Disability - Wikipedia

Disability - Wikipedia
Jump to content
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions
"Impaired" redirects here. For other uses, see
Impairment (disambiguation)
Pictographs used by the United States
National Park Service
for
wheelchair
accessibility,
low vision
access and
sign language
interpretation.
Disability
Theory and models
Curb cut effect
Disability theory
Ableism / Disablism
Medical model
Social model
Other models
Education
Mainstreaming
Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Special needs
Special school
Special education
Learning disability
Therapy
Physical
Occupational
Speech
Societal implications
Disability rights movement
Inclusion
Normalization
People-first language
Pejorative terms
Sexuality and disability
Women's health
Personal assistance
Unlicensed assistive personnel
ADLs
Accessible toilet
Assistive technology
Assisted living
Inclusive design
Mobility aid
Orthotics and braces
Physical accessibility
Prosthetics
Universal design
Web accessibility
Socioeconomic assistance
Social Security Disability Insurance
Supplemental Security Income
Ticket to Work
Disability pension
Disability Living Allowance
Disabled Students' Allowance
Disabled Persons Railcard
Freedom Pass
Assured Income for
the Severely Handicapped
Ontario Disability Support Program
Groups
Organizations
National Telecommuting Institute
Society for Disability Studies
Disabled Peoples' International (DPI)
Visitability
WeThe15
Parasports
Special Olympics
Paralympic Games
Deaflympics
Invictus Games
Culture
Disability in the arts
Disability art
Disability in the media
Disability
Lists
Disability
is the experience of any condition that makes it more difficult for a person to do certain activities or have equitable access within a given society.
Disabilities may be
cognitive
developmental
intellectual
mental
physical
sensory
, or a combination of multiple factors. Disabilities can be
present from birth
or can be acquired during a person's lifetime. Historically, disabilities have only been recognized based on a narrow set of criteria—however, disabilities are not binary and can present uniquely depending on the individual.
A disability may be easily visible, or
invisible
in nature. The
United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
defines disability as including:
long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder [a person's] full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others.
Disabilities have been perceived differently throughout history, through a variety of different theoretical lenses. There are two main models that attempt to explain disability in our society: the
medical model
and the
social model
The medical model serves as a theoretical framework that considers disability as an undesirable medical condition that requires specialized treatment. Those who ascribe to the medical model tend to focus on finding the root causes of disabilities, as well as any cures—such as assistive technology. The social model centers disability as a societally-created limitation on individuals who do not have the same ability as the majority of the population. Those who ascribe to the social model tend to focus on accessibility and social/cultural attitudes toward disability. Although the medical model and social model are the most common frames for disability, there are a multitude of other models that theorize disability.
Like many social categories, the concept of "disability" is under heavy discussion amongst academia, the medical and legal worlds, and the disability community. There are many terms that explain aspects of disability. While some terms solely exist to describe phenomena pertaining to disability, others have been centered around stigmatizing and ostracizing those with disabilities. Some terms have such a negative connotation that they are considered to be slurs.
A point of contention is whether it is appropriate to use person-first language (i.e. a person who is disabled) or identity-first language (i.e. a disabled person) when referring to disability and an individual.
Due to the
marginalization
of disabled people, there have been several activist causes that push for equitable treatment and access in society. Disability activists have fought to receive equal and equitable rights under the law—though there are still political issues that enable or advance the oppression of disabled people. Although disability activism serves to dismantle
ableist
systems, social norms relating to the perception of disabilities are often reinforced by
tropes
used by the media. Since negative perceptions of disability are pervasive in modern society, disabled people have turned to self-advocacy in an attempt to push back against their marginalization. The recognition of disability as an identity that is experienced differently based on the other multi-faceted identities of the individual is one often pointed out by disabled self-advocates. The ostracization of disability from mainstream society has created the opportunity for a disability culture to emerge. While disabled activists still promote the integration of disabled people into mainstream society, several disabled-only spaces have been created to foster a disability community—such as with art, social media, and sports.
History
edit
Contemporary understandings of disability derive from concepts that arose during the scientific
Enlightenment
in the West; prior to the Enlightenment, physical differences were viewed through a different lens.
Antiquity
edit
Historically, scholars have often assumed that disabled individuals were unsupported and marginalized within their communities, based on the belief that ancient agricultural societies had to be strategic with their limited resources for survival.
For instance, some historians argue that ancient Greeks actively practiced ableism through
infanticide
, as suggested in the writings of
Plutarch
Plato
, and
Aristotle
Despite this, ancient Greeks demonstrated notable empathy and acceptance toward their disabled peers, contrary to the views presented in the writings of Plato and Aristotle. Literary accounts from Hippocratic physicians and archaeological evidence support the idea that the Greeks made efforts to cure and assist disabled individuals, including deformed infants, whom Plutarch claimed were promptly killed in Sparta. Since disability was not uncommon, it was frequently mentioned in literature and poetry. Disabled individuals, regardless of social rank, were largely integrated into society thanks to the variety of roles and duties available in personal life, the economy, and the military. As a result, these writings represent the philosophical ideals of Greek thinkers and do not necessarily reflect the actual practices of ancient Greece, as neither work was intended to serve as factual records.
In "The Life of Lycurgus" of
Parallel Lives
, Plutarch's describes infanticide as a common practice in
Sparta
, where the lawgiver decreed that newborn infants be taken to the
lesche
, likely a public building, for examination by elders.
10
If an infant was "ill-bred and deformed", it would be sent to the
apothetai
, meaning "exposure places", a pit beneath
Mount Taygetus
10
Plutarch suggested this practice occurred because a deformed infant would be seen as a liability to Sparta, a city-state known for its strict martial ethos.
While Plutarch's account provides valuable insights into Spartan society, its reliability is questionable, as he lived 700 years after the events he described. Even Plutarch acknowledged that his accounts were open to dispute for this very reason.
11
In
Republic
, Plato argues that in an ideal state rulers must ensure the breeding of the best men and women while discouraging those deemed inferior from reproducing.
12
He asserts that if the children of inferior parents, or any other parents, were deformed, they should be "hidden away in a secret and unknown place, as is fitting".
12
In
Politics
, Aristotle advocates that "the bodies of offspring should conform to the wishes of the lawgiver", ideally being healthy and strong, which implies a similarly ableist stance to that of Plato.
13
He further proposes that a law should exist to prevent the raising of deformed infants, implying his endorsement of killing disabled infants.
14
Windover Archeological Site, location of the 15-year-old with spina bifida who was taken care of in a hunter-gather community
There is considerable evidence suggesting that individuals with deformities were well cared for in antiquity. At the
Windover Archeological Site
, one of the skeletons was a male about 15 years old who had
spina bifida
. The condition meant that the boy, probably paralyzed below the waist, was taken care of in a
hunter-gatherer
community.
15
16
Disability was not viewed as a means of divine punishment and therefore disabled individuals were neither exterminated nor discriminated against for their impairments. Many were instead employed in different levels of Mesopotamian society including working in religious temples as servants of the gods.
17
In
Ancient Egypt
, staffs were frequently used in society. A common usage for them was for older persons with disabilities to help them walk.
18
In
Ancient Greece
, regardless of gender, age, or rank, deformed citizens were largely acknowledged, embraced, and accommodated in various aspects of society. This is illustrated in the
Hippocratic Corpus
, a collection of treatises written by physicians during the late 5th and 4th centuries BCE as a practical manual.
Therefore, it offers a more accurate depiction of how the Greeks treated disabled people. For instance, many of the treatises describe the conditions and treatments for infants with congenital anomalies or impairments, such as weasel-arm,
clubfoot
, and
cleft conditions
19
20
21
Ironically, among these, the practice of infanticide or the harming of deformed infants is never mentioned.
In fact, these Hippocratic physicians treated a wide range of patients throughout the Greek-speaking world from the 5th century BCE onwards. This suggests that it may not have been normal in ancient Greece to kill deformed infants, presenting a reality that contrasts with the views of Plato, Aristotle, and other ancient philosophers. Many of them expressed neutrality, if not optimism, toward deformed infants, striving to cure them while documenting their conditions.
The depiction of disabled adults or gods was common in the literature of ancient Greece. In
Homer
's
Iliad
and
Odyssey
Hephaistos
, a god and renowned craftsman, is described as being "lame in both legs", and he is mentioned 41 times in the
Iliad
and 19 times in the
Odyssey
In Book 2 of the
Iliad
, Homer provides a detailed description of
Thersites
' deformity, including his bandy legs, lame foot, hunched shoulders, and balding pate, calling him "the ugliest man who came beneath
Ilion
".
22
This suggests that ancient Greeks acknowledged disabled adult civilians, as disability, whether congenital or acquired, was common due to the harsh realities of ancient life and warfare.
In addition to literary evidence, archaeological evidence is crucial in unfolding ancient Greeks' attitude towards deformed individuals. One that is most related to the discussion of infanticide in Ancient Greece is the
Agora
Bone Well, in which archaeologists found a large number of skeletons, including those of infants.
23
Since the median age at death for these infants was only eight days old, it gives rise to the assumption that infanticide could be a possible explanation;
23
however, scholars cannot determine whether the infants were intentionally killed or whether they died of natural causes, which was particularly common, especially during the first eight days after birth.
Archaeologists have discovered a significant number of feeding bottles throughout the
Hellenic world
, dating back to the
Late Bronze Age
Many of these were found in the tombs of infants and young children. While scholars debate whether these bottles were used as aids for weaning infants or as symbols of condolence with no practical purpose, the shape of the bottles is particularly suited for feeding infants with cleft conditions.
Depending on the severity, such infants would have had difficulty extracting milk from a nipple.
This suggests that the ancient Greeks may have invested extra care and resources in raising disabled infants, rather killing them. Contrary to previous beliefs, Greek men with disabilities or physical infirmities were generally exempt from military campaigns and battles.
In
Memorabilia
Xenophon
suggests that men with bodily weakness or illness were considered liabilities in battle.
24
Additionally, during the
Battle of Thermopylae
, the Spartan king and commander
Leonidas
excused
Eurytus
and
Aristodemus
from fighting, as both of them were suffering from severe eye sickness, demonstrating that men unfit for war were not forced to participate.
25
In exceptional cases, disabled or injured men might be called upon to take on suitable roles that would contribute to the war effort.
In terms of personal life, there is no evidence to suggest that disabled Greeks were barred from marriage or reproduction. This likely stemmed from the belief that deformed parents did not necessarily produce deformed offspring;
26
however, disabled individuals may have faced greater challenges in finding a suitable partner, as they were sometimes rejected by the family of a potential spouse.
Regarding their economic situation, disabled Greeks—regardless of gender or social rank—worked in a variety of positions and professions. According to
Lysias
, a disabled man who uses two canes to walk "plies a craft" and runs a shop, demonstrating that disabled individuals were not deprived of the ability to support themselves.
27
In
On Joints,
Hippocrates
describes people with arm disabilities also being engaged in "handiwork", provided they were still able to operate tools.
19
Plato also mentions in
Laws
that slaves who acquired disabilities later in life could be reassigned to other suitable roles, a principle that logically should also apply to free individuals in Greece.
28
Ancient Greeks were subjected to a wide range of physical consequences of aging, causing impairments and disabilities.
Therefore, ancient Greeks put great effort into assisting elderly people in their communities. In some Greek states, children were legally required to care for their elderly parents, which might have included parents who were physically or mentally impaired.
According to Aristotle, people who failed to do so would be imprisoned.
29
Provisions that enabled individuals with impaired mobility to access temples and healing sanctuaries were made in ancient Greece.
30
Specifically, by 370 BC, at the most important healing sanctuary in the wider area, the
Sanctuary of Asclepius
at
Epidaurus
, there were at least 11 permanent stone ramps that provided access to mobility-impaired visitors to nine different structures.
31
On top of this, disabled Athenians who were unable to support themselves received monetary assistance from the state, sufficient to cover their basic needs.
32
This indicates that some forms of charity and social welfare existed in
Athens
. Disability was also common among individuals of high status in ancient Greece. In the 6th century BCE,
Croesus
, the King of Lydia, had two sons, one of whom was either deaf or mute.
33
He spent a considerable amount of wealth in an unsuccessful attempt to cure this son, even consulting the oracle of
Apollo
at
Delphi
33
Eventually, Croesus rejected the disabled son, choosing to favor only his able-bodied son, Atys, instead.
33
Similarly,
Agesilaus
, a Spartan king in the 4th century BCE, was lame in one leg but still became a general and fought in major battles.
34
The Macedonian king,
Philip II
, also suffered from multiple physical impairments during his conquests; he lost one eye, fractured his collarbone, and shattered one hand and leg.
35
Middle Ages and After
edit
During the
Middle Ages
, madness and other conditions were thought to be caused by demons. They were also thought to be part of the natural order, especially during and in the fallout of the
Black Death
, which wrought impairments throughout the general population.
36
In the
early modern period
there was a shift to seeking biological causes for physical and mental differences, as well as heightened interest in demarcating categories: for example, Ambroise Pare, in the sixteenth century, wrote of "monsters", "prodigies", and "the maimed".
37
The
European Enlightenment
's emphases on knowledge derived from reason and on the value of natural science to human progress helped spawn the birth of
institutions
and associated knowledge systems that observed and categorized human beings; among these, the ones significant to the development of today's concepts of disability were
asylums
clinics
, and
prisons
36
Contemporary concepts of disability are rooted in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century developments. Foremost among these was the development of clinical medical discourse, which made the human body visible as a thing to be manipulated, studied, and transformed. These worked in tandem with scientific discourses that sought to classify and categorize and, in so doing, became methods of
normalization
38
The concept of the "norm" developed in this time period, and is signaled in the work of the Belgian
statistician
sociologist
mathematician
, and
astronomer
Adolphe Quetelet
, who wrote in the 1830s of
l'homme moyen
– the average man. Quetelet postulated that one could take the sum of all people's attributes in a given population (such as their height or weight) and find their average and that this figure should serve as a statistical norm toward which all should aspire.
