(DOC) Emotions in language learning

Chapter 13022. Emotions in language learning, to appear in International Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics, 3rd Edition Jean-Marc Dewaele (

) University College London; Birkbeck, University of London, UK. Chengchen Li (

) Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China Elouise Botes (

) University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg Pia Resnik (

) University College of Teacher Education Vienna/Krems, Austria Abstract Learner emotions have long been considered to be the elephant in the room - not spoken of and considered less important than cognitive variables. The last decade has seen a paradigm shift after the introduction of key concepts from Positive Psychology and Dynamic Systems Theory. In the current contribution, we focus firstly on four broad foreign language learner emotions and their measurement: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety, Enjoyment, Boredom, and Peace of Mind. Secondly, we present more granular instruments to measure task enjoyment, writing enjoyment, and writing boredom. We also briefly report on their relationships with each other and on their primary sources and provide some pedagogical implications. Keywords: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety, Foreign Language Enjoyment, Foreign Language Learning Boredom, Foreign Language Peace of Mind Key points: Foreign Language Anxiety and Boredom have a moderate negative effect on foreign language performance and progress. Foreign Language Enjoyment and Peace of Mind have a moderate positive effect on foreign language performance and progress. Introduction Kuhn (1962) pointed out that science does not develop in a linear manner. Paradigms can remain constant for some time before experiencing a sudden shift, typically when the old paradigm cannot explain some phenomenon that suddenly attracts researchers’ attention. The new paradigm allows for a better explanation of the phenomenon and presents a model that offers a more accurate description and understanding of the objective reality. At that point, researchers realize that the new paradigm is incommensurate with the old paradigm. One could argue that such a shift happened in applied linguistics in the early 2010s with the introduction of concepts and insights from Positive Psychology. It revolutionized the way applied linguists looked at the role of emotions in foreign language (FL) learning and teaching and stimulated the development of increasingly sophisticated research instruments (Derakhshan & Pawlak, 2024; Dewaele et al., 2019; Li, Wei & Jiang, 2024). Positive Psychology in Applied Linguistics Before 2012, applied linguists focused almost exclusively on foreign language learner classroom anxiety and its nefarious effects on language learning and performance. The paper by MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) introduced Fredrickson’s (2001) Broaden and Build Theory that presents a holistic perspective in research on learning and emotions, distinguishing the different action tendencies of positive and negative emotions. Positive emotions tend to broaden learners’ perception and action repertoires, which contribute to the building of psychological, cognitive and social resources; the latter have the opposite effect. Anxiety narrows learners' perception, stunts the development of cognition and action repertoires, and pushes learners to withdraw from interactions. MacIntyre and Gregersen (2012) and MacIntyre and Mercer (2014) acknowledged that the time had come to shift away from an exclusive focus on negative learner emotions and to reject the more general deficit view permeating FL learning. For far too long learners were judged exclusively in terms of their deficits when compared to the idealized target language norm through test or exam scores. One of the main insights of Positive Psychology was the rejection of black-and-white judgments in FL learning and teaching: “(it) is essential to move the field beyond simplistic notions of good and bad, motivated and demotivated, successful and unsuccessful learners” (MacIntyre et al., 2019, p. 8). In addition, this shift in focus and emphasis has implications beyond the world of academia. As Mercer and Gregersen (2023) have argued, Positive Psychology can be transformative at societal level in a drive for more equity and inclusion. This involves more compassionate interpersonal relationships between learners, teachers, and administrators, which would enable all to thrive and reach a state of collective well-being. Dynamic Systems Theory Research on learner emotions was strongly influenced by Dynamic Systems Theory (DST) that emerged towards 2010 (MacIntyre, 2017). The key idea of DST is that learner variables are part of a dynamic, open system where they interact with each other and are influencing -and being influenced by - a range of learner-internal and learner-external variables. The system experiences fluctuations over different time scales, and development is non-linear. Although MacIntyre (2017) was speaking about anxiety, he could have been talking about any other learner emotion: Anxiety is continuously interacting with a number of other learner, situational and other factors including linguistic abilities, physiological reactions, self-related appraisals, pragmatics, interpersonal relationships, specific topics being discussed, type of setting in which people are interacting and so on (p. 23). DST researchers reject simplistic cause-effect relationships, arguing that causality can be multi-directional. A single learner emotion does not operate in isolation but in connection with several other emotions that are experienced simultaneously. This led to the realization that focusing on a single emotion would be akin to focusing on a hiker’s left foot only (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016). Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety (FLCA) has been researched intensively for half a century. All FL researchers, teachers, and learners are familiar with it, and all have been thinking about the best ways to deal with it. The publication of the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) by Horwitz et al. (1986), consisting of a 33-item scale to measure language-specific anxiety in the FL class, presented researchers with a psychometrically sound instrument that could be easily adapted to fit specific populations around the world. FLCA was defined as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). Horwitz (2017) explained that FLCA arises when learners realize that imperfect mastery of the FL constitutes a threat to the ego: “[P]resenting yourself to the world through an imperfectly controlled new language is inherently anxiety-provoking for some people” (p. 44). This anxiety can have physical manifestations (dry mouth, sweat, increased heart rate, panic, even momentary paralysis), which may lead to more or less systematic avoidance behaviors. In their original papers, Horwitz and colleagues acknowledged that FLCA was correlated with general anxiety and neuroticism but made the argument that its ontogenesis was completely different as FLCA can only grow gradually (or not) in the FL class after repeated experiences of anxiety. Conceptually, it combines state and trait characteristics. The effects of FLCA are insidious, disrupting performance at the moment and hindering longer-term progress. Botes et al.’s (2020) meta-analysis of 67 studies that had used the FLCAS showed a moderate negative relationship between FLCA and general FL academic achievement. FLCA was negatively linked to speaking, listening, reading, and writing performance in the FL. Botes, Van der Westhuizen et al. (2022) carried out a psychometric validation of the 8-item Short-Form FLCAS used in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on the original database confirmed that the S-FLCAS had a unidimensional structure, with the eight items loading on a single latent variable, namely FLCA. The internal consistency was sound, complemented by good convergent and discriminant validity. Anxiety is always debilitative but it is not helpful to think that FLCA needs to be eradicated (MacIntyre, 2017). Dewaele and MacIntyre (2016) used the metaphor of two feet for positive and negative emotions. Even if one hurts badly, it should not be amputated. It is more fruitful to acknowledge that anxiety exists and that learners need to learn to function despite their anxiety. This requires creating positive environments in FL classrooms where learners can experiment and play with the new FL without fear of ridicule or punishment. Teachers can help very anxious students avoid feeling paralyzed by fear. Further research revealed that FLCA is strongly linked to learner-internal variables such as perfectionism, general anxiety, and neuroticism (see Dewaele, 2017). Foreign Language Enjoyment The first positive emotion to be measured and investigated in applied linguistics was Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE). Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) developed a 21-item Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (FLES). They later defined FLE as “a complex emotion, capturing interacting dimensions of the challenge and perceived ability that reflects the human drive for success in the face of difficult tasks […] enjoyment occurs when people not only meet their needs but exceed them to accomplish something new or even unexpected” (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016, pp. 216-217). Scale items tapped into habitual instances in the classroom of pride about performance, lack of boredom, creativity, positive attitude toward the FL learning and the making of mistakes, solidarity with fellow students and a teacher addressing the students’ psychological needs. Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) used an online questionnaire to collect data from 1746 FL learners from all over the world – though with a majority of Europeans (86%). A Principal Component Analysis of the 21 items revealed two dimensions: Private and Social FLE (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2016). A later validation study on the same database revealed a 3-factor hierarchical model with a higher-order FLE factor (Botes et al., 2021). The authors’ aim was the development of a 9-item Short Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (S-FLES). The first factor referred to learners’ appreciation of the FL teacher’s friendliness, supportiveness and encouragement. The second factor reflected the learner’s personal enjoyment and progress in the FL class, and the third factor -labelled social enjoyment - referred to cordial relations with peers. The latent 3-factor S-FLES measurement model had excellent fit statistics, exhibited strong internal consistency, and showed good convergent and discriminant validity. Li et al. (2018) adapted the original FLES to the Chinese context. The development of the Chinese FLE Scale (CFLS) happened in two stages in which first 1718 high school EFL students and then 360 high school EFL students participated. The instrument consists of 11 items tapping into three factors (i.e. FLE-Private, FLE-Teacher, and FLE-Atmosphere). The CFLS showed strong validity and reliability. Jin and Zhang (2020) also created a version of the FLES for the Chinese EFL context consisting of 16 items that covered three dimensions: Teacher Support, English Learning and Student Support. All the FLE scales mentioned so far tapped into the more stable end of enjoyment, typically after students had had sufficient experience of this positive emotion for it to become habitual when they entered a FL classroom. In order to capture more task- and skill-specific enjoyment within the classroom, Li and Dewaele (2024) proposed a more granular instrument. Their 10-item Task Enjoyment Scale (TES) was validated using exploratory factor analysis. It revealed three dimensions: task enjoyment - self, task enjoyment - task characteristics, and task enjoyment - social. Subsequent confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the three-factor structure of the TES. The TES was found to have good construct validity, strong reliability and good convergent and discriminant validity. The authors argue that task enjoyment constitutes the foundation of FLE. Analysis of quantitative and qualitative material in Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) revealed that FLE is most likely to emerge when learners are involved in specific classroom activities that give them a degree of autonomy and allow them to be creative. FLE is also more likely to occur among more advanced students, who perform well on tests and feel above average in their group. These students typically have a higher degree of trait emotional intelligence, agency and autonomy (Resnik & Dewaele, 2023). FLE was found to be strongly predicted by learners’ attitudes toward their teacher and specific teacher behaviours, such as the use of