Becoming a Toxicologist—Society of Toxicology

Becoming a Toxicologist—Society of Toxicology
Becoming a Toxicologist
Careers
Becoming a Toxicologist
There are a number of degree and education paths that can lead an individual to a career in toxicology. This page is designed to provide those considering a career in toxicology with information on the profession, schooling needed, and more. The content of this page was originally developed as a printed publication called
Resource Guide to Careers in Toxicology
Toxicology as a Career
Exciting Career Paths in Toxicology
Preface
The Society of Toxicology
(SOT) seeks to recruit diverse and talented scientists to the field
of toxicology. The first edition of the
Resource Guide to Careers
in Toxicology
was conceived and prepared by members of the Educational
Issues Task Force of the Tox 90’s Commission, including Jay Gandolfi,
PhD (Committee Chairman), University of Arizona; David
L. Eaton, PhD (Project Coordinator), University of Washington;
Robert E. Dudley, PhD, Gynex, Inc.; Michele Medinsky,
PhD, CIIT; Harihara Mehendale, PhD, University of
Mississippi; and Curtis D. Klaassen, PhD (Council Liaison),
University of Kansas Medical Center, with additional guidance from
–1990 SOT President Roger O. McClellan.
The format for the fourth
edition has been substantially revised. Since the Internet has become
a primary source of information, this edition directs students and
advisors to detailed information that the academic programs maintain
This revision was completed
under the direction of the SOT Education Committee (Claude McGowan,
PhD, 1998–1999 Chair, Janssen at Washington Crossing; and
Rick G. Schnellmann, PhD, 1999–2000 Chair, University of
Arkansas Medical Sciences); and a Task Force consisting of James
E. Klaunig, PhD (Project Coordinator), Indiana University
School of Medicine; David L. Eaton, PhD, University of
Washington; A. Jay Gandolfi, PhD, University of Arizona;
Claude McGowan, PhD, Janssen at Washington Crossing; Mary
Davis, PhD, West Virginia University Medical Center; Jacqueline
H. Smith, PhD, Exxon Biomedical Sciences, Inc.; and Betty
We acknowledge Alice
“the dose makes the poison.”
All academic programs
that submitted materials and contributed to defray production and
distribution costs were included in the
Guide
. Inclusion
does not constitute endorsement by the SOT, nor does the absence
of any program infer lack of endorsement.
Published by:
Society of Toxicology
11190 Sunrise Valley Dr, Suite 300 | Reston, Virginia 20191-5332
Tel: 703.438.3115 | Fax: 703.438.3113
What Is Toxicology?
Hardly a week goes by
without hearing that a chemical may potentially threaten our health—pesticides
in the food we eat, pollutants in the air we breathe, chemicals
in the water we drink, toxic dump sites near our homes. Chemicals
make up everything around us. Which chemicals are really dangerous?
How much does it take to cause harm? What are the effects of a particular
chemical? Cancer? Nervous system damage? Birth defects?
Finding scientifically
sound answers to these very important questions is what toxicologists
do, using the most modern molecular, genetic, and analytical techniques
available. Toxicology combines the elements of many scientific disciplines
to help us understand the harmful effects of chemicals on living
organisms.
An additional, important
aspect of toxicology is determining the likelihood that harmful
effects will occur under certain exposure circumstances, sometimes
called “risk assessment.” If the risks are real, then
we must be able to deal with them effectively. If the risks are
trivial, then we must ensure that valuable public resources are
not spent ineffectively. Such important decisions must be made with
The responsibility of
the toxicologist is to:
develop new and better
ways to determine the potential harmful effects of chemical and
physical agents and the amount (dosage) that will cause these
effects. An essential part of this is to learn more about the
basic molecular, biochemical and cellular processes responsible
for diseases caused by exposure to chemical or physical substances;
design and carry
out carefully controlled studies of specific chemicals of social
and economic importance to determine the conditions under which
they can be used safely (that is, conditions that have little
or no negative impact on human health, other organisms, or the
environment);
assess the probability,
or likelihood, that particular chemicals, processes or situations
present a significant risk to human health and/or the environment,
and assist in the establishment of rules and regulations aimed
at protecting and preserving human health and the environment.