39
This idea of the statistical norm threads through the rapid take-up of statistics gathering by Britain, the United States, and the Western European states during this time period, and it is tied to the rise of
eugenics
39
Disability, as well as the concepts of abnormal, non-normal, and normalcy, came from this.
40
The circulation of these concepts is evident in the popularity of the
freak show
, where showmen profited from exhibiting people who deviated from those norms.
41
With the rise of eugenics in the latter part of the nineteenth century, such deviations were viewed as dangerous to the health of entire populations. With disability viewed as part of a person's biological make-up and thus their genetic inheritance, scientists turned their attention to notions of weeding such as "deviations" out of the gene pool. Various metrics for assessing a person's genetic fitness were determined and were then used to
deport
, sterilize, or institutionalize those deemed unfit. People with disabilities were one of the groups targeted by the
Nazi regime
in Germany, resulting in approximately 250,000 disabled people being killed during
the Holocaust
42
At the end of the
Second World War
, with the example of
Nazi eugenics
, eugenics faded from
public discourse
, and increasingly disability cohered into a set of attributes to which medicine could attend – whether through augmentation, rehabilitation, or treatment. In both contemporary and modern history, disability was often viewed as a by-product of
incest
between
first-degree relatives
or
second-degree relatives
43
A short government advisory animation on the
social model of disability
Disability scholars have also pointed to the
Industrial Revolution
, along with the economic shift from
feudalism
to
capitalism
, as prominent historical moments in the understanding of disability. Although there was a certain amount of religious superstition surrounding disability during the
Middle Ages
, disabled people were still able to play significant roles in the rural production based economy, allowing them to make genuine contributions to daily economic life.
44
The Industrial Revolution and the advent of capitalism made it so that people were no longer tied to the land and were then forced to find work that would pay a wage in order to survive. The wage system, in combination with industrialized production, transformed the way bodies were viewed as people were increasingly valued for their ability to produce like machines.
45
Capitalism and the industrial revolution effectively solidified this class of "disabled" people who could not conform to the standard
worker
's body or level of work power. As a result, disabled people came to be regarded as a problem, to be solved or erased.
44
In the early 1970s, the
disability rights movement
became established, when disability activists began to challenge how society treated disabled people and the medical approach to disability. Due to this work, physical
barriers to access
were identified. These conditions functionally disabled them, and what is now known as the
social model of disability
emerged. Coined by Mike Oliver in 1983, this phrase distinguishes between the
medical model of disability
– under which an impairment needs to be fixed – and the social model of disability – under which the society that limits a person needs to be fixed.
46
Theory
edit
Disability studies
edit
The academic discipline focused on theorizing disability is
disability studies
, which has been expanding since the late twentieth century. The field investigates the past, present, and future constructions of disability, along with advancing the viewpoint that disability is a complex social identity from which we can all gain insight. As disabilities scholar Claire Mullaney puts it, "At its broadest, disability studies encourages scholars to value disability as a form of cultural difference."
47
Scholars of the field focus on a range of disability-related topics, such as ethics, policy and legislation, history, art of the disability community, and more. Notable scholars from the field include
Marta Russell
Robert McRuer
Johanna Hedva
Laura Hershey
Irving Zola
, and many more. Prominent disability scholar
Lennard J. Davis
notes that disability studies should not be considered a niche or specialized discipline, but instead is applicable to a wide range of fields and topics.
47
International Classification
edit
The
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
(ICF), produced by the
World Health Organization
, distinguishes between body functions (physiological or psychological, such as vision) and body structures (anatomical parts, such as the eye and related structures). Impairment in bodily structure or function is defined as involving an anomaly, defect, loss or other significant deviation from certain generally accepted population standards, which may fluctuate over time. Activity is defined as the execution of a task or action. The ICF lists nine broad domains of functioning which can be affected:
Learning and applying knowledge
General tasks and demands
Communication
Basic physical mobility, Domestic life, and Self-care (for example,
activities of daily living
Interpersonal interactions and relationships
Community, social and civic life, including
employment
Other major life areas
In concert with disability scholars, the introduction to the ICF states that a variety of conceptual models have been proposed to understand and explain disability and functioning, which it seeks to integrate. These models include the following:
Medical model
edit
Main article:
Medical model of disability
The
medical model
views disability as a problem of the person, directly caused by disease, trauma, or other health conditions which therefore requires sustained medical care in the form of individual treatment by professionals. The medical model focuses on finding causes and cures for disabilities. In the medical model, management of the disability is aimed at a "cure", or the individual's adjustment and behavioral change that would lead to an "almost-cure" or effective cure. The individual, in this case, must overcome their disability by medical care. In the medical model, medical care is viewed as the main issue, and at the political level, the principal response is that of modifying or reforming
healthcare
policy.
48
49
Causes
edit
There are many causes of disability that often affect basic
activities of daily living
, such as eating, dressing, transferring, and maintaining
personal hygiene
; or advanced activities of daily living such as shopping, food preparation, driving, or working; however, causes of disability are usually determined by a person's capability to perform the activities of daily life. As Marta Russell and Ravi Malhotra argue, "The '
medicalization
' of disablement and the tools of classification clearly played an important role in establishing divisions between the 'disabled' and the 'able-bodied.
50
This positions disability as a problem to be solved via medical intervention, which hinders our understanding about what disability can mean.
51
There is not a fully exhaustive list and many injuries and medical problems cause disability. Some causes of disability, such as injuries, may resolve over time and are considered
temporary disabilities
. An
acquired disability
is the result of impairments that occur suddenly or chronically during the lifespan, as opposed to being born with the impairment.
Invisible disabilities
may not be obviously noticeable. For the purposes of the
Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
, the US
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded to be disabilities:
amputation
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADHD),
autism
bipolar disorder
blindness
cancer
cerebral palsy
deafness
diabetes
epilepsy
HIV/AIDS
intellectual disability
major depressive disorder
mobility impairments
requiring a wheelchair,
multiple sclerosis
muscular dystrophy
obsessive–compulsive disorder
(OCD),
post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD),
spina bifida
, and
schizophrenia
52
Cures
edit
The medical model focuses heavily on finding treatments, cures, or rehabilitative practices for disabled people.
53
Assistive technology
edit
Main article:
Assistive technology
Assistive technology is a generic term for devices and modifications (for a person or within a society) that help overcome or remove a disability. The first recorded example of the use of a
prosthesis
dates to at least 1800 BC.
54
The
wheelchair
dates from the 17th century.
55
The
curb cut
is a related structural innovation. Other examples are
standing frames
, text
telephones
, accessible
keyboards
large print
braille
, and
speech recognition
software
. Disabled people often develop adaptations which can be personal (e.g. strategies to suppress tics in public) or community (e.g.
sign language
in d/Deaf communities).
As the
personal computer
has become more ubiquitous, various organizations have formed to
develop software
and
hardware
to make computers more accessible for disabled people. Some software and hardware, such as
Voice Finger
Freedom Scientific
's
JAWS
, the Free and Open Source alternative
Orca
etc. have been specifically designed for disabled people while other software and hardware, such as
Nuance
's
Dragon NaturallySpeaking
, were not developed specifically for disabled people, but can be used to increase accessibility.
56
The
LOMAK
keyboard was designed in New Zealand specifically for persons with disabilities.
57
The World Wide Web consortium recognized a need for International Standards for Web Accessibility for persons with disabilities and created the
Web Accessibility Initiative
(WAI).
58
As at Dec 2012 the standard is WCAG 2.0 (WCAG = Web Content Accessibility Guidelines).
59
Social model
edit
Main article:
Social model of disability
The social model of disability sees "disability" as a socially created problem and a matter of the full
integration of individuals into society
. In this model, disability is not an attribute of an individual, but rather a complex collection of conditions, created by the social environment. The management of the problem requires
social action
and it is the collective responsibility of society to create a society in which limitations for disabled people are minimal. Disability is both
cultural
and
ideological
in creation. According to the social model, equal access for someone with an impairment/disability is a human rights concern.
60
49
The social model of disability has come under criticism. While recognizing the importance played by the social model in stressing the responsibility of society, scholars, including
Tom Shakespeare
, point out the limits of the model and urge the need for a new model that will overcome the "medical vs. social" dichotomy.
61
The limitations of this model mean that often the vital services and information persons with disabilities face are simply not available, often due to limited economic returns in supporting them.
62
Some say
medical humanities
is a fruitful field where the gap between the medical and the social model of disability might be bridged.
63
Social construction
edit
The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed by social expectations and institutions rather than biological differences. Highlighting the ways society and institutions construct disability is one of the main focuses of this idea.
64
In the same way that race and gender are not biologically fixed, neither is disability. Around the early 1970s, sociologists, notably Eliot Friedson, began to argue that
labeling theory
and
social deviance
could be applied to disability studies. This led to the creation of the
social construction of disability
theory. The social construction of disability is the idea that disability is constructed as the social response to a deviance from the norm. The medical industry is the creator of the ill and disabled social role. Medical professionals and institutions, who wield expertise over health, have the ability to define health and physical and mental norms. When an individual has a feature that creates an impairment, restriction, or limitation from reaching the social definition of health, the individual is labeled as disabled. Under this idea, disability is not defined by the physical features of the body but by a deviance from the
social convention
of health.
65
The social construction of disability would argue that the
medical model of disability
's view that a disability is an impairment, restriction, or limitation is wrong. Instead what is seen as a disability is just a difference in the individual from what is considered "normal" in society.
66
Other models
edit
The political/relational model is an alternative to and critical engagement with both the social and medical models. This analytic posed by Alison Kafer shows not only how the "problem" of disability "is located in inaccessible buildings, discriminatory attitudes, and ideological systems that attribute normalcy and deviance to particular minds and bodies" but also how mind and bodily impairments can still have disabling effects. Furthermore, the political/relational model frames the medicalization of disabled folks as political in nature given it should always be interrogated.
67
The spectrum model refers to the range of audibility, sensibility, and visibility under which people function. The model asserts that disability does not necessarily mean a reduced spectrum of operations. Rather, disability is often defined according to thresholds set on a continuum of disability.
68
The moral model refers to the attitude that people are
morally responsible
for their own disability.
69
For example, disability may be seen as a result of bad actions of parents if
congenital
, or as a result of practicing witchcraft if not.
70
Echoes of this can be seen in the doctrine of
karma
in Eastern and New Age religions. It also includes notions that a disability gives a person "special abilities to perceive, reflect, transcend, be spiritual".
71
The expert/professional model has provided a traditional response to disability issues and can be seen as an offshoot of the medical model. Within its framework, professionals follow a process of identifying the impairment and its limitations (using the medical model), and taking the necessary action to improve the position of the disabled person. This has tended to produce a system in which an authoritarian, over-active service provider prescribes and acts for a passive client.
72
The tragedy/charity model depicts disabled people as victims of circumstance who are deserving of pity. This, along with the medical model, are the models used by most people with no acknowledged disability to define and explain disability.
73
The legitimacy model views disability as a value-based determination about which explanations for the atypical are legitimate for membership in the disability category. This viewpoint allows for multiple explanations and models to be considered as purposive and viable.
74
The social adapted model states although a person's disability poses some limitations in an able-bodied society, often the surrounding society and environment are more limiting than the disability itself.
75
The economic model defines disability in terms of reduced ability to work, the related loss of productivity and economic effects on the individual, employer and society in general.
76
The empowering model (also, customer model or
supported decision making
) allows for the person with a disability and their family to decide the course of their treatment. This turns the professional into a service provider whose role is to offer guidance and carry out the client's decisions. This model "empowers" the individual to pursue their own goals.
75
The market model of disability is minority rights and consumerist model of disability that recognizing disabled people and their stakeholders as representing a large group of consumers, employees, and voters. This model looks to personal identity to define disability and empowers people to chart their own destiny in everyday life, with a particular focus on economic empowerment. Based on US Census data, this model shows that there are 1.2 billion people in the world who consider themselves to have a disability. "This model states that due to the size of the demographic, companies and governments will serve the desires, pushed by demand as the message becomes prevalent in the cultural mainstream."
49
The consumer model of disability is based upon the "rights-based" model and claims that disabled people should have equal rights and access to products, goods, and services offered by businesses. The consumer model extends the rights-based model by proposing that businesses, not only accommodate customers with disabilities under the requirements of legislation but that businesses actively seek, market to, welcome and fully engage disabled people in all aspects of business service activities. The model suggests that all business operations, for example, websites, policies, procedures, mission statements, emergency plans, programs, and services, should integrate access and inclusion practices. Furthermore, these access and inclusion practices should be based on established customer service access and inclusion standards that embrace and support the active engagement of people of all abilities in business offerings.
77
In this regard, specialized products and specialized services become important, such as auxiliary means, prostheses, special foods, domestic help, and assisted living.
78
Different theories revolve around prejudice, stereotyping, discrimination, and stigma related to disability. One of the more popular ones, as put by Weiner, Perry, and Magnusson's (1988) work with
attribution theory
, physical stigmas are perceived as to be uncontrollable and elicit pity and desire to help, whereas, mental-behavioral stigmas are considered to be controllable and therefore elicit anger and desire to neglect the individuals with disabilities.
79
The
just-world fallacy
talks about how a person is viewed as deserving the disability. And because it is the fault of that person, an observer does not feel obligated to feel bad for them or to help them.
80
Terminology
edit
People-first language
edit
Main article:
People-first language
People-first language is one way to talk about disability which some people prefer. Using people-first language is said to put the person before the disability. Those individuals who prefer people-first language would prefer to be called, "a person with a disability". This style is reflected in major legislation on disability rights, including the
Americans with Disabilities Act
and the
UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
. "Cerebral Palsy: A Guide for Care" at the
University of Delaware
describes people-first language:
81
The
American Psychological Association style guide
states that, when identifying a person with a disability, the person's name or pronoun should come first, and descriptions of the disability should be used so that the disability is identified, but is not modifying the person. Acceptable examples included "a woman with
Down syndrome
" or "a man who has
schizophrenia
". It also states that a person's adaptive equipment should be described functionally as something that assists a person, not as something that limits a person, for example, "a woman who uses a wheelchair" rather than "a woman in/confined to a wheelchair".
