal volcanism
– Eruption of both mafic and felsic lavas from a single volcanic centre
Plutonism
– Geological theory that Earth's igneous rocks formed by solidification of molten material
Polybaric melting
– Mode of origin of basaltic magma
Shield volcano
– Low-profile volcano usually formed almost entirely of fluid lava flows
Spilite
– Fine-grained igneous rock, resulting from alteration of oceanic basalt
Sideromelane
– Vitreous basaltic volcanic glass
Volcano
– Rupture in a planet's crust where material escapes
Geology portal
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S2CID
130626915
Edwards, Katrina J.; Bach, Wolfgang; Rogers, Daniel R. (April 2003).
"Geomicrobiology of the Ocean Crust: A Role for Chemoautotrophic Fe-Bacteria"
Biological Bulletin
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185.
Bibcode
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doi
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JSTOR
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Templeton, Alexis S.; Staudigel, Hubert; Tebo, Bradley M. (April 2005). "Diverse Mn(II)-Oxidizing Bacteria Isolated from Submarine Basalts at Loihi Seamount".
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Martin, William; Baross, John; Kelley, Deborah; Russell, Michael J. (November 2008). "Hydrothermal vents and the origin of life".
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Raj, Smriti; Kumar, V Ramesh; Kumar, B H Bharath; Iyer, Nagesh R (January 2017).
"Basalt: structural insight as a construction material"
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Yıldırım, Mücahit (January 2020).
"Shading in the outdoor environments of climate-friendly hot and dry historical streets: The passageways of Sanliurfa, Turkey"
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"Research surveys for basalt rock quarries"
Basalt Projects
De Fazio, Piero.
"Basalt fiber: from earth an ancient material for innovative and modern application"
Italian national agency for new technologies, energy and sustainable economic development
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Schut, Jan H. (August 2008).
"Composites: Higher Properties, Lower Cost"
www.ptonline.com
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Ross, Anne (August 2006).
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Hance, Jeremy (5 January 2010).
"Underwater rocks could be used for massive carbon storage on America's East Coast"
. Mongabay
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4 November
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doi
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Petrology: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic
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Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980).
Origin of sedimentary rocks
(2d ed.). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
ISBN
978-0-13-642710-0
Crawford, A.J. (1989).
Boninites
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978-0-04-445003-0
Hyndman, Donald W. (1985).
Petrology of igneous and metamorphic rocks
(2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
ISBN
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Klein, Cornelis; Hurlbut, Cornelius S. Jr. (1993).
Manual of mineralogy : (after James D. Dana)
(21st ed.). New York: Wiley.
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978-0-471-57452-1
Levin, Harold L. (2010).
The earth through time
(9th ed.). Hoboken, N.J.: J. Wiley.
ISBN
978-0-470-38774-0
Lillie, Robert J. (2005).
Parks and plates : the geology of our national parks, monuments, and seashores
(1st ed.). New York: W.W. Norton.
ISBN
978-0-393-92407-7
Macdonald, Gordon A.; Abbott, Agatin T.; Peterson, Frank L. (1983).
Volcanoes in the sea : the geology of Hawaii
(2nd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.
ISBN
978-0-8248-0832-7
McBirney, Alexander R. (1984).
Igneous petrology
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ISBN
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Parfitt, Elisabeth Ann; Parfitt, Liz; Wilson, Lionel (2008).
Fundamentals of Physical Volcanology
. Wiley.
ISBN
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Philpotts, Anthony R.; Ague, Jay J. (2009).
Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology
(2nd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-0-521-88006-0
Schmincke, Hans-Ulrich (2003).
Volcanism
. Berlin: Springer.
ISBN
978-3-540-43650-8
Further reading
Francis, Peter; Oppenheimer, Clive (2003).
Volcanoes
(2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
ISBN
978-0-19-925469-9
Gill, Robin (2010).
Igneous rocks and processes: a practical guide
. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
ISBN
978-1-4443-3065-6
Hall, Anthony (1996).
Igneous petrology
. Harlow: Longman Scientific & Technical.
ISBN
978-0-582-23080-4
Siegesmund, Siegfried; Snethlage, Rolf, eds. (2013).
Stone in architecture properties, durability
(3rd ed.). Springer Science & Business Media.
ISBN
978-3-662-10070-7
Young, Davis A. (2003).
Mind over magma : the story of igneous petrology
. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
ISBN
978-0-691-10279-5
External links
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Basalt
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Basalt Columns
Basalt in Northern Ireland
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Lava–water interface
PetDB, the Petrological Database
Petrology of Lunar Rocks and Mare Basalts
Pillow lava USGS
Common
igneous rocks
classified by
silicon dioxide
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Type
Ultramafic
<45%
SiO
Mafic
45–52%
SiO
Intermediate
52–63%
SiO
Intermediate
felsic
63–69%
SiO
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Specific varieties
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Kenyte
Lapis lazuli
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Mangerite
Novaculite
Pyrolite
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Teschenite
Theralite
Unakite
Variolite
Wad
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