Why Consider a Career in Toxicology?
Challenges
Wise use of chemicals is an essential component of the high standard
of living we enjoy. The challenge to toxicologists is to ensure
that we are not endangering our health or the environment with the
products and by-products of modern and comfortable living. As a
career, toxicology provides the excitement of science and research
while also contributing to the well-being of current and future
generations. Few other careers offer such exciting and socially
important challenges as protecting public health and the environment.
Opportunities
With the increase in our health consciousness, as well as concern
for our environment, a wide and growing variety of career opportunities
exist in toxicology.
Toxicologists:
participate in basic
research using the most advanced techniques in molecular biology,
analytical chemistry, and biomedical sciences;
work with chemical,
pharmaceutical, and many other industries to test and ensure
that their products and workplaces are safe, and to evaluate
the implications of new research data;
work for local and
federal governments to develop and enforce laws to ensure that
chemicals are produced, used and disposed of safely; work in
academic institutions to teach others about the safe use of
chemicals and to train future toxicologists.
Attractive Salaries
and Professional Advancement
The demand for well-trained toxicologists continues to increase.
Highly competitive salaries are available in a variety of employment
sectors. Increasing specialization in the science of toxicology
now provides the toxicologist with a competitive advantage over
chemists, engineers, biologists or other scientists without specialized
training in toxicology. Opportunities are available for career advancement
to executive levels for those with organizational and administrative
What Do Toxicologists Do?
Research
Many toxicologists, especially
in academic and nonprofit institutions, are principally involved
in the discovery of new knowledge concerning how toxic substances
produce their effects. There are many subspecialty areas in toxicology
research: chemical carcinogenesis, reproductive and developmental
toxicology, neurotoxicology, immunotoxicology, inhalation toxicology,
risk assessment, and many others. Researchers use laboratory animals,
human and animal cells in culture, and other test systems to examine
the cellular, biochemical and molecular processes underlying toxic
responses. Research opportunities are available for individuals
employed in industry, academia and government. There are many commercial
and nonprofit laboratories that also provide interesting and challenging
Research is considered
to be “basic” where no immediate commercial or public
health application is expected, but the knowledge will add to our
understanding of basic life processes. Such research is of great
value in solving important and long-term problems. Examples of this
would be studies of how a particular enzyme involved in the detoxification
of a chemical is regulated at the gene level or how a chemical affects
Other research is considered
“applied” when the results are expected to yield direct
social or commercial benefit. Examples would be studies to identify
new chemicals that selectively kill certain pests or studies to
determine if a particular industrial process is responsible for
a specific disease identified in a population of workers. Developments
of antidotes for radiation injury or chemical poisoning are examples
of applied research of public health importance.
Product Safety Evaluation
Many industries employ toxicologists to assist in the evaluation
of the safety of their products. For therapeutic drugs, food additives,
cosmetics, agricultural chemicals and other classes of chemicals,
federal laws often require that the manufacturer provide adequate
testing of the product before it is released into commerce. Tests
to determine if a chemical has the potential to cause cancer, birth
defects, reproductive effects, neurological toxicity or other adverse
Toxicologists involved
in product safety evaluation have the responsibility to ensure that
such tests are designed, conducted and interpreted in a scientifically
sound manner. Information from such studies is, in turn, reviewed
by toxicologists in various regulatory agencies, such as the US Food
and Drug Administration (US FDA) and the US Environmental Protection Agency
(US EPA), or by international organizations to ensure that the products
When the information is
available, toxicologists also utilize studies of human populations
(the science of epidemiology) to assist in the evaluation of the
safety and potential risks of the chemical products and by-products
of modern society.