People-first terminology is used in the UK in the form "people with impairments" (such as "people with visual impairments"); however other individuals and groups prefer identity-first language to emphasize how a disability can impact people's identities. Which style of language used varies between different countries, groups and individuals. In the UK, identity-first language is generally preferred over people-first language. The use of people-first terminology has given rise to the use of the acronym PWD to refer to person(s) (or people) with disabilities (or disability);
82
83
84
Identity-first language
edit
Identity-first language describes the person as "disabled". Some people prefer this and argue that this fits the social model of disability better than people-first language, as it emphasizes that the person is disabled not by their body, but by a world that does not accommodate them.
85
This is especially true in the UK, where it is argued under the
social model
that while someone's impairment (for example, having a
spinal cord injury
) is an individual property, "disability" is something created by external societal factors such as a lack of accessibility.
86
This distinction between the individual property of impairment and the social property of disability is central to the
social model
. The term "disabled people" as a political construction is also widely used by international organizations of disabled people, such as
Disabled Peoples' International
. Using the identity-first language also parallels how people talk about other aspects of identity and diversity. For example:
87
In the autism community, many self-advocates and their allies prefer terminology such as 'Autistic,' 'Autistic person,' or 'Autistic individual' because we understand autism as an inherent part of an individual's identity – the same way one refers to 'Muslims,' 'African-Americans,' 'Lesbian/Gay/Bisexual/Transgender/Queer,' 'Chinese,' 'gifted,' 'athletic,' or 'Jewish.'
Similarly,
Deaf communities
in the US reject people-first language in favor of identity-first language.
88
In 2021, the US
Association on Higher Education and Disability
(AHEAD) announced their decision to use identity-first language in their materials, explaining:
"Identity-first language challenges negative connotations by claiming disability directly. Identity-first language references the variety that exists in how our bodies and brains work with a myriad of conditions that exist, and the role of inaccessible or oppressive systems, structures, or environments in making someone disabled."
89
Neurodiversity
edit
In the 2020s, the term "
neurodiversity
" has been embraced by many adults with various neurological differences. In the original conceptualization, “neurodiversity” refers to the belief that "no two brains or minds function in exactly the same way."
90
"Neurodivergent", often contrasted with "neurotypical", refers to a brain or mind that functions in a way that deviates from culturally normative expectations.
91
Neuroscientist Mo Costandi views terms like
neurotypical
and
neurodiversity
as not being of use in neuroscience, and that those terms are in no way valid.
92
Many sources attribute the term neurodiversity as having first been seen in print in a 1991 chapter in a work by
Judy Singer
, an Australian sociologist. In 2024, a group of autistic academics challenged this concept by suggesting that the term had evolved collectively since the mid-1990s, led primarily by autism self-advocates.
93
Like the
social model of disability
, the neurodiversity movement, as a
civil rights movement
, seeks to fight stigma associated with seeing neurological differences as a disability.
94
This conceptualization does not come without controversy, as some academics have challenged whether or not an extreme view of neurodiversity suggests that neurodevelopmental disorders "are not disorders or illnesses at all."
95
Handicap
edit
The term
handicap
derives from the medieval game
hand-in-cap
, in which two players trade possessions, and a third, neutral person judges the difference of value between the possessions.
96
The concept of a neutral person evening up the odds was extended to
handicap racing
in the mid-18th century, where horses carry different weights based on the umpire's estimation of what would make them run equally. In the early 20th century the word gained the additional meaning of describing a disability, in the sense that a person with a handicap was carrying a heavier burden than normal.
97
This concept, then, adds to the conception of disability as a burden, or individual problem, rather than a societal problem.
98
The UK government advises civil servants to avoid this term.
99
edit
A sign in Taiwan showing a wheelchair accessibility ramp
is the degree to which a product, service or environment is available for use to the people that need it. People with certain types of disabilities struggle to get equal access to some things in society. For example, a blind person cannot read printed
paper ballots
, and therefore does not have access to voting that requires paper ballots. Another example can be that a person in a wheelchair cannot ascend stairs and therefore does not have access to buildings without ramps. Accessible access to health clubs and fitness centers has been observed to be especially problematic.
100
101
Accommodation
edit
A change that improves access. For example, if voting ballots are available in
braille
or on a
text-to-speech
machine, or if another person reads the ballot to the blind person and recorded the choices, then the blind person would have access to voting.
Invisible disability
edit
Main article:
Invisible disability
Invisible disabilities, also known as hidden disabilities or non-visible disabilities (NVD), are disabilities that are not immediately apparent, or seeable. They are often
chronic illnesses
and conditions that significantly impair normal activities of daily living. Invisible disabilities can hinder a person's efforts to go to school, work, socialize, and more. Some examples of invisible disabilities include
intellectual disabilities
autism spectrum disorder
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
fibromyalgia
mental disorders
asthma
epilepsy
allergies
migraines
arthritis
, and
chronic fatigue syndrome
102
Employment discrimination
is reported to play a significant part in the high rate of
unemployment
among those with a diagnosis of mental illness.
103
Episodic disability
edit
People with health conditions such as
arthritis
bipolar disorder
HIV
, or
multiple sclerosis
may have periods of wellness between episodes of illness. During the illness episodes people's ability to perform normal tasks, such as work, can be intermittent.
104
Disability activism
edit
Museum of disABILITY History,
Buffalo, New York
Disability activists have drawn attention to several issues. Disability activism itself has led to the revision of appropriate language, when discussing disability and disabled people. For example, the medical classification of "retarded" has since been disregarded due to its negative implications. Moreover, disability activism has also led to pejorative language being reclaimed by disabled people. Mairs (1986) explained how disabled people may choose to self-describe themselves as a "cripple". This may appear surprising that they are using stereotypically negative language associated with disability to describe themselves; however, the purpose is to reclaim the "disabled identity" from medical professionals, and realign it with the preferred language of disabled people. The reclamation of language demonstrated above positions itself within the social model, as it highlights how as a society we construct concepts and perceptions of disability.
105
The rainbow-colored
infinity
symbol represents the diversity of the autism spectrum as well as the greater
neurodiversity
movement.
106
Rights and policies
edit
Rights movement
edit
Main article:
Disability rights movement
The disability rights movement aims to secure equal opportunities and equal rights for disabled people. The specific goals and demands of the movement are
and
safety
in transportation, architecture, and the physical environment; equal opportunities in
independent living
, employment, education, and housing; and freedom from abuse, neglect, and violations of
patients' rights
107
Effective civil rights legislation is sought to secure these opportunities and rights.
107
108
109
The early disability rights movement was dominated by the medical model of disability, where emphasis was placed on curing or treating disabled people so that they would adhere to the social norm, but starting in the 1960s, rights groups began shifting to the social model of disability, where disability is interpreted as an issue of discrimination, thereby paving the way for rights groups to achieve equality through legal means.
110
Advocacy for disability issues and accessibility in the republics of the former Soviet Union has become more organized and influential in policymaking.
111
Disability Justice movement
edit
Main article:
Disability Justice
Evolving from the disability rights movement is the Disability Justice movement. The term "Disability Justice" was coined in 2005 by
LGBTQ
disabled women of color,
Mia Mingus
Patricia Berne
, and
Stacey Milbern
, who sought to build an anti-ableist movement with a larger emphasis on
intersectionality
than mainstream disability rights, as to center marginalized voices. Their group, the Disability Justice Collective, also included notable disability activists such as Sebastian Margaret;
Leroy F. Moore Jr.
, well known for his poetry and founding of the
Krip Hop
movement; and
Eli Clare
, well known for popularizing the
bodymind
concept within disability studies. The Disability Justice movement aims to improve the lives of disabled people through prioritizing collective liberation, as opposed to prioritizing legislative change and traditional civil rights. This framework, dubbed the "second wave" of disability rights, seeks to examine the many systems of oppression that are intertwined with ableism, such as colonialism,
white supremacy
, and heteropatriarchal capitalism.
112
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
edit
On December 13, 2006, the
United Nations
formally agreed on the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
, the first human rights treaty of the 21st century, to protect and enhance the rights and opportunities of the world's estimated 650 million disabled people.
113
As of December 2025
[update]
, 193 nations have ratified or accepted accession to the convention.
114
Countries that sign the convention are required to adopt national laws, and remove old ones, so that persons with disabilities will, for example, have equal rights to education, employment, and cultural life; to the right to own and inherit property; to not be discriminated against in marriage, etc.; and to not be unwilling subjects in medical experiments. UN officials, including the High Commissioner for Human Rights, have characterized the bill as representing a paradigm shift in attitudes toward a more rights-based view of disability in line with the social model.
113
International Year of Disabled Persons
edit
In 1976, the
United Nations
began planning for its
International Year of Disabled Persons
(1981),
115
later renamed the
International Year of Disabled Persons
. Some disability activists used the Year to highlight various injustices, such as in Australia where beauty pageants were targeted in order to, in the words of activist Leslie Hall, "challenge the notion of beauty" and "reject the charity ethic.
116
The UN Decade of Disabled Persons (1983–1993) featured a World Programme of Action Concerning Disabled Persons. In 1979,
Frank Bowe
was the only person with a disability representing any country in the planning of IYDP-1981. Today, many countries have named representatives who are themselves individuals with disabilities. The decade was closed in an address before the General Assembly by
Robert Davila
. Both Bowe and Davila are
deaf
. In 1984,
UNESCO
accepted
sign language
for use in the education of deaf children and youth.
Policies in former Soviet Union republics
edit
UN programs and OSCE work to align policy and programs in countries that were part of the former Soviet Union with the
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
117
Political issues
edit
Main article:
Ableism
A 28-year-old Iraqi woman who lost both of her legs during the
Iraq War
in 2005
Political
rights
social inclusion
and
citizenship
have come to the fore in developed and some developing countries. The debate has, some instances, moved beyond a concern about the perceived cost of maintaining dependent disabled people to finding effective ways to ensure that disabled people can participate in and contribute to society in all spheres of life.
citation needed
In developing nations, where the vast bulk of the estimated 650 million disabled people reside, a great deal of work is needed to address concerns ranging from accessibility and education to self-empowerment, self-supporting employment, and beyond.
118
Into the 21st century, the efforts of disability rights activists around the world who focused on obtaining full citizenship for disabled people have come under academic study and gained some level of public recognition in many places, such as in the United States.
119
120
There are obstacles in many countries in getting full employment and public perception of disabled people varies.
121
Abuse
edit
Main article:
Disability abuse
Disability abuse happens when a person is abused physically, financially, verbally or mentally due to the person having a disability. As many disabilities are not visible (for example, asthma, learning disabilities) some abusers cannot rationalize the non-physical disability with a need for understanding, support, and so on.
122
123
As the prevalence of disability and the cost of supporting disability increases with medical advancement and longevity in general, this aspect of society becomes of greater political importance. How political parties treat their disabled constituents may become a measure of a political party's understanding of disability, particularly in the social model of disability.
124
Insurance
edit
Disability benefit, or
disability pension
, is a major kind of
disability insurance
that is provided by government agencies to people who are temporarily or permanently unable to work due to a disability. In the US, the disability benefit is provided in the category of
Supplemental Security Income
. In Canada, it is within the
Canada Pension Plan
125
Following a long nationwide campaign involving hundreds of thousands of people the
National Disability Insurance Scheme
was introduced in Australia in 2013 to fund a number of supports.In other countries, disability benefits may be provided under
social security
systems.
126
Costs of disability pensions are steadily growing in Western countries, mainly in Europe and the United States. It was reported that, in the UK, expenditure on disability pensions accounted for 0.9% of
gross domestic product
(GDP) in 1980; two decades later it had reached 2.6% of GDP.
123
127
Several studies have reported a link between increased absence from work due to sickness and elevated risk of future disability pension.
128
A study by researchers in Denmark suggests that information on self-reported days of absence due to sickness can be used to effectively identify future potential groups for disability pension.
127
These studies may provide useful information for policymakers, case managing authorities, employers, and physicians. In Switzerland, social policies in the field of disability have been significantly reshaped over the last two decades by reducing the number of allowances awarded and by increasing the recourse to vocational rehabilitation measures. Drawing on interviews conducted with individuals who have been involved in programs set up by Swiss disability insurance, a study highlights their uncertainties and concerns relating to their place in society, as well as their reactions to disability insurance's interventions.
129
130
Private, for-profit disability insurance plays a role in providing incomes to disabled people, but the nationalized programs are the safety net that catch most claimants.
Employment
edit
Studies have illustrated a correlation between
disability and poverty
. Notably, jobs offered to disabled people are scarce. Marta Russell notes that "[a] primary basis for oppression of disabled persons (those who could work with accommodations) is their exclusion from exploitation as wage laborers."
131
Intellectual disability
edit
Many countries have programs which aid
intellectually disabled
(ID) people to acquire skills needed in the workforce.
132
Such programs include sheltered workshops and adult day care programs. Sheltered programs consist of daytime activities such as gardening, manufacturing, and assembling. These activities facilitate routine-oriented tasks that in turn allow ID people to gain experience before entering the workforce. Similarly, adult day care programs also include day time activities; however, these activities are based in an educational environment where ID people are able to engage in educational, physical, and communication-based tasks which helps facilitate communication, memory, and general living skills. In addition, adult day care programs arranged community activities by scheduling field trips to public places (e.g. zoos and movie theaters). Despite both programs providing essential skills for intellectually disabled people prior to entering the workforce, researchers have found that ID people prefer to be involved with
community-integrated employment
132
Community-integrated employment opportunities are offered to ID people at minimum or higher wages in a variety of occupations ranging from customer service, clerical, janitorial, hospitality, and manufacturing positions. ID employees work alongside employees without disabilities who are able to assist them with training. All three options allow intellectually disabled people to develop and exercise social skills that are vital to everyday life; however, it is not guaranteed that ID employees receive the same treatment as employees without ID; according to Lindstrom et al., community-integrated employees are less likely to receive raises, and only 26% are able to retain full-time status.