the FL in class and regular joking (Dewaele et al., 2022). Teaching modality has also been found to affect FLE, with FL learners reporting significantly lower levels of FLE and FLCA in online classes than in in-person classes (Resnik et al., 2023a, b). A meta-analysis has shown that a moderate negative correlation exists between FLCA and FLE (Botes, Dewaele et al., 2022), which confirms they are independent dimensions – as Dewaele and MacIntyre (2014) first claimed. For an overview of the factors shaping FLE, see Dewaele (2022). Foreign Language Learning Boredom Research on FL boredom started in Poland with Pawlak et al. (2020) developing the Boredom in Practical English Language Classes Questionnaire (BPELC) based on data from 107 Polish EFL students. Statistical analyses showed boredom was more likely to occur in monotonous and repetitive classes, which left students unsatisfied and under-challenged. In a further qualitative investigation on Polish EFL learners, Zawodniak et al. (2023) found that FLB was labelled by 115 learners as an aversive emotion arising from poor teaching, weak class organization, and unengaging language tasks. Inspired by the Control-Value Theory, Li, Dewaele et al. (2023) collected data from 2223 Chinese EFL learners, which were used to develop the Foreign Language Learning Boredom Scale (FLLBS). FLLB was defined as a multidimensional “negative emotion with extremely low degree of activation/arousal that arises from ongoing activities […] (that) are typically over-challenging or under-challenging and/or of little significance, relevance, or meaning to the learners.” (p. 234). The FLLBS contains 7 factors and 32 items (Li et al., 2023). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used to validate the scale, followed by additional validity and reliability analyses. The first factor consisting of 8 items was named Foreign Language Classroom Boredom and was sometimes used separately (e.g. Ma et al., 2023). Li’s (2021) mixed methods study showed that the FLLB of 2002 Chinese EFL learners was predicted by different control–value appraisals interacting simultaneously. Learners who did not feel very proficient (low control) and who did not value their EFL classes much (low engagement) exhibited FLLB more. Interviews with learners revealed a curvilinear relationship between control appraisal and FLLB. FLLB was more likely to occur among learners experiencing either extremely high or extremely low control because of too much or too little challenge. Li (2021) thus exhorted FL teachers to engage learners in tasks that are appropriately challenging allowing them to gain a sense of confidence and control. Recently, Li, Feng et al. (2024) developed and validated an 11-item FLLBS-Short Form using data from 2223 Chinese university EFL learners and 2547 Chinese secondary-level EFL learners. It showed strong construct, criterion, convergent, discriminant, and predictive validity, strong reliability, measurement invariance across time and groups. Exploratory factor analysis produced a 3-factor solution including meso- and macro-level factors: 1) Foreign Language Activity Boredom, which can occur both in and out of class; 2) Foreign Language Classroom Boredom, and 3) General Learning Boredom. FLLB was shown to have a modest negative effect on skill-specific and overall EFL proficiency and achievement. FLLB has been found to be consistently positively correlated with FLCA and negatively with FLE. The study by Li, Wei, & Lu (2023) fits in the recent trend to develop more granular instruments. The authors developed the 9-item Foreign Language Writing Enjoyment Scale (FLWES) and the 5-item Foreign Language Writing Boredom Scale (FLWBS) based on data collected from 1036 junior secondary Chinese EFL learners. Both scales were found to have strong reliability and internal consistency, solid validity, and scalar-invariance for sociobiographical factors. FLWE was found to have a significant positive effect on writing achievement, while FLWB had a stronger negative effect. Foreign Language Peace of Mind Zhou et al. (2023) focused on the low-arousal positive emotion Foreign Language Peace of Mind (FLPOM), which refers to a state of peacefulness and harmony cherished in the Chinese culture. The authors combined data from 600 Chinese EFL students to develop and validate the 8-item FLPOM scale. Factor analysis revealed a single-factor structure. FLPOM turned out to be a stronger predictor of self-perceived FL proficiency of 400 Chinese EFL learners than the medium-to-high arousal FLE. The authors concluded that FLPOM and FLE may be strongly positively linked but that they are separate emotions. The fact that FLPOM arose in the Chinese context does not imply that it does not exist elsewhere. Dewaele et al. (2024) found that Moroccan EFL learners experienced significantly higher levels of FLPOM than Chinese EFL learners but that the FLPOM was a stronger predictor of performance in the Chinese group. FLPOM has been found to be strongly positively correlated with FLE and negatively with FLCA and FLLB (Dewaele et al., 2024) Conclusion The current overview can provide no more than a limited snapshot of an area of research in full expansion. It showed that the adoption of key concepts from Positive Psychology provided researchers with a new impetus to explore not just the role of negative emotions but also of positive ones in FL performance and development. The confluence of Positive Psychology and DST in applied linguistics caused a paradigm shift, as described by Kuhn (1962). Applied linguists realized that learners in the FL classroom experience multiple positive and negative emotions that fluctuate more or less depending on the time scale and are shaped by a wide range of interacting learner-internal and learner-external variables. The pedagogical implication is that teachers need to be able to create an optimal positive emotional environment that allows their students to progress linguistically and to flourish. The dimensions and items on relevant scales offer insights into creating such a nurturing environment. References Botes, E., Dewaele, J.-M., & Greiff, S. (2020). The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale and academic achievement: An overview of the prevailing literature and a meta-analysis. The Journal for the Psychology of Language Learning, 2, 26–56. https://jpll.org/index.php/journal/article/view/botesetal Botes, E., Dewaele, J.-M., & Greiff, S. (2021). 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