Teaching
Toxicologists employed in colleges and universities are involved
in teaching toxicology to students and others. Because of increasing
interest in the impacts of chemicals on our society, many colleges
and universities offer toxicology courses at both the undergraduate
and graduate level. Academic institutions that do not have graduate
programs in toxicology employ toxicologists to participate in curriculum
development and teach basic programs such as chemistry and biology.
Thus, opportunities exist to teach toxicology in small colleges
as well as major universities. One of the most important efforts
of toxicologists in academic institutions is the training of future
generations of toxicologists in basic and applied research, data
interpretation and evaluation, and risk assessment and regulatory
affairs.
Public Service, Regulatory Affairs, and Consulting
An important part of any science is communicating results and discussing
implications. The tremendous growth in public awareness of chemical
hazards over the last two decades has resulted in the passage of
many laws governing the production, use and disposal of chemicals.
Many local, state and federal regulatory agencies employ toxicologists
to assist in the development and enforcement of these laws. An increasingly
important area of toxicology is in public communication of chemical
risks. Toxicologists employed by regulatory agencies may often be
called upon to explain the scientific basis for regulatory actions,
or to assist in communicating to the public why regulatory actions
are or are not taken in particular situations. There are many private
consulting firms with expertise in toxicology that can now provide
such services to local and state health departments, public utilities,
private industries, etc. Thus, many employment opportunities in
the private sector are available to the toxicologist interested
in assisting public agencies and private industries in resolving
many important public health and environmental problems. Some scientists
like this aspect so much that they pursue consulting full-time.
Where Do Toxicologists Work?
The “Job Market Survey”
estimates that 9,000 toxicologists are employed in North America.
Of recent PhD’s, 53 percent entered industry, 34 percent found positions
in academia and 12 percent in government. These numbers are similar to
overall employment statistics in the discipline as projected in
the “Job Market Survey.”
Comparison with other
careers is possible by investigating the
Occupational Outlook
Handbook
produced by the
US Bureau of Labor Statistics
Chemical, Consumer
Products, Pharmaceutical and Other Industries
Industries are the number one employer of toxicologists (47 percent). Product
development, product safety evaluation, and regulatory compliance
generate a large job market for toxicologists. Pharmaceutical industries
employ 17 percent of toxicologists, and chemical industries employ 7 percent.
These industries often employ toxicologists trained at all levels
of education. The “Toxicologist Supply and Expertise Survey”
found that, of recent graduates, 53 percent of those with PhD’s,
73 percent of those with master’s degrees and 58 percent of those with bachelor’s
degrees entered industry. Many industries have their own research
and product safety evaluation programs, while others may contract
their work to specific research organizations that are managed independently
from the industry.
Academic Institutions
Academic institutions are the number two employer of toxicologists
(21 percent). The rapid growth in toxicology programs has generated a large
and growing market for toxicologists with doctoral level training.
Although most of these opportunities are in schools of medicine
and/or public health in major universities, smaller colleges are
beginning to employ toxicologists to teach toxicology in basic biology,
chemistry and engineering programs.
Government
Government is the third largest employer of toxicologists (14 percent).
Although most government jobs are with federal regulatory agencies,
many states are now beginning to employ toxicologists with master’s degrees.
Consulting
An increasing number of toxicologists are employed in the professional
services industry (12 percent). Providing professional guidance and advice
to local public agencies, industries and attorneys involved in problems
with toxic chemicals is a rapidly growing activity for the experienced
toxicologist. Many graduates of baccalaureate and master’s
programs in toxicology are finding employment with consulting firms.
Individuals with doctoral training and several years of experience
in applied toxicology may also find opportunities directing projects
and serving as team leaders or administrators in the consulting
Research Foundations
A small proportion of toxicologists pursue research within nonprofit
organizations (4 percent). Numerous public and private research foundations
employ toxicologists to conduct research on specific problems of
industrial or public concern. Toxicologists at all levels of education
Regional Distribution of Toxicology Jobs
Although the majority
of government and industry jobs are located in the eastern portion
of the United States, employment opportunities at all levels are
available throughout the country. The geographic distribution of
SOT members in the continental United States reflects job distribution.