133
Finding a stable workforce poses additional challenges. A study published in the
Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disability
indicated that although finding a job may be difficult, stabilizing a job is even harder.
134
Chadsey-Rusch proposed that securing employment for ID people requires adequate production skills and effective social skills.
134
Other underlying factors for job loss include structural factors and worker-workplace integration. As stated by Kilsby, limited structural factors can affect a multitude of factors in a job, such as a restricted number of hours an ID person is allowed to work. This in return, according to Fabian et al., leads to a lack of opportunity to develop relationships with coworkers or to better integrate within the workplace. Nevertheless, those who are unable to stabilize a job often are left discouraged. According to the same study conducted by JARID, many who had participated found that they had made smaller incomes when compared to their co-workers, had an excess of time throughout their days because they did not have work. This renders ID people unable to provide for themselves, including basic necessities such as food, medical care, transportation, and housing. They also had feelings of hopelessness and failure. According to the US National Organization on Disability, not only ID people face constant discouragement but many live below the poverty line because they are unable to find or stabilize employment and because of employee restricting factors placed on ID workers.
133
Poverty
edit
Main article:
Disability and poverty
The Cripples
Pieter Bruegel
, 1568
The poverty rate for working-age people with disabilities is nearly two and a half times higher than that for people without disabilities. Disability and poverty may form a vicious circle, in which physical barriers and stigma of disability make it more difficult to get income, which in turn diminishes access to health care and other necessities for a healthy life.
135
In societies without state funded health and social services, living with a disability could require spending on medication and frequent health care visits, in-home personal assistance, and adaptive devices and clothing, along with the usual costs of living. The
World report on disability
indicates that half of all disabled people cannot afford health care, compared to a third of abled people.
136
In countries without public services for adults with disabilities, their families may be impoverished.
137
Disasters
edit
Main article:
Disability and disasters
There is limited research knowledge, but many anecdotal reports, on what happens when disasters impact disabled people.
138
139
Individuals with disabilities are greatly affected by disasters.
138
140
Those with physical disabilities can be at risk when evacuating if assistance is not available. Individuals with
cognitive impairments
may struggle with understanding instructions that must be followed in the event a disaster occurs.
140
141
142
All of these factors can increase the degree of variation of risk in disaster situations with disabled individuals.
143
Research studies have consistently found discrimination against individuals with disabilities during all phases of a disaster cycle.
138
The most common limitation is that people cannot physically access buildings or
transportation
, as well as access disaster-related services.
138
The exclusion of these individuals is caused in part by the lack of disability-related training provided to emergency planners and
disaster relief
personnel.
144
Disability in society
edit
Protest for the recognition of Irish Sign Language
See also:
Ableism
and
Epistemic injustice
Aging
edit
To a certain degree, physical impairments and changing mental states are almost ubiquitously experienced by people as they age. Aging populations are often stigmatized for having a high prevalence of disability.
Kathleen Woodward
, writing in
Key Words for Disability Studies
, explains the phenomenon as follows:
Aging is invoked rhetorically – at times ominously – as a pressing reason why disability should be of crucial interest to all of us (we are all getting older, we will all be disabled eventually), thereby inadvertently reinforcing the damaging and dominant stereotype of aging as solely an experience of decline and deterioration. But little attention has been given to the imbrication of aging and disability.
145
In
Feminist, Queer, Crip
Alison Kafer
mentions aging and the anxiety associated with it. According to Kafer, this anxiety stems from ideas of normalcy. She says:
Anxiety about aging, for example, can be seen as a symptom of compulsory able-bodiedness/able-mindedness, as can attempts to "treat" children who are slightly shorter than average with growth hormones; in neither case are the people involved necessarily disabled, but they are certainly affected by cultural ideals of normalcy and ideal form and function.
146
Societal norms
edit
In contexts where their differences are visible, persons with disabilities often face
stigma
. People frequently react to disabled presence with fear, pity, patronization, intrusive gazes,
revulsion
, or disregard. These reactions can, and often do, exclude persons with disabilities from accessing social spaces along with the benefits and resources these spaces provide.
147
Disabled writer/researcher Jenny Morris describes how stigma functions to marginalize persons with disabilities:
148
Going out in public so often takes courage. How many of us find that we can't dredge up the strength to do it day after day, week after week, year after year, a lifetime of rejection and revulsion? It is not only physical limitations that restrict us to our homes and those whom we know. It is the knowledge that each entry into the public world will be dominated by stares, by condescension, by pity, and by hostility.
Additionally, facing stigma can cause harm to the psycho-emotional well-being of the person being stigmatized. One of the ways in which the psycho-emotional health of persons with disabilities is adversely affected is through the internalization of the oppression they experience, which can lead to feeling that they are weak, crazy, worthless or any number of other negative attributes that may be associated with their conditions. Internalization of oppression damages the self-esteem of the person affected and shapes their behaviors in ways that are compliant with dominance of those with no acknowledged disability.
147
Ableist ideas are frequently internalized when disabled people are pressured by the people and institutions around them to hide and downplay their disabled difference, or "pass". The media play a significant role in creating and reinforcing stigma associated with disability. Media portrayals of disability usually cast disabled presence as necessarily
marginal
within society at large. These portrayals simultaneously reflect and influence the popular perception of disabled difference. According to writer Simi Linton, the act of passing takes a deep emotional toll by causing disabled individuals to experience loss of community, anxiety and self-doubt.
149
Tropes
edit
Further information:
Disability in the media
There are distinct tactics that the media frequently employ in representing disability. These common ways of framing disability are heavily criticized for being dehumanizing and failing to place importance on the perspectives of persons with disabilities. As outlined by
disability theorist
and
rhetorician
Jay Timothy Dolmage
, ableist media tropes can reflect and continue to perpetuate societal myths about disabled people.
150
Inspiration porn
edit
Inspiration porn
refers to portrayals of persons with disabilities in which they are presented as being inspiring simply because the person has a disability. These portrayals are criticized because they are created with the intent of making viewers with no acknowledged disability feel better about themselves in comparison to the individual portrayed. Rather than recognizing the humanity of persons with disabilities, inspiration porn turns them into objects of inspiration for an audience composed of those with no acknowledged disability.
151
Supercrip
edit
The supercrip trope refers to instances when the media reports on or portray a disabled person who has made a noteworthy achievement but centers on their disability rather than what they actually did. They are portrayed as awe-inspiring for being exceptional compared to others with the same or similar conditions. This trope is widely used in reporting on disabled athletes as well as in portrayals of autistic savants.
152
153
These representations, notes disability scholar Ria Cheyne, "are widely assumed to be inherently regressive",
154
reducing people to their condition rather than viewing them as full people. Furthermore, supercrip portrayals are criticized for creating the unrealistic expectation that disability should be accompanied by some type of special talent, genius, or insight.
155
Examples of this trope in the media include Dr.
Shaun Murphy
from
The Good Doctor
, Marvel's
Daredevil
, and others. Scholar
Sami Schalk
argues that the term supercrip has a narrow definition given how widely used the term is. As a result, Schlak provides three categories of supercrip narratives used:
155
The regular supercrip narrative in which a disabled person gains regulation for completing mundane tacts. This is commonly seen as a disabled person being able to accomplish something despite their disability.
The glorified supercrip narrative in which a disabled person is praised for succeeding at something even a non-disabled person would not be able to do. This narrative form is commonly used to talk about disabled
Paralympic athletes
The superpowered supercrip narrative which appears in functionalized representations of disabled characters. Characters of this narrative type gain superpowers due to their disability. Common examples of this narrative form in action are prosthetics limbs that make one more powerful than expected or have futuristic technology that makes one a
cyborg
155
Disabled villain
edit
Characters in fiction that bear physical or mental markers of difference from perceived societal norms are frequently positioned as villains within a text. Lindsey Row-Heyveld shares ways students should be taught to begin to further analyze this issue.
156
Disabled people's visible differences from the abled majority are meant to evoke fear in audiences that can perpetuate the mindset of disabled people being a threat to individual or public interests and well-being.
Disability drop
edit
The "disability drop"
trope
is when a supposedly disabled character is revealed to have been faking, embellishing, or otherwise not actually embodying their claimed disability.
Jay Dolmage
offers
Kevin Spacey
's character, Verbal Kint, in the film
Usual Suspects
as an example of this, and depictions like this can reflect able-bodied society's mistrust of disabled people.
150
In addition, this reveal of a character's nondisabledness often serves as the narrative climax of a story, and the use of disability as a source of conflict in the plot, narrative obstacle, or a device of characterization aligns with other disability studies scholars' theory of "Narrative
Prosthesis
", a term coined by David T. Mitchell and Sharon Snyder.
157
Disabled victim
edit
Another frequent occurrence is when someone with a disability is assumed to be miserable or helpless.
158
The Hunchback of Notre Dame's
Quasimodo
The Elephant Man's
John Merrick
A Christmas Carol's
Tiny Tim
, and even news broadcasts that refer to people as "victims" or "sufferers" are a few examples of this stereotype.
159
Eternally innocent
edit
Characters with disabilities are frequently portrayed in movies as being angelic or childish. These films include
Rain Man
(1988),
Forrest Gump
(1994) and
I Am Sam
(2001).
160
161
The innocent and endearing person with a disability often points out the inadequacies of their "normal" adult peers, which helps them achieve salvation.
160
162
Like all the others, this stereotype perpetuates patronizing perceptions that are simply untrue and are therefore damaging.
163
While there are many disability tropes, disability aesthetics attempts to dispel them by accurately depicting disabled bodies in art and media.
164
Self-advocacy
edit
Some disabled people have attempted to resist
marginalization
through the use of the social model in opposition to the medical model; with the aim of shifting criticism away from their bodies and impairments and towards the social institutions that oppress them relative to their abled peers. Disability activism that demands many grievances be addressed, such as lack of
, poor representation in media, general disrespect, and
lack of recognition
, originates from a social model framework.
165
The creation of "disability culture" stemmed from the shared experience of stigmatization in broader society.
166
Embracing disability as a positive identity by becoming involved in disabled communities and participating in disability culture can be an effective way to combat internalized prejudice; and can challenge dominant narratives about disability.
167
Intersections
edit
This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
adding missing information
February 2018
Three Black and disabled people in front of a
pride flag
The experiences that disabled people have to navigate social institutions vary greatly as a function of what other social categories they may belong to. For example, a disabled man and a disabled woman experience disability differently.
168
This speaks to the concept of
intersectionality
, which explains that different aspects of a person's identity (such as their gender, race, sexuality, religion, or social class) intersect and create unique experiences of oppression and privilege.
169
Many intersections exist. Disability is defined differently by each person; it may be visible or invisible, and multiple intersections often arise from overlapping identity categories. The United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
differentiates between a few kinds of disability intersections, such as the age-disability, race-disability, and gender-disability intersection.
170
171
Race
edit
Incidence of disability is reported to be greater among several minority communities across the globe, according to a systematic analysis of the
Global Burden of Disease Study
172
Disabled people who are also racial
minorities
generally have less access to support and are more vulnerable to
violent discrimination.
173
A study in the journal
Child Development
indicated that minority disabled children are more likely to receive punitive discipline in low and middle income countries.
174
Due to the fact that children with disabilities are mistreated more often than those without disability; racialized children in this category are at an even higher risk.
175
176
177
178
179
With respect to
disability in the United States
, Camille A. Nelson, writing for the
Berkeley Journal of Criminal Law
, notes the dual discrimination that racial minorities with disabilities experience from the criminal justice system, expressing that for "people who are negatively racialized, that is people who are perceived as being non-white, and for whom mental illness is either known or assumed, interaction with police is precarious and potentially dangerous."
180
Gender
edit
The marginalization of people with disabilities can leave persons with disabilities unable to actualize what society expects of gendered existence. This lack of recognition for their gender identity can leave persons with disabilities with feelings of inadequacy. Thomas J. Gerschick of
Illinois State University
describes why this denial of gendered identity occurs:
181
Bodies operate socially as canvases on which gender is displayed and kinesthetically as the mechanisms by which it is physically enacted. Thus, the bodies of people with disabilities make them vulnerable to being denied recognition as women and men.
To the extent that women and men with disabilities are gendered, the interactions of these two identities lead to different experiences. Women with disabilities face a sort of "double
stigmatization
" in which their membership to both of these marginalized categories simultaneously exacerbates the negative stereotypes associated with each as they are ascribed to them. According to the framework of intersectionality, gender and disability intersect to create a unique experience that is not simply the coincidence of being a woman and having a disability separately, but the unique experience of being a woman with a disability. It follows that the more marginalized groups one belongs to, their experience of privilege or oppression changes: in short, a black woman and a white woman will experience disability differently.
182
According to The UN Woman Watch, "Persistence of certain cultural, legal and institutional barriers makes women and girls with disabilities the victims of two-fold discrimination: as women and as persons with disabilities."
183
As Rosemarie Garland-Thomson puts it, "Women with disabilities, even more intensely than women in general, have been cast in the collective cultural imagination as inferior, lacking, excessive, incapable, unfit, and useless."
184
Socio-economic background
edit
Similar to the intersections of race and disability or gender and disability, a person's socio-economic background will also change their experience of disability. A disabled person with a low socio-economic status will experience the world differently, with more obstacles and fewer opportunities, than a disabled person with a high socio-economic status.
185
186
A good example of the
intersection
between disability and
socio-economic status
is access to education, as we know that there are direct links between poverty and disability,
186
187
188
often working in a vicious cycle.