How Much Do Toxicologists Earn?
As with any profession,
the level of education and length of experience are key determinants
of salary. Entry level positions for those with doctoral degrees
are often in the range of $35,000 to $60,000, with rapid advancement
possible. In general, positions in industry pay slightly better
than government or academia. Mid-range professionals with a PhD
degree and 10 years of experience can expect to earn $70,000 to
$100,000 annually. Most executive positions in toxicology exceed
$100,000 per year, and some corporate executive toxicologists earn
$200,000 or more. Of course, salaries for those with master’s
and/or bachelor’s degrees in toxicology will generally be less
than those for individuals with doctoral degrees, but are still
highly competitive with other science-based professions.
How Do I Prepare for a Career in Toxicology?
Jobs are available for
recipients of associate through doctoral degrees. Candidates with
two- or four-year degrees can work in toxicology as laboratory assistants,
research technicians or animal care specialists.
Depending upon your career
aspirations, a bachelor’s degree may not be enough for you
to achieve your goals. The higher the degree, the more likely your
position will provide more opportunities, more responsibility and
higher salaries. Of recent graduates from toxicology programs, 55 percent
received PhD’s, 22 percent master’s degrees, and 23 percent bachelor’s
degrees. According to the “Job Market Survey,” about half
of employed toxicologists have a PhD Postdoctoral experience
was considered an “absolute” requirement by 29 percent of the
employers who planned to hire toxicologists in the next few years;
an additional 38 percent listed such experience as “desired.”
Postdoctoral training is a route to employment in toxicology for
those with advanced degrees in other areas, such as the PhD in
other biomedical sciences, the MD, or DVM.
In the “Job Market
Survey,” employers requested strong written and oral communication
skills and knowledge of computers. Good laboratory practice, project
management skills and statistics experience were also viewed as
important. The fast pace of change and future job market will favor
High School
A strong foundation for any future scientist is based on skills
in reading, writing, mathematics, computer science and communication,
along with courses in biology, chemistry, and physics. Knowledge
of a foreign language is important for exchanging information in
our global society. Extra-curricular activities such as science
fairs and clubs build leadership experience. Part-time or summer
work in a research laboratory is also valuable.
Undergraduate Education
If your institution does not have a baccalaureate program in toxicology,
a major in biology or chemistry provides a basis for a career in
this discipline. Take as many biology and chemistry courses as you
can, as well as physics, computer science, statistics and mathematics
(including calculus). Improve your writing and speaking skills,
and develop a multidisciplinary foundation to increase your options
and qualifications. While breadth in your undergraduate training
is important, depth and experience provided by working in a laboratory
or completing a student research project can be very important in
increasing your skills and helping you determine the kind of science
career that suits your interest and skills. Engage in activities
that improve team-building aptitude, as well as those that improve
hand-eye coordination. Join local and national scientific professional
societies and participate in student-oriented events, regional and
national meetings. All of these efforts will be repaid whether you
enter the job market immediately after receiving your degree or
Financial Support
Information about financial aid is available on the internet
at sites such as
Financial Aid
and
FastWeb
. Of special interest to members of groups under-represented in the
sciences is the
Minority Online Information Service (MOLIS)
MOLIS is a database including information on faculty and programs
at about 300 minority institutions, as well as hyperlinks to other
information that is of benefit to the minority education and research
communities.
Preparation for
Graduate Study
Careful planning and attention to your undergraduate courses will
Most graduate toxicology
programs have specific prerequisites for admission. In addition
to a baccalaureate degree in a relevant field of study such as biology
or chemistry, these requirements often include advanced coursework
in chemistry, especially organic chemistry, at least one year of
general biology, a year of college math including calculus, and
general physics. Additional upper division courses in biochemistry,
molecular biology and physiology will often increase your competitive
advantage for admission. Effective communication is an important
skill for toxicologists; therefore, coursework in scientific writing
and public speaking is also useful. Involvement in extracurricular
activities is a valuable way to develop and demonstrate your leadership
and communication skills.
Consult the programs that
are of interest to you to determine their specific admission requirements.
In addition to a strong academic record, demonstration of basic
laboratory and research skills and leadership abilities will increase
your chances of admission to the more competitive programs. Undergraduate
research experience or working during the summer in a research laboratory
is a plus. From January to April each year, the SOT provides a listing
of summer internships available in academic, industrial and government
research laboratories across the country. Contact the
SOT Headquarters
office for more information about the Summer Internship Program.
Performance on the Graduate
Record Examination is also important. You should take the exam at
least nine months prior to the time you plan to begin your graduate
study and you should prepare in advance for the exam.
If possible, plan to visit
the programs you wish to consider in advance of your application
process. Notify the director of the program of your interests and
arrange to speak with the director and other faculty in the program.
An excellent source of
information is
Careers in Science and Engineering: A Student
Planning Guide to Graduate School and Beyond
(National Academy
Press, 1996).
One example in this book traces the career path of a physicist into
toxicology.
Graduate Training in Toxicology
Select
a Program That’s Right for You
Identifying a graduate training program that is best for you requires
some advanced planning. First, you should establish a potential
career plan. Consider the various subspecialties in toxicology,
such as neurotoxicology, chemical carcinogenesis, teratology, etc.,
to determine if there is a specific field of research that is of
particular interest to you. Attending regional and national scientific
meetings will help you explore areas of interest. Although choosing
a specialty early in your graduate education certainly does not
commit you to this direction, it will help you in deciding which
programs are most likely to meet your needs. It is also useful to
talk with toxicologists in local universities, industries and governmental
agencies to help you in your selection of a training program and
future career direction. Make sure that you are able to satisfy
all of the admission requirements prior to the time you intend to
begin the program, as these requirements may vary between programs
and from the general requirements described above. Geographical
considerations are also important to some individuals. Some students
balance employment and graduate study.
Toxicology Graduate Programs
While this document features programs that responded to our 2026 information request, it is not an exhaustive list. We encourage students to research additional programs independently.
Tips for success in graduate
Peterson’s website
Financial Support
Most students in toxicology graduate programs have financial support,
which can come from a variety of sources.
Academic Institutions
Many universities have funds to support graduate students during
their training. These awards are generally offered as either Teaching
Assistantships (TAs) or as Research Assistantships (RAs). As TAs,
students generally assist in the preparation and teaching of undergraduate
or graduate courses, and obtain valuable experience in teaching
that will help them in their future careers as toxicologists. RAs
generally assist faculty in research on specific topics or provide
general assistance to multiple faculty in the program. Check with
the specific academic program directors for more information on
the availability of student support for graduate training at your
The Government
Research Manpower Development Programs
The National Institute
of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) supports research training
in four areas related to toxicology: a) environmental toxicology,
emphasizing training in the principles that determine the effects
of exposure to environmental agents; b) environmental pathology,
emphasizing training in chemical (as opposed to infectious disease)
pathology; c) environmental mutagenesis, emphasizing training in
the application of the principles of genetics and biochemistry to
assess the potential genetic hazards to man from environmental chemicals;
and d) environmental epidemiology and biostatistics, emphasizing
training in the use of statistical and mathematical tools to assist
in the identification of environmental diseases in human populations
and in experimental design and interpretation of data.
NIH Individual Investigator
Research Awards
Many toxicologists in
academic institutions who receive grant support from the National
Institutes of Health (NIH) have RAs. These RA positions are often
used to support graduate students in their final years of dissertation
research. The level of support for a RA may vary from institution
to institution, but are generally similar or slightly higher than
training grant stipends.
Other Federal Programs
In addition to the specific
programs noted above, federal support for graduate training may
be available through other training programs or research grants
and contracts available from other federal agencies such as the
National Science Foundation, the Armed Forces, the US EPA, the Department
of Defense or the Department of Energy.