189
The costs of special education and caring for a disabled child are higher than for a child with no acknowledged disability, which poses an immense barrier in accessing appropriate education.
190
The inaccessibility of appropriate education (at any stage), can lead to difficulties in finding employment, which often results in the vicious cycle of being 'bound' by one's experience as a poor and disabled person to remain in the same social structure and experience socio-economic exclusion.
191
192
In short, this vicious cycle exacerbates the lack of
economic
social
, and
cultural capital
for disabled people with a low socio-economic background. On the other hand, a disabled person of a high socio-economic status, may have an easier time accessing appropriate (special) education or treatment - for example by having access to better aids, resources, or programmes that can help them succeed.
193
194
Disability culture
edit
Sport
edit
Main article:
Disability sports
Wheelchair basketball
match between South Africa and Iran at the
2008 Summer Paralympics
The
Paralympic Games
(meaning "alongside the Olympics") are held after the (
Summer
and
Winter
Olympic Games
. The Paralympic Games include athletes with a wide range of physical disabilities. In member countries, organizations exist to organize competition in the Paralympic sports on levels ranging from recreational to elite (for example,
Disabled Sports USA
and
BlazeSports America
in the United States). The Paralympics developed from a rehabilitation program for British war veterans with spinal injuries. In 1948, Sir Ludwig Guttman, a neurologist working with World War II veterans with spinal injuries at
Stoke Mandeville Hospital
in
Aylesbury
in the UK, began using sport as part of the rehabilitation programs of his patients. In 2006, the
Extremity Games
were formed for physically disabled people, specifically limb loss or limb difference, to be able to compete in
extreme sports
195
Demographics
edit
Estimates of worldwide and country-wide numbers of disabled people are problematic. The varying approaches taken to defining disability notwithstanding, demographers agree that the world population of individuals with disabilities is very large. For example, in 2012, the
World Health Organization
estimated a world population of 6.5 billion people. Of those, nearly 650 million people, or 10%, were estimated to be moderately or severely disabled.
196
In 2018 the
International Labour Organization
estimated that about a billion people, one-seventh of the world population, had disabilities, 80% of them in developing countries, and 80% of working age. Excluding disabled people from the workforce was reckoned to cost up to 7% of
gross domestic product
197
United States
edit
According to the
Centers for Disease Control
's Morbidity and Mortality weekly report, one-fourth of people in the United States are reported to be disabled as of 2016. 10% of young adults were reported to have mental disabilities. The rates of mobility-related issues were highest among middle-aged people and elderly people, with 18.1% and 26.9%, respectively.
198
In terms of race or ethnicity, Asians have the lowest reported rate of disability at around 10%, while Native Americans, the ethnic group with the highest reported incidence, are reported to have a disability rate at an estimated 30% of adults. African Americans had a higher reported disability rate of 25%, compared to 16% for white adults and 17% for Hispanic people.
199
Canada
edit
22.3% of Canadians over 15 are reported to have a disability, or 6,246,640 people, according to the 2017 Canadian Survey on Disability Reports. In Canada, women and older people are more likely to be disabled than working-class men. In comparison to working-age persons between 25 and 65, seniors over 65 reported a disability rate of 38%, which is nearly twice as high. In Canada, women over 15 had a reported disability rate of 24.3%, compared to men's 20%.
200
According to reports from the 2017 Canadian Survey of Disability, South Asians over the age of 15 in Canada had the greatest proportion of disability at 4%, while Latin Americans had a lower rate at 1%.
201
Australia
edit
Nearly one in five Australians, or 4.4 million people, were estimated by the
Australian Bureau of Statistics
to have a disability. A mental or behavioral issue was reported in over 25% of Australians with disabilities. Male prevalence was 17.6 million, while female prevalence was somewhat higher at 17.8 million between the sexes. Age-wise, 11.6% of adults between 0 and 64 in Australia had a disability, compared to 49.6% of seniors 65 and over. 53.4% of Australians aged 15 to 64 who have a disability are employed.
202
United Kingdom
edit
According to the
House of Commons Library
, 14.6 million, or 22%, of the population in the UK, were reported to be disabled in 2020–2021. In the UK, there were 9% of children, 21% of working-age people, and 42% of persons over the state pension age who were disabled or impaired.
203
Approximately 29% of White individuals, 27% of mixed-race people, 22% of Asian people, 21% of Black people, and 19% of people from other ethnic groups were reported as having impairments or disabilities, according to the Life Opportunities Survey, which surveyed 35,875 people in 2011. When compared to men, women are a little more likely than men to have a disability, with 31% of women reportedly having one as opposed to 26% of men, according to results of another survey taken the same year.
204
China
edit
According to Twenty-Year Trends in the Prevalence of Disability in China, a medical publication from the
National Library of Medicine
, there were an estimated 84.6 million Chinese individuals living with a disability in 2006. In a 2006 poll of 83,342 men and 78,137 women, the age groups with the highest reported rates of disability are 18–44-year-old males (22.5%) and 65–74-year-old females (22.8%), according to polls published in the journal that were representative of the country as a whole. In China, the percentage of people with disabilities varies substantially between urban and rural regions, with men and women having reported rates of 72.4% and 72.2%, respectively, in rural China, compared to reported rates of 27.6% and 27.8%, respectively, in urban China. Hearing and speech disabilities are the most commonly reported in China, with men being more affected than women at rates 39.6% and 36.2% among disabled people, respectively.
205
South Korea
edit
In South Korea, there were accounted to be 2.517 million people with disabilities in total, or roughly 5.0% of the population, in 2018. When compared to Koreans without disabilities, people with disabilities spent an average of 56.5 days in medical facilities, which was 2.6 more than the national average. 34.9% of the entire workforce was employed in jobs connected to disabilities. Families with disabilities made an average income of 41.53 million won, or 71.3% of total family earnings. According to the Korean 2020 Statistics on the Disabled The majority of persons with disabilities needed help with "cleaning" and "using transportation", among other everyday tasks.
206
Developing nations
edit
Disability is more common in developing than in
developed nations.
The connection between
disability and poverty
is thought to be part of a "vicious cycle" in which these constructs are mutually reinforcing.
207
See also
edit
Society portal
Assistive technology
Curb cut effect
Disability benefits
Disability flag
Disability hate crime
Disadvantaged
Conscription of people with disabilities
Epistemic injustice
Frailty syndrome
Hidden disability sunflower
Nothing about us without us
Parents with disabilities
Physiological functional capacity
Youth and disability
References
edit
Citations
edit
CDC (April 3, 2024).
"Disability and Health Overview"
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
. Retrieved
April 24,
2024
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (
link
Francis L, Silvers A (October 1, 2016).
"Perspectives on the Meaning of "Disability"
AMA Journal of Ethics
18
(10):
1025–
1033.
doi
10.1001/journalofethics.2016.18.10.pfor2-1610
ISSN
2376-6980
PMID
27780027
Resolution / adopted by the General Assembly, A/RES/61/106
. UN General Assembly, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities. 24 January 2007. [accessed 27 December 2020]
"Medical and Social Models of Disability"
Office of Developmental Primary Care
. Retrieved
February 8,
2024
Wright KM (June 1, 2024).
"Getting to Disability Justice: A Critical Conceptual Review of Disability Models in U.S. Social Work"
The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare
51
(1):
70–
81.
doi
10.15453/0191-5096.4723
ISSN
0191-5096
Barnes E (2014).
"Valuing Disability, Causing Disability"
Ethics
125
(1):
88–
113.
doi
10.1086/677021
ISSN
0014-1704
JSTOR
10.1086/677021
Moore M (January 2015).
"Religious Attitudes toward the Disabled (2015)"
infidels.org
. The Secular Web.
Archived
from the original on May 4, 2020
. Retrieved
April 30,
2020
Sneed (2021).
"Disability and Infanticide in Ancient Greece"
Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
90
(4): 747.
doi
10.2972/hesperia.90.4.0747
Sneed D (2018).
The Life Cycle of Disability in Ancient Greece
(Thesis). UCLA.
"Plutarch, Lycurgus, chapter 16"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Plutarch, Lycurgus, chapter 1"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Plato, Republic, Book 5, section 460c"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Aristotle, Politics, Book 7, section 1335a"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Aristotle, Politics, Book 7, section 1335b"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
Brown R (1994).
Florida's First People: 12,000 Years of Human History
. Pineapple Press. p. 25.
ISBN
1-56164-032-8
Milanich JT (1994).
Archaeology of Precolumbian Florida
. University Press of Florida. p. 75.
ISBN
0-8130-1273-2
Kağnici G (December 28, 2018).
"Insights from Sumerian Mythology: The Myth of Enki And Ninmaḫ and the History of Disability"
Tarih İncelemeleri Dergisi
33
(2):
429–
450.
doi
10.18513/egetid.502714
ISSN
0257-4152
S2CID
165868664
Loebl WY, Nunn JF (August 1997).
"Staffs as Walking Aids in Ancient Egypt and Palestine"
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine
90
(8):
450–
454.
doi
10.1177/014107689709000811
ISSN
0141-0768
PMC
1296463
PMID
9307002
"Hippocrates, De articulis, Part 53"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Hippocrates, De articulis, Part 12"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Hippocrates, De articulis, Part 62"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Homer, Iliad, Book 22"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
Liston MA, Snyder LM, Rotroff SI (2018).
The Agora Bone Well
. Hesperia. Princeton (N. J.): American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
ISBN
978-0-87661-550-8
"Xenophon, Memorabilia, Book 3, chapter 12"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Herodotus, The Histories, Book 7, chapter 229"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Aristotle: History of Animals IX"
penelope.uchicago.edu
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Lysias, On the Refusal of a Pension, section 6"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Plato, Laws, Book 11"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Aristotle, Athenian Constitution, chapter 55"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
Sneed D (August 2020).
"The architecture of access: ramps at ancient Greek healing sanctuaries"
Antiquity
94
(376):
1015–
1029.
doi
10.15184/aqy.2020.123
ISSN
0003-598X
Geggel L (July 22, 2020).
"Ancient Greeks may have built 'disability ramps' on some temples"
LiveScience
Archived
from the original on July 29, 2020
. Retrieved
August 7,
2020
"Lysias, On the Refusal of a Pension, section 13"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
"Herodotus, The Histories, Book 1, chapter 34"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
Penrose WD (June 2015).
"The Discourse of Disability in Ancient Greece"
Classical World
108
(4):
499–
523.
doi
10.1353/clw.2015.0068
ISSN
1558-9234
"Demosthenes, On the Crown, section 67"
Perseus Digital Library
. Retrieved
March 24,
2025
Braddock D, Parrish S (2001).
"An Institutional History of Disability"
. In Albrecht GL, Seelman KD, Bury M (eds.).
Handbook of Disability Studies
. SAGE. pp.
11–
68.
doi
10.4135/9781412976251
ISBN
978-0-7619-2874-4
Stiker H (2000).
A History of Disability
. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 91.
Foucault M (1980).
The History of Sexuality, vol. 1
. New York: Vintage.
Grue L, Heiberg A (November 4, 2006).
"Notes on the History of Normality – Reflections on the Work of Quetelet and Galton"
Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research
(4): 232.
doi
10.1080/15017410600608491
Davis LJ (1995).
"Constructing Normalcy"
Enforcing Normalcy: Disability, Deafness, and the Body
. Verso. pp.
23–
49.
ISBN
978-1-85984-007-8
Bogdan R (1998).
Freak Show: Presenting Human Oddities for Amusement and Profit
"Disabled people"
Holocaust Memorial Day Trust
. Retrieved
June 7,
2023
Barlow, Kathleen (2006). "Inbreeding, Incest, and the Incest Taboo: The State of Knowledge at the Turn of the Century".
American Anthropologist
108
(2):
447–
48.
doi
10.1525/aa.2006.108.2.447
Russell M, Malhotra R (2002).
"Capitalism and Disability"
Socialist Register
38
212–
213.
ISSN
0081-0606
Marini I, Graf NM, Millington M (2017). "The History of Treatment Toward People With Disabilities".
Psychosocial Aspects of Disability
(2nd ed.). Springer.
ISBN
978-0-8261-8062-9
Oliver 1990
Mullaney C (April 13, 2019).
"Disability Studies: Foundations & Key Concepts"
JSTOR Daily
. Retrieved
October 8,
2022
Nikora et al. 2004
, p. 5.
Donovan 2012
, p. 12.
Russell 2019
, p. 4.
Krause N, Frank JW, Dasinger LK, Sullivan TJ, Sinclair SJ (September 25, 2001).
"Determinants of duration of disability and return-to-work after work-related injury and illness: Challenges for future research"
American Journal of Industrial Medicine
40
(4):
464–
484.
Bibcode
2001AJIM...40..464K
doi
10.1002/ajim.1116
ISSN
0271-3586
PMID
11598995
"Regulations To Implement the Equal Employment Provisions of the Americans With Disabilities Act, as Amended"
Federal Register
. 2011.
Archived
from the original on August 22, 2016
. Retrieved
January 9,
2019
"The Rhetorical Dimensions of Ableism".
Ableist Rhetoric
. 2019. pp.
1–
25.
doi
10.1515/9780271085296-002
ISBN
978-0-271-08529-6
S2CID
242299440
"Disability Social History Project – Timeline"
. Disabilityhistory.org.
Archived
from the original on September 1, 2017
. Retrieved
August 11,
2012
Cooper, Rory A, Hisaichi Ohnabe, Douglas A. Hobson (2006).
An Introduction to Rehabilitation Engineering
. CRC Press. p. 131.
ISBN
978-1-4200-1249-1
"Student Accessibility Services: Dragon Naturally Speaking"
University of New Hampshire
. Archived from
the original
on April 8, 2015.
Sobh T (2007).
Innovations and Advanced Techniques in Computer and Information Sciences and Engineering
. Springer. p.
176
ISBN
978-1-4020-6268-1
"Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI)"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on September 4, 2008
. Retrieved
January 29,
2013
"Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0"
. W3C.