The Private Sector
The SOT selects several pre-doctoral students each year for Graduate
Fellowship awards. These awards are currently sponsored by the Covance
Company, Novartis, and The Procter & Gamble Company. Any student
member of the SOT who has (at time of award) completed one year,
but not more than three years, of graduate study towards the PhD
degree in an area of toxicology, and whose major professor is a
member of the SOT is eligible. The Education Committee evaluates
candidates on scholastic achievement, letters of recommendation
and the dissertation research. Applications and further information
are available on the
Awards page
Individual academic programs
may receive graduate student training support from sponsoring industries
or foundations.
Postdoctoral Training in Toxicology
If you’ve already completed a doctoral degree in a biomedical science,
you can enter the field of toxicology by spending two to three years
as a postdoctoral fellow in a toxicology laboratory. Postdoctoral
education of a toxicologist takes many forms depending on the goal
of the scientist. Postdoctoral experience is necessary for most
academic and research positions, but is not a requirement for many.
Postdoctoral experience
can further enhance the marketability of a toxicologist. Recent
toxicology graduates may lack experience in project management,
people management and grant-writing, and experience in these areas
can be gained during postdoctoral training. Although higher numbers
of toxicologists are undertaking postdoctoral training in recent
years, a smaller proportion of the total number of graduates are
—30% in 1990–1995–1989.
The SOT
Career Resource and Development Services
maintains an active list of postdoctoral opportunities available
in toxicology.
Government-Sponsored Programs
Numerous government agencies provide postdoctoral training programs
in toxicology at agency facilities such as the US EPA (in its regional
laboratories), the US FDA at its Beltsville and National Center for
Toxicology Research facilities, Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
Center for Disease Control’s National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health, and the many National Institutes of Health laboratories,
especially NIEHS.
A time-honored postdoctoral
training route has been through investigator-initiated research
grants, which focus the postdoctoral fellow in the area of the
mentor. Most researchers at academic institutions who receive federal
research grants have funds to support postdoctoral fellows. One
means of exploring postdoctoral opportunities is to directly contact
individual faculty from graduate programs in toxicology.
In addition to individual
research grants, many academic programs receive federal training
grants with funds specifically dedicated to postdoctoral training.
For example, the NIEHS provides postdoctoral fellowships to academic
institutions for postdoctoral training in environmental toxicology
and/or environmental pathology. Consult the “Employment and
Training Opportunities” on the
NIEHS website
You can also write to the Program Administrator (Scientific Programs
Branch, MD 3/03, NIEHS, Division of Extramural Research and Training,
PO Box 12233, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709) to obtain a list
of academic programs that receive NIEHS-sponsored postdoctoral
training grants in toxicology.
Industry-Sponsored Programs
Many companies that employ toxicologists (such as pharmaceutical,
chemical, food and automotive companies) provide postdoctoral training
opportunities for individuals with doctoral degrees in toxicology
or related disciplines.
Another often-overlooked
source of postdoctoral training is the contract laboratory. The
contract laboratory exposes the early career scientist to the broadest
issues in general toxicology, especially testing and preparing documents
for submission to regulatory agencies. In many respects, this type
of experience represents the practice or art of toxicology, while
the university experience represents the science of toxicology.
The Colgate-Palmolive
Company offers the Colgate-Palmolive Postdoctoral Fellowship, which
is directed specifically toward innovations in toxicology methodology
involving alternatives to whole animal use in testing. This award
is administered through the SOT, and further information can be
found on the
Awards page
Toxicology Survey References
Information on career
outlook and salary is based on the following five reports available
on the
Career Surveys page
Gad, Shayne C.
“Sixth Triennial
Toxicology Salary Survey.”
International
Journal of Toxicology,
(in press, 2005).
Gad, Shayne C.
“Fifth
Triennial Toxicology Salary Survey.”
International
Journal of Toxicology
, vol. 21. 2002.
Gad, Shayne C.
“Fourth
Triennial Toxicology Salary Survey and Trends in the Toxicology
Job Market.”
International Journal of Toxicology
vol. 18, pp. 219–225. 1999.