Archived
from the original on February 18, 2011
. Retrieved
January 29,
2013
Nikora et al. 2004
, pp. 6–7.
Shakespeare, T., Watson, N. (2001). "The social model of disability: An outdated ideology?". In Barnartt, S.N., Altman, B.M. (eds.).
Exploring Theories and Expanding Methodologies: Where we are and where we need to go
. Research in Social Science and Disability. Vol. 2. Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing. pp.
9–
28.
doi
10.1016/S1479-3547(01)80018-X
ISBN
978-0-7623-0773-9
Parker CJ, May A, Mitchell V, Burrows A (2015).
"Capturing Volunteered Information for Inclusive Service Design: Potential Benefits and Challenges"
The Design Journal
16
(11):
197–
218.
doi
10.2752/175630613X13584367984947
S2CID
110716823
Archived
from the original on May 10, 2022
. Retrieved
January 8,
2019
Garden R (2010).
"Disability and narrative: new directions for medicine and the medical humanities"
Med. Humanit
36
(2):
70–
74.
doi
10.1136/jmh.2010.004143
PMID
21393285
Mallon R (2014). Zalta EN (ed.).
Naturalistic Approaches to Social Construction
(Winter 2014 ed.).
Archived
from the original on March 18, 2019
. Retrieved
February 23,
2016
Freidson E (1970).
Profession of Medicine: A Study of the Sociology of Applied Knowledge
. Harper and Row. pp.
205–
10.
ISBN
978-0-06-042205-9
Burch S (2009).
Encyclopedia of American Disability History Vol. 2
. Facts on File. pp.
543–
44.
ISBN
978-0-8160-7030-5
Kafer A (2013).
Feminist, Queer, Crip
. Indiana University Press.
"International organisations report on disability"
. Disabled Persons Assembly New Zealand. August 2011. Archived from
the original
on February 5, 2013
. Retrieved
March 6,
2013
Kaplan D.
"Disability Model"
. World Institute on Disability. Archived from
the original
on April 25, 2012
. Retrieved
October 30,
2011
Lum D (2010).
Culturally Competent Practice: A Framework for Understanding Diverse Groups and Justice Issues
. Cengage Learning. p. 449.
ISBN
978-0-8400-3443-4
Olkin R (2012).
What Psychotherapists Should Know About Disability
. Guilford Press. p. 26.
ISBN
978-1-4625-0613-2
Nikora et al. 2004
, pp. 5–6.
Nikora et al. 2004
, p. 6.
DePoy & Gilson 2004
Nikora et al. 2004
, p. 7.
"Economic Model of Disability"
. Michigan Disability Rights Coalition.
Archived
from the original on July 28, 2012
. Retrieved
August 11,
2012
Smith, T.B. (2012). A New and Emerging Model of Disability: The Consumer Model. White Paper. The Pennsylvania State University
Aichner, T., Shaltoni, A.M. (2018). "Marketing of specialised products and services to consumers with disabilities: exploring the role of advertising, country-of-origin, and e-commerce".
The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research
28
(2):
115–
36.
doi
10.1080/09593969.2017.1364658
S2CID
169024657
Weiner, B., Perry, R.P., Magnusson, J. (1988). "An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas".
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
55
(5):
738–
48.
doi
10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.738
PMID
2974883
Lerner M (1980).
The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion
. New York: Plenum Press.
"Cerebral Palsy: a Guide for Care"
. The Nemours Foundation.
Archived
from the original on July 17, 2007
. Retrieved
July 29,
2007
Meyers S (2014). "Chapter 23. The past dividing the present". In Mitchell D, Karr V (eds.).
Crises, Conflict and Disability: Ensuring Equality
Routledge
. p. 195.
"Groups and individuals honored at PWD Day"
The Manila Times
. May 20, 2014. Archived from
the original
on July 19, 2014
. Retrieved
July 15,
2014
Department for International Development
"Recognising & Implementing Housing Rights CSCF449"
. Archived from
the original
on July 19, 2014
. Retrieved
July 15,
2014
Dunn DS, Andrews EE (2015). "Person-first and identity-first language: Developing psychologists' cultural competence using disability language".
The American Psychologist
70
(3):
255–
64.
doi
10.1037/a0038636
PMID
25642702
Davis, Ken. (January 3, 2009].
The Social Model of Disability
Glasgow Centre for Inclusive Living.
Archived
January 3, 2009, at the
Wayback Machine
Haller B.
"Journalists should learn to carefully traverse a variety of disability terminology | National Center on Disability and Journalism"
. Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication. Arizona State University.
Archived
from the original on March 24, 2016
. Retrieved
April 27,
2019
Lum D (2010).
Culturally Competent Practice: A Framework for Understanding
. Cengage Learning. p. 441.
ISBN
978-0-8400-3443-4
"AHEAD Statement on Language | Association on Higher Education and Disability"
Archived
from the original on February 9, 2021
. Retrieved
February 9,
2021
Morris I (2025).
"Moving Toward Transdiagnostic Dimensional Models of Neurodiversity and Mental Health (and Away From Models of Psychopathology)"
Journal of Psychopathology and Clinical Science
134
(5):
483–
485.
doi
10.1037/abn0001007
PMID
40310186
– via APA PsycArticles.
Botha M, Chapman R, Giwa Onaiwu M, Kapp SK, Stannard Ashley A, Walker N (June 1, 2024).
"The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory"
Autism
28
(6):
1591–
1594.
doi
10.1177/13623613241237871
ISSN
1362-3613
PMID
38470140
Botha M, Chapman R, Giwa Onaiwu M, Kapp SK, Stannard Ashley A, Walker N (June 1, 2024).
"The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory"
Autism
28
(6):
1591–
1594.
doi
10.1177/13623613241237871
ISSN
1362-3613
PMID
38470140
Botha M, Chapman R, Giwa Onaiwu M, Kapp SK, Stannard Ashley A, Walker N (June 1, 2024).
"The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory"
Autism
28
(6):
1591–
1594.
doi
10.1177/13623613241237871
ISSN
1362-3613
PMID
38470140
MD DM (December 17, 2025).
"The Neurodiversity Movement: Confusing Illness with Stigma? | Psychiatric Times"
www.psychiatrictimes.com
. Retrieved
December 17,
2025
"Definition of handicap in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)"
. Archived from
the original
on April 3, 2013
. Retrieved
April 12,
2013
"Online Etymology Dictionary"
Archived
from the original on September 15, 2017
. Retrieved
April 12,
2013
D'Mello L, Monteiro M, BM G (July 24, 2017). "Psycho-Social Problems faced by Persons with Disability".
International Journal of Management, Technology, and Social Sciences
1–
7.
doi
10.47992/ijmts.2581.6012.0019
(inactive January 2, 2026).
ISSN
2581-6012
S2CID
231214034
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026 (
link
GOV.UK
Bradley J. Cardinal & Marc D. Spaziani (2003). "ADA compliance and the accessibility of physical activity facilities in western Oregon".
American Journal of Health Promotion
17
(3):
197–
201.
doi
10.4278/0890-1171-17.3.197
PMID
12545588
S2CID
46766567
Cardinal BJ (2003). "Fitness for all: Is your club ADA compliant?".
Club Industry
19
(5):
31–
33.
"Invisible Disabilities: List & Information"
(PDF)
Disabled World
. October 28, 2015.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on February 25, 2021
. Retrieved
February 15,
2021
Stuart H (September 2006). "Mental illness and employment discrimination".
Current Opinion in Psychiatry
19
(5):
522–
6.
doi
10.1097/01.yco.0000238482.27270.5d
PMID
16874128
S2CID
45821626
Furrie, Adele, Rebecca Gewurtz, Wendy Porch, Cameron Crawford, Maureen Haan, and John Stapleton. "Episodic Disabilities in Canada." 2016
"On Being a Cripple".
The Social Medicine Reader
. Vol. 2 (3rd ed.). 2020. pp.
37–
47.
doi
10.1515/9781478004363-005
ISBN
978-1-4780-0436-3
Muzikar D (April 20, 2015).
"The Autism Puzzle Piece: A symbol that's going to stay or go?"
The Art of Autism
Archived
from the original on April 1, 2017
. Retrieved
April 1,
2017
"Disability Rights Wisconsin"
. Disabilityrightswi.org. Archived from
the original
on March 19, 2012
. Retrieved
August 11,
2012
Bagenstos S (2009).
Law and the Contradictions of the Disability Rights Movement
. New Haven: Yale University Press.
ISBN
978-0-300-12449-1
JSTOR
j.ctt1npkj3
OCLC
262432366
Löve L, Traustadóttir R, Rice J (March 26, 2018).
"Achieving disability equality: Empowering disabled people to take the lead"
Social Inclusion
(1):
1–
8.
doi
10.17645/si.v6i1.1180
hdl
20.500.11815/760
Kemple M, Ahmad F, Girijashanker S (2011). "Shaping Disability Rights through Shaping the Disability Movement".
Journal of Human Rights Practice
(3):
355–
63.
doi
10.1093/jhuman/hur019
Satubaldina A (November 27, 2020).
"We Seek to Promote a Human Rights Based Approach to Disability"
The Astana Times
. Kazakhstan.
Archived
from the original on December 2, 2020
. Retrieved
December 3,
2020
Berne P (June 10, 2015).
"Disability Justice - a working draft by Patty Berne"
Sins Invalid - An Unashamed Claim to Beauty in the Face of Invisibility
. Retrieved
October 7,
2022
Kayess R, French P (2008). "Out of darkness into light? Introducing the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities".
Human Rights Law Review
1–
34.
doi
10.1093/hrlr/ngm044
"Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)"
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
: Disability
Archived
from the original on October 2, 2016
. Retrieved
January 19,
2021
"International Year for Disabled Persons"
Public Health Reports
95
(5):
498–
499. 1980.
PMC
1422742
PMID
6893494
McIntyre I (April 26, 2023).
"People With Disability Australian Protest Timeline"
The Commons Social Change Library
. Retrieved
March 31,
2024
"OSCE supports roundtable discussion on the rights of persons with disabilities in Nur-Sultan"
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe
. November 14, 2019.
Archived
from the original on November 29, 2020
. Retrieved
December 4,
2020
"Fact Sheet on Persons with Disabilities"
(PDF)
. Division for Inclusive Social Development.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs:Enable
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on October 30, 2020
. Retrieved
August 27,
2018
Carey AC (2009).
On the Margins of Citizenship: Intellectual Disability and Civil Rights in Twentieth-Century America
. Temple University Press.
ISBN
978-1-59213-697-1
JSTOR
j.ctt14bs8th
Sépulchre M (June 1, 2020).
"Ensuring equal citizenship for disabled people: A matter of rights or a matter of costs?"
Alter
14
(2):
114–
127.
doi
10.1016/j.alter.2020.03.001
ISSN
1875-0672
Heron R, Murray (2003).
ASSISTING DISABLED PERSONS IN FINDING EMPLOYMENT A practical guide
(2nd ed.). Geneva: International Labour Organization.
ISBN
92-2-115116-6
"Abuse in Disability Communities"
The Hotline
. Retrieved
February 21,
2024
Transforming Disability into Ability
. 2003.
doi
10.1787/9789264158245-en
ISBN
978-92-64-19887-6
Hough A (October 23, 2012).
'Disability hate crimes' rise by a quarter in a year"
Telegraph
Archived
from the original on January 11, 2022
. Retrieved
January 29,
2013
NA (October 14, 2015).
"Canada Pension Plan disability benefits: Overview"
Service Canada
. Retrieved
February 8,
2024
McIntyre I (February 2, 2022).
"Lessons from the Campaign to Stop Independent Assessments Webinar"
The Commons Social Change Library
. Australian Progress
. Retrieved
March 31,
2024
Labriola M, Lund T (2007).
"Self-reported sickness absence as a risk marker of future disability pension. Prospective findings from the DWECS/DREAM study 1990–2004"
Int J Med Sci
(3):
153–
58.
doi
10.7150/ijms.4.153
PMC
1885553
PMID
17554400
Virtanen M, Kivimäki M, Vahtera J, Elovainio M, Sund R, Virtanen P, Ferrie JE (2006).
"Sickness absence as a risk factor for job termination, unemployment, and disability pension among temporary and permanent employees"
Occup Environ Med
63
(3):
212–
217.
Bibcode
2006OccEM..63..212V
doi
10.1136/oem.2005.020297
PMC
2078149
PMID
16497865
Piecek M, Perrin C, Tabin JP, Probst I (January 17, 2019).
"The 'compliant', the 'pacified' and the 'rebel': experiences with Swiss disability insurance"
Disability & Society
34
(4):
583–
606.
doi
10.1080/09687599.2018.1545115
ISSN
0968-7599
Material was copied from this source, which is available under a
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Tabin JP, Piecek M, Perrin C, Probst I (September 19, 2019).
"Three Dimensions in the Register of Shame"
Review of Disability Studies
15
(3):
1–
19.
ISSN
1552-9215
Archived
from the original on February 4, 2020
. Retrieved
January 18,
2020
Russell 2019
, p. 14.
Blick RN, Litz KS, Thornhill MG, Goreczny AJ (June–July 2016). "Do inclusive work environments matter? Effects of community-integrated employment on quality of life for individuals with intellectual disabilities".
Research in Developmental Disabilities
53–
54:
358–
366.
doi
10.1016/j.ridd.2016.02.015
PMID
26977937
Lindstrom L, Hirano KA, McCarthy C, Alverson CV (May 2014). "
'Just having a job': Career advancement for low-wage workers with intellectual and developmental disabilities".
Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals
37
(1):
40–
49.
doi
10.1177/2165143414522092
S2CID
145212407
Banks P, Jahoda A, Dagnan D, Kemp J, Williams V (2010). "Supported Employment for People with Intellectual Disability: The Effects of Job Breakdown on Psychological Well-Being".
Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities
23
(4):
344–
354.
doi
10.1111/j.1468-3148.2009.00541.x
Yeo 2005
World Health Organization,
World report on disability
, 2011.
"Centro DÍBÁ"
Archived
from the original on January 23, 2015
. Retrieved
May 10,
2022
Stough LM, Peek L (July 2010).
"Children With Disabilities in the Context of Disaster: A Social Vulnerability Perspective"
(PDF)
Child Development
81
(4):
1260–
1270.
doi
10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01466.x
hdl
1969.1/153154
ISSN
0009-3920
LCCN
e34000503
OCLC
641792335
PMID
20636694
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on May 12, 2013
. Retrieved
January 31,
2013
Stough LM, Sharp AN, Curt D, Wilker N (2010).
"Disaster Case Management and Individuals With Disabilities"
(PDF)
Rehabilitation Psychology
55
(3):
211–
220.
doi
10.1037/a0020079
hdl
1969.1/153155
ISSN
0090-5550
PMID
20804264
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on May 12, 2013
. Retrieved
January 31,
2013
Stough 2009
McAdams Ducy, Stough & Clark 2012
McAdams Ducy E, Stough LM (July 29, 2011). "Exploring the support role of special education teachers after Hurricane Ike: Children with significant disabilities".
Journal of Family Issues
32
(10):
1325–
45.
doi
10.1177/0192513X11412494
S2CID
146605276
"Effective Emergency Management: Making Improvements for Communities and People with Disabilities"
. F Street, Washington: National Council on Disability. August 12, 2009. Archived from
the original
on February 12, 2013
. Retrieved
January 29,
2013
"Disability, natural disasters and emergency situations"
. Division for Inclusive Social Development.
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs:Enable
. May 31, 2011. Archived from
the original
on February 2, 2013
. Retrieved
January 29,
2013
Woodward K (2015). "9". In Adams R, Reiss B, Serlin D (eds.).
Key Words for Disability Studies
. New York: New York University Press. pp.
33–
34.
ISBN
978-1-4798-4115-8
Kafer A (2013).
Feminist, Queer, Crip
. Indiana University Press. p. 8.
Reeve D (2004).
"Psycho-emotional dimensions of disability and the social model"
(PDF)
. In Barnes C, Mercer G (eds.).
Reeve Chapter 2004
. Leeds, UK: The Disability Press. pp.
83–
100.
ISBN
978-0-9528450-8-9
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on May 5, 2016
. Retrieved
April 19,
2016
Morris J (1991).
Pride Against Prejudice Transforming Attitudes to Disability
(PDF)
. Aylesbury, Bucks, UK: The Women's Press. pp. 21, 22.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on April 23, 2016
. Retrieved
April 19,
2016
Linton S (1998).
Claiming Disability: Knowledge and Identity
. New York: NYU Press. pp.
19–
21.
ISBN
978-0-8147-5134-3
. Archived from
the original
on September 30, 2013
. Retrieved
May 3,
2016
Dolmage JT (2014).
Disability Rhetoric
(1st ed.).
Syracuse University Press
. pp.
31–
61.
ISBN
978-0-8156-3324-2
Young S (July 2, 2012).
"We're not here for your inspiration"
Ramp up
. Australia: ABC Services.
Archived
from the original on April 28, 2016
. Retrieved
April 19,
2016
Murray S (2008).
Representing Autism Culture, Narrative, Fascination
. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press.
ISBN
978-1-84631-092-8
Hardin, Marie Myers, Hardin, Brent (June 2004).
"The 'Supercrip' in sport media: Wheelchair athletes discuss hegemony's disabled hero"
Sociology of Sport Online
(1). School of Physical Education, University of Otago.
ISSN
1461-8192
. Archived from
the original
on August 19, 2004
. Retrieved
April 19,
2016
Cheyne R (2019).
Disability, Literature, Genre: Representation and Affect in Contemporary Fiction
(PDF)
(1 ed.). United Kingdom: Liverpool University Press. pp.
62–
3.
ISBN
978-1-78962-077-1
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on February 21, 2024 – via OAPEN.
Although the authors do not expand on their analysis in depth, they do not need to: supercrip representations are widely assumed to be 'inherently regressive' (Schalk 75). To label a representation as deploying this stereotype is 'the ultimate scholarly insult', a form of critical dismissal which decisively locates that text as unproductive from a disability studies perspective (Schalk 71).
Schalk S (2016).
"Reevaluating the Supercrip"
(PDF)
Journal of Literary & Cultural Disability Studies
10
(1):
71–
86.
doi
10.3828/jlcds.2016.5
ISSN
1757-6458
S2CID
147281453
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on November 8, 2022.
Row-Heyveld L (2015). "Reading Batman, Writing X-Men Superpowers and Disabilities in the First-Year Seminar".
Pedagogy: Critical Approaches to Teaching Literature, Language, Composition, and Culture
15
(3):
519–
26.
doi
10.1215/15314200-2917105
S2CID
146299487
Mitchell DT, Snyder SL (2000).
Narrative Prosthesis: Disability and the Dependencies of Discourse
. University of Michigan Press.
ISBN
978-0-472-06748-0
Silver RL (1982).
Coping with an undesirable life event: a study of early reactions to physical disability
(Thesis).
OCLC
25949964
Barnes C (March 15, 1992).
Disabling Imagery and the Media
. Krumlin, Halifax: Ryburn Publishing.
ISBN
1-85331-042-5
Byrne P (May 18, 2002).
"I Am Sam"
BMJ: British Medical Journal
324
(7347): 1223.
doi
10.1136/bmj.324.7347.1223
ISSN
0959-8138
PMC
1123184
Pettey HB (2020).
Mind Reeling: Psychopathology on Film
. State University of New York Press.
ISBN
978-1-4384-8102-9
Reynolds TE (2008).
Vulnerable Communion: A Theology of Disability and Hospitality
. Brazos Press.
ISBN
978-1-4412-0263-5
"Disability stereotypes in the media | Aruma"
Aruma Disability Services
. August 24, 2020
. Retrieved
October 8,
2022
Siebers T (2005).
"Disability Aesthetics"
PMLA
120
(2):
542–
546.
doi
10.1632/S0030812900167860
ISSN
0030-8129
JSTOR
25486181
S2CID
233314914
Owens J (March 2015). "Exploring the critiques of the social model of disability: the transformative possibility of Arendt's notion of power".
Sociology of Health & Illness
37
(3):
385–
403.
doi
10.1111/1467-9566.12199
PMID
25524639
Brown SE (Spring 2002).
"What Is Disability Culture?"
Disability Studies Quarterly
22
(2):
34–
50.
doi
10.18061/dsq.v22i2.343
Reeve D (2002).
"Negotiating Psycho-Emotional Dimensions of Disability and their Influence on Identity Constructions"
(PDF)
Disability & Society
17
(5):
493–
508.
doi
10.1080/09687590220148487
S2CID
17324956
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on April 28, 2016
. Retrieved
April 19,
2016
Begum N (March 1992). "Disabled Women and the Feminist Agenda".
Feminist Review
40
(1):
70–
84.
doi
10.1057/fr.1992.6
S2CID
143930177
Pettinicchio D, Maroto M (January 1, 2017). "Employment Outcomes Among Men and Women with Disabilities: How the Intersection of Gender and Disability Status Shapes Labor Market Inequality". In Altman BM (ed.).
Factors in Studying Employment for Persons with Disability
. Research in Social Science and Disability Vol. 10. Emerald Publishing Limited. pp.
3–
33.
doi
10.1108/s1479-354720170000010003
ISBN
978-1-78714-606-8
S2CID
158400534
Lawson A (2016).
European Union Non-Discrimination Law and Intersectionality: Investigating the Triangle of Racial, Gender and Disability Discrimination
. Routledge.
ISBN
978-1-317-13921-8
"Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) | United Nations Enable"
www.un.org
. Retrieved
February 21,
2024
Theo Vos, et al. (GBD 2016 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators) (2017).
"Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 328 diseases and injuries for 195 countries, 1990–2016: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2016"
The Lancet
390
(10100):
1211–
1259.
doi
10.1016/s0140-6736(17)32154-2
ISSN
0140-6736
PMC
5605509
PMID
28919117
Frederick A, Shifrer D (July 11, 2018).
"Race and Disability: From Analogy to Intersectionality"
Sociology of Race and Ethnicity
(2):
200–
214.
doi
10.1177/2332649218783480
ISSN
2332-6492
S2CID
150155324
Hendricks C, Lansford JE, Deater-Deckard K, Bornstein MH (July 29, 2013).
"Associations Between Child Disabilities and Caregiver Discipline and Violence in Low- and Middle-Income Countries"
Child Development
85
(2):
513–
531.
doi
10.1111/cdev.12132
ISSN
0009-3920
PMC
4151611
PMID
23895329
Sullivan PM, Knutson JF (October 2000). "Maltreatment and disabilities: a population-based epidemiological study".
Child Abuse & Neglect
24
(10):
1257–
1273.
doi
10.1016/s0145-2134(00)00190-3
PMID
11075694
S2CID
20946280
Randall W, Sobsey D, Parrila R (2001). "Ethnicity, disability, and risk for abuse".
Developmental Disabilities Bulletin
29
(1):
60–
80.
Horner-Johnson W, Drum CE (2006).
"Prevalence of maltreatment of people with intellectual disabilities: a review of recently published research"
Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews
12
(1):
57–
69.
doi
10.1002/mrdd.20097
PMID
16435331
Brown J, Cohen P, Johnson JG, Salzinger S (November 1998).
"A longitudinal analysis of risk factors for child maltreatment: findings of a 17-year prospective study of officially recorded and self-reported child abuse and neglect"
Child Abuse & Neglect
22
(11):
1065–
78.
doi
10.1016/s0145-2134(98)00087-8
PMID
9827312
Perkins S (January 2012).
"An Ecological Perspective on the Comorbidity of Childhood Violence Exposure and Disabilities: Focus on the Ecology of the School"
Psychology of Violence
(1):
75–
89.
doi
10.1037/a0026137
PMC
8494429
PMID
34621555
Nelson C (Spring 2010).
"Racializing Disability, Disabling Race: Policing Race and Mental Status"
(PDF)
Berkley Journal of Criminal Law
15
(1). Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on February 4, 2020
. Retrieved
May 3,
2016
Gerschick T (Summer 2000). "Towards a Theory of Disability and Gender".
Signs
25
(4):
1263–
68.
doi
10.1086/495558
JSTOR
3175525
S2CID
144519468
Lennard J. Davis, ed. (May 2, 2013). "
"When Black Women Start Going on Prozac ..." The Politics of Race, Gender, and Emotional Distress in Meri Nana-Ama Danquah's Willow Weep for Me".
The Disability Studies Reader
. Routledge. pp.
415–
435.
doi
10.4324/9780203077887-41
ISBN
978-0-203-07788-7
WomenWatch.
"Feature on Women with Disabilities"
UN
Archived
from the original on September 28, 2017
. Retrieved
October 24,
2017
Garland-Thomson R (Winter 2005). "Feminist Disability Studies".
Signs
30
(2):
1557–
87.
doi
10.1086/423352
S2CID
144603782
Ong-Dean C (2009).
Distinguishing Disability
. University of Chicago Press.
doi
10.7208/chicago/9780226630021.001.0001
ISBN
978-0-226-63001-4
Lustig DC, Strauser DR (July 2007). "Causal Relationships Between Poverty and Disability".
Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin
50
(4):
194–
202.
doi
10.1177/00343552070500040101
S2CID
144496704
Neufeldt AH (1995). "Empirical Dimensions of Discrimination against Disabled People".
Health and Human Rights
(2):
174–
189.
doi
10.2307/4065213
ISSN
1079-0969
JSTOR
4065213
PMID
10395720
Grech S (December 2011). "Poverty and disability".
Disability & Society
26
(7):
888–
891.
doi
10.1080/09687599.2011.618747
S2CID
144977018
Jenkins R (1991). "Disability and Social Stratification".
The British Journal of Sociology
42
(4):
557–
580.
doi
10.2307/591447
JSTOR
591447
PMID
1838293
Lukemeyer A, Meyers MK, Smeeding T (2000). "Expensive Children in Poor Families: Out-of-Pocket Expenditures for the Care of Disabled and Chronically Ill Children in Welfare Families".
Journal of Marriage and Family
62
(2):
399–
415.
doi
10.1111/j.1741-3737.2000.00399.x
ISSN
0022-2445
Barnes C, Sheldon A (December 2010). "Disability, politics and poverty in a majority world context".
Disability & Society
25
(7):
771–
782.
doi
10.1080/09687599.2010.520889
S2CID
144808946
Soldatic K, Pini B (November 2009). "The three Ds of welfare reform: disability, disgust and deservingness".
Australian Journal of Human Rights
15
(1):
77–
95.
doi
10.1080/1323238X.2009.11910862
S2CID
148904296
Auerbach S (October 2002). "
'Why Do They Give the Good Classes to Some and Not to Others?' Latino Parent Narratives of Struggle in a College Access Program".
Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education
104
(7):
1369–
1392.
doi
10.1111/1467-9620.00207
Perna LW, Titus MA (2005). "The Relationship between Parental Involvement as Social Capital and College Enrollment: An Examination of Racial/Ethnic Group Differences".
The Journal of Higher Education
76
(5):
485–
518.
doi
10.1353/jhe.2005.0036
S2CID
32290790
Project MUSE
185966
"First Extremity Games was first class success"
. oandp.com.
Archived
from the original on September 24, 2015
. Retrieved
March 6,
2013
"Disability World Report"
. World Health Organization. 2011.
Archived
from the original on January 19, 2015
. Retrieved
January 8,
2015
Jack A (May 11, 2018).
"For many, disability is part of what it means to be human"
(Special report Modern workplace: Disability)
Financial Times
. Bracken House; London: Nikkei.
ISSN
0307-1766
Archived
from the original on August 15, 2018
. Retrieved
August 14,
2018
Okoro CA (2018).
"Prevalence of Disabilities and Health Care Access by Disability Status and Type Among Adults — United States, 2016"
MMWR. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report
67
(32):
882–
887.
doi
10.15585/mmwr.mm6732a3
ISSN
0149-2195
PMC
6095650
PMID
30114005
CDC (October 25, 2019).
"Infographic: Adults with Disabilities: Ethnicity and Race | CDC"
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
. Retrieved
September 22,
2022
Government of Canada SC (November 28, 2018).
"A demographic, employment and income profile of Canadians with disabilities aged 15 years and over, 2017"
www150.statcan.gc.ca
. Retrieved
October 5,
2022
Government of Canada SC (December 3, 2020).
"The Daily — A profile of Canadians with a mobility disability and groups designated as visible minorities with a disability"
www150.statcan.gc.ca
. Retrieved
October 5,
2022
"Disability, Ageing and Carers, Australia: Summary of Findings, 2018 | Australian Bureau of Statistics"
www.abs.gov.au
. September 25, 2020
. Retrieved
October 5,
2022
"Family Resources Survey: financial year 2020 to 2021"
GOV.UK
. Retrieved
October 5,
2022
"Life Opportunities Survey: wave 1 results"
GOV.UK
. Retrieved
October 5,
2022
Zheng X, Chen G, Song X, Liu J, Yan L, Du W, Pang L, Zhang L, Wu J, Zhang B, Zhang J (November 1, 2011).
"Twenty-year trends in the prevalence of disability in China"
Bulletin of the World Health Organization
89
(11):
788–
797.
doi
10.2471/BLT.11.089730
ISSN
0042-9686
PMC
3209727
PMID
22084524
"문서뷰어"
kostat.go.kr
. Retrieved
October 8,
2022
Yeo R., Moore K. (2003). "Including disabled people in poverty reduction work: 'Nothing about us, without us'
".
World Development
31
(3):
571–
90.
doi
10.1016/S0305-750X(02)00218-8
Sources
edit
DePoy E, Gilson SF (2004).
Rethinking Disability: Principles for Professional and Social Change
. Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks Cole.
ISBN
978-0-534-54929-9
Donovan R (March 1, 2012).
"The Global Economics of Disability"
(PDF)
. Return on Disability. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on September 13, 2012
. Retrieved
August 11,
2012
McAdams Ducy E, Stough LM, Clark MC (2012). "Choosing Agency in the Midst of Vulnerability: Using Critical Disability Theory to Examine a Disaster Narrative". In Steinberg SR, Cannella GS (eds.).
Critical Qualitative Research Reader
. New York: Peter Lang.
ISBN
978-1-4331-0688-0
Nikora LW, Karapu R, Hickey H, Te Awekotuku N (2004).
"Disabled Maori and Disability Support Options"
. Maori & Psychology Research Unit, University of Waikato. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on May 13, 2020
. Retrieved
August 11,
2012
Oliver M (1990).
The Politics of Disablement
. London:
St. Martin's Press
doi
10.1007/978-1-349-20895-1
ISBN
0-333-43293-2
OCLC
59098076
Russell M (2019). Keith Rosenthal (ed.).
Capitalism and Disability: Selected Writings by Marta Russell
. Haymarket Books.
ISBN
978-1-60846-686-3
Stough LM (2009).
"The Effects of Disaster on the Mental Health of Individuals With Disabilities"
(PDF)
. In Neria Y, Galea S, Norris FH (eds.).
Mental Health and Disasters
. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-1-107-41282-8
Yeo R (2005).
"Disability, poverty, and the new development agenda"
(PDF)
Disability Knowledge and Research Programme
. Department for International Development (UK Government). Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on June 12, 2011
. Retrieved
June 19,
2013
Further reading
edit
Albrecht GL, ed. (2006).
Encyclopedia of disability
. Thousand Oaks, CA:
SAGE Publications
ISBN
978-0-7619-2565-1
OCLC
62778255
Atherton, Martin, ed. 2017.
Deafness, Community and Culture in Britain: Leisure and Cohesion, 1945-95
. Manchester University Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/j.ctt21216hx.
Arditi A, Rosenthal B (1998).
"Developing an objective definition of visual impairment"
(PDF)
Vision '96: Proceedings of the International Low Vision Conference
. Madrid:
331–
34. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on June 29, 2022.
Bowe F (1978).
Handicapping America: Barriers to disabled people
. New York: Harper & Row.
ISBN
978-0-06-010422-1
Bohata, Kirsti, Alexandra Jones, Mike Mantin, and Steven Thompson. 2020.
Disability in Industrial Britain: A Cultural and Literary History of Impairment in the Coal Industry, 1880-1948
. Manchester (UK): Manchester University Press.
Charlton JI (1998).
Nothing about us without us: disability oppression and empowerment
. Berkeley: Univ. of California Press.
ISBN
978-0-520-22481-0
JSTOR
10.1525/j.ctt1pnqn9
Burkhauser RV, Schmeiser MD, Weathers II RR (January 2012). "The Importance of Anti-Discrimination and Workers' Compensation Laws on the Provision of Workplace Accommodations Following the Onset of a Disability".
Industrial & Labor Relations Review
65
(1):
161–
180.
doi
10.1177/001979391206500109
S2CID
154605646
Darling P (August 2007). "Disabilities and the Workplace".
Business NH Magazine
24
(8). Manchester: EBSCO Masterfile Complete.
ISSN
1046-9575
Glenn E (1995). Walker, Sylvia (ed.).
"African American Women with Disabilities: An Overview"
Disability and Diversity: New Leadership for a New Era
: 66. Archived from
the original
on September 6, 2009.
Alt URL
Hutchison I, Atherton M, Virdi J, eds. (2020). "Disability and the Victorians: Attitudes, interventions, legacies".
Disability and the Victorians
. Manchester University Press.
doi
10.7765/9781526145727
ISBN
978-1-5261-4572-7
Johnstone D (2001).
An Introduction to Disability Studies
(2nd ed.). Internet archive: Fulton.
ISBN
978-1-85346-726-4
OCLC
1244858584
Kaushik R (1999). "Access Denied: Can we overcome disabling attitudes".
Museum International
51
(3):
48–
52.
doi
10.1111/1468-0033.00217
ISSN
1468-0033
Kerr A, Shakespeare T (2002).
Genetic Politics: from Eugenics to Genome
. Cartoons by Suzy Varty. Internet archive: New Clarion Press.
ISBN
978-1-873797-25-9
OCLC
1310731470
Long, Vicky, Julie Anderson, and Walton Schalick. 2015.
Destigmatising Mental Illness?: Professional Politics and Public Education in Britain, 1870-1970
. Oxford: Manchester University Press. https://doi.org/10.7765/9781526103253.
Masala C, Petretto DR (2008). "From disablement to enablement: conceptual models of disability in the 20th century".
Disability and Rehabilitation
30
(17):
1233–
44.
doi
10.1080/09638280701602418
ISSN
0963-8288
PMID
18821191
S2CID
19377518
Masala C, Petretto DR (2008).
Psicologia dell'Handicap e della Riabilitazione
The Psychology of Handicap and Rehabilitation
] (in Italian). Rome: Kappa.
ISBN
978-88-15-06226-0
McGuire, Coreen. 2020.
Measuring Difference, Numbering Normal Setting the Standards for Disability in the Interwar Period
. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press.
Jones, Claire L. 2017.
Rethinking Modern Prostheses in Anglo-American Commodity Cultures, 1820-1939
. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
McDonagh, Patrick, C. F. Goodey, and Timothy Stainton, eds. 2018.
Intellectual Disability: A Conceptual History, 1200-1900
. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Metzler, Irina.
Fools and Idiots?: Intellectual Disability in the Middle Ages
. Manchester University Press, 2016.
Nielsen, Kim E. 2012.
A Disability History of the United States
. Boston: Beacon Press.
O’Brien, Gerald V. 2016.
Framing the Moron: The Social Construction of Feeble-Mindedness in the American Eugenic Era
. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Pearson, Charlotte, ed. (2006).
Direct Payments and Personalisation of Care
. Internet archive: Dunedin Academic Press.
ISBN
978-1-903765-62-3
OCLC
1280896670
Robidoux C (April 7, 2011).
"An Overlooked Workforce"
Business NH Magazine
. Manchester.
ISSN
1046-9575
Robinson, Michael. 2020.
Shell-Shocked British Army Veterans in Ireland, 1918-39: A Difficult Homecoming
. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Rose SF (2017).
No Right to Be Idle: The Invention of Disability, 1840s–1930s
. University of North Carolina Press. pp. xvi, 382.
ISBN
978-1-4696-2489-1
Wheatcroft, Sue. 2015.
Worth Saving: Disabled Children during the Second World War
. Manchester University Press.
Williamson, Bess (2019). Accessible America. A History of Disability and Design. New York University Press.
ISBN
978-1-4798024-94
Schmidt, Marion Andrea. 2020.
Eradicating Deafness?: Genetics, Pathology, and Diversity in Twentieth-Century America
. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
Turner, David M., and Daniel Blackie. 2018.
Disability in the Industrial Revolution: Physical Impairment in British Coalmining, 1780-1880
. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
"Work Without Limits"
. Commonwealth Medicine. Shrewsbury, MA: UMASS Chan Medical School. 2021. Archived from
the original
on November 13, 2009
. Retrieved
June 28,
2022
External links
edit
Listen to this article
35
minutes
This audio file
was created from a revision of this article dated 20 April 2009
2009-04-20
, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
Audio help
More spoken articles
The dictionary definition of
disability
at Wiktionary
Quotations related to
Disability
at Wikiquote
Media related to
Disabilities
at Wikimedia Commons
WHO fact sheet on disability
Disability
Main topics
Disability
Disability studies
Medical model
Social model
Approaches
IEP
Inclusion
Learning disability
Mainstreaming
Physical therapy
driver rehabilitation
Special needs
school
education
Rights, law, support
Rights
Ableism/disablism
Disability rights
Pejorative terms
Right to sit
United States
Law
Accessibility Act
NL
NS
ABCA
ACA
AMA
AODA
ADA
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons
International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health
Services
Services for mental disorders
Services for disabled people
Support
DLA
ODSP
Rail
SSDI
SSI
Students
CNIB
Activist groups
CCD
DPI
MINDS
Reach Canada
Structural and assistive
Accessible toilet
Activities of daily living
Assistive technology
Curb cut
Curb cut effect
Inclusive design
Independent living
Mobility aid
Orthotics and braces
Personal Care Assistant
Physical accessibility
Prosthetics
Redundant elevators
Universal design
Web accessibility
Social issues
Augmentative and alternative communication
Conscription of people with disabilities
Emotional or behavioral disability
Invisible disability
Disability and disasters
Disability and LGBT identities
Disability and religion
Disability and poverty
Disproportionality in special education
Sexuality and disability
Youth and disability
Disability studies
Models of disability
Inspiration porn
Bodymind
Crip as verb
Neuroqueer theory
Deaf studies
Eugenics
Anthropology
Geography
Education
Journals
Arts, media, culture, sport
Disability culture
Disability art
Disability in the arts
Disability in children's literature
Disability in horror films
Disability in the media
Parasports
Deaflympics
Paralympics
Special Olympics
Category
Lists
Disability by country
Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Republic of the Congo
Djibouti
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Eswatini
Ethiopia
Gabon
The Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Ivory Coast (Côte d'Ivoire)
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
São Tomé and Príncipe
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
South Sudan
Sudan
Tanzania
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Asia
Afghanistan
Armenia
Azerbaijan
Bahrain
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Brunei
Burma (Myanmar)
Cambodia
China
Hong Kong
Macau
East Timor
India
Indonesia
Iran
Iraq
Israel
Japan
Jordan
Kazakhstan
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Laos
Lebanon
Malaysia
Maldives
Mongolia
Nepal
North Korea
Oman
Pakistan
Palestine
Philippines
Qatar
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
South Korea
Syria
Taiwan
Tajikistan
Thailand
Turkey
Turkmenistan
United Arab Emirates
Uzbekistan
Vietnam
Yemen
Europe
Albania
Andorra
Austria
Belarus
Belgium
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Bulgaria
Croatia
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Estonia
Finland
France
Georgia
Germany
Greece
Hungary
Iceland
Ireland
Italy
Kosovo
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Malta
Moldova
Monaco
Montenegro
Netherlands
North Macedonia
Norway
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
San Marino
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
Northern Ireland
Vatican City
North America
Antigua and Barbuda
Bahamas
Barbados
Belize
Canada
Costa Rica
Cuba
Dominica
Dominican Republic
El Salvador
Grenada
Guatemala
Haiti
Honduras
Jamaica
Mexico
Nicaragua
Panama
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Trinidad and Tobago
United States
Oceania
Australia
Fiji
Kiribati
Marshall Islands
Micronesia
Nauru
New Zealand
Palau
Papua New Guinea
Samoa
Solomon Islands
Tonga
Tuvalu
Vanuatu
South America
Argentina
Bolivia
Brazil
Chile
Colombia
Ecuador
Guyana
Paraguay
Peru
Suriname
Uruguay
Venezuela
Authority control databases
International
GND
National
United States
France
BnF data
Czech Republic
Israel
Other
NARA
Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
Retrieved from "
Categories
Disability
Social concepts
Transportation planning
Urban design
Urban planning
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: deprecated archival service
Webarchive template wayback links
CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of January 2026
CS1: long volume value
Articles with short description
Short description is different from Wikidata
Use mdy dates from November 2024
Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images
Articles containing French-language text
Articles containing potentially dated statements from December 2025
All articles containing potentially dated statements
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from February 2026
Articles to be expanded from February 2018
All articles to be expanded
CS1 Italian-language sources (it)
Articles with hAudio microformats
Spoken articles
Commons category link is on Wikidata
Articles containing video clips
Disability
Add topic