Dog

Dog
Domesticated species of canid
"Doggy" and "Pooch" redirect here. For other uses, see
Dog (disambiguation)
Doggy (disambiguation)
, and
Pooch (disambiguation)
Dog
Temporal range:
0.0142–0
Ma
PreꞒ
Pg
Late Pleistocene
(14,200 years ago) to present
Conservation status
Domesticated
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Carnivora
Family:
Canidae
Genus:
Canis
Species:
C.
familiaris
Binomial name
Canis familiaris
Linnaeus
, 1758
Synonyms
List
C. aegyptius
Linnaeus, 1758
C. alco
C. E. H. Smith
, 1839,
C. americanus
Gmelin
, 1792
C. anglicus
Gmelin, 1792
C. antarcticus
Gmelin, 1792
C. aprinus
Gmelin, 1792
C. aquaticus
Linnaeus, 1758
C. aquatilis
Gmelin, 1792
C. avicularis
Gmelin, 1792
C. borealis
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. brevipilis
Gmelin, 1792
C. cursorius
Gmelin, 1792
C. domesticus
Linnaeus, 1758
C. extrarius
Gmelin, 1792
C. ferus
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. fricator
Gmelin, 1792
C. fricatrix
Linnaeus, 1758
C. fuillus
Gmelin, 1792
C. gallicus
Gmelin, 1792
C. glaucus
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. graius
Linnaeus, 1758
C. grajus
Gmelin, 1792
C. hagenbecki
Krumbiegel, 1950
C. haitensis
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. hibernicus
Gmelin, 1792
C. hirsutus
Gmelin, 1792
C. hybridus
Gmelin, 1792
C. islandicus
Gmelin, 1792
C. italicus
Gmelin, 1792
C. laniarius
Gmelin, 1792
C. leoninus
Gmelin, 1792
C. leporarius
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. lupus familiaris
Linnaeus,1758
C. major
Gmelin, 1792
C. mastinus
Linnaeus, 1758
C. melitacus
Gmelin, 1792
C. melitaeus
Linnaeus, 1758
C. minor
Gmelin, 1792
C. molossus
Gmelin, 1792
C. mustelinus
Linnaeus, 1758
C. obesus
Gmelin, 1792
C. orientalis
Gmelin, 1792
C. pacificus
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. plancus
Gmelin, 1792
C. pomeranus
Gmelin, 1792
C. sagaces
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. sanguinarius
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. sagax
Linnaeus, 1758
C. scoticus
Gmelin, 1792
C. sibiricus
Gmelin, 1792
C. suillus
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. terraenovae
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. terrarius
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. turcicus
Gmelin, 1792
C. urcani
C. E. H. Smith, 1839
C. variegatus
Gmelin, 1792
C. venaticus
Gmelin, 1792
C. vertegus
Gmelin, 1792
The
dog
Canis familiaris
or
Canis lupus familiaris
) is a
domesticated
descendant of wolves. Also called the
domestic dog
, it was
selectively bred
during the
Late Pleistocene
by
hunter-gatherers
. Dogs and the modern
gray wolf
share a common ancestor.
Dogs were the first
species
to be
domesticated
over 14,000 years ago, before the
development of agriculture
, though genetic studies suggest the domestication process may have begun over 25,000 years ago. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have gained the ability to thrive on a
starch
-rich diet that would be inadequate for other
canids
Dogs have been bred for desired behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.
Dog breeds
vary widely in shape, size, and color. They have the same number of bones (with the exception of the tail), powerful jaws that house around 42 teeth, and well-developed
senses of smell
, hearing, and sight. Compared to humans, dogs possess a superior sense of smell and hearing, but inferior
visual acuity
. Dogs perform many roles for humans, such as
hunting
herding
pulling loads
protection
companionship
therapy
aiding disabled people
, and
assisting police
and the
military
Communication in dogs
includes eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and chemical communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). They mark their territories by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment. Over the millennia, dogs have uniquely adapted to human behavior; this adaptation includes being able to understand and communicate with humans. As such, the
human–canine bond
has been a topic of frequent study, and dogs' influence on human society has given them the
sobriquet
of "
man's best friend
".
The global dog population is estimated at 700
million to 1
billion,
distributed around the world
. The dog is the most popular pet in the United States, present in 34–40% of households. Developed countries make up approximately 20% of the global dog population, while around 75% of dogs are estimated to be from developing countries, mainly in the form of feral and
street dogs
Taxonomy
Further information:
Canis lupus dingo §
Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog
Canine phylogeny with ages of divergence
Gray wolf
(domestic dog)
Coyote
1.10
mya
African wolf
1.32
mya
Ethiopian wolf
1.62
mya
Golden jackal
1.92
mya
Dhole
2.74
mya
African wild dog
3.06
mya
Side-striped jackal
Black-backed jackal
2.62
mya
3.50
mya
Cladogram and divergence of the gray wolf (including the domestic dog) among its closest extant relatives
Dogs are domesticated members of the family
Canidae
. They are classified as a
subspecies of
Canis lupus
, along with
wolves
and
dingoes
Genetic studies show that dogs likely diverged from wolves between 27,000 and 40,000 years ago.
Dogs were domesticated from wolves at least 14,000 years ago by
hunter-gatherers
, before the development of agriculture;
10
the remains of the
Bonn–Oberkassel dog
, buried alongside humans between 14,000 and 15,000 years ago, are the earliest to be conclusively identified as a domesticated dog.
11
The dingo and the related
New Guinea singing dog
resulted from the
geographic isolation
and feralization of dogs in
Oceania
over 8,000 years ago.
12
13
Dogs, wolves, and
dingoes
have sometimes been classified as separate species.
In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist
Carl Linnaeus
assigned the
genus
name
Canis
(which is the
Latin
word for "dog")
14
to the domestic dog, the
wolf
, and the
golden jackal
in his book,
Systema Naturae
. He classified the domestic dog as
Canis familiaris
and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as
Canis lupus
Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (
cauda recurvata
in
Latin
term), which is not found in any other
canid
15
In the 2005 edition of
Mammal Species of the World
mammalogist
W. Christopher Wozencraft
listed the wolf as a wild subspecies of
Canis lupus
and proposed two additional subspecies:
familiaris
, as named by Linnaeus in 1758, and
dingo
, named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included
hallstromi
(the New Guinea singing dog) as another name (
junior synonym
) for the dingo. This classification was informed by a 1999
mitochondrial DNA
study.
The classification of dingoes is disputed and a political issue in Australia. Classifying dingoes as wild dogs simplifies reducing or controlling dingo populations that threaten livestock. Treating dingoes as a separate species allows conservation programs to protect the dingo population.
16
Dingo classification affects wildlife management policies, legislation, and societal attitudes.
17
In 2019, a workshop hosted by the
IUCN
/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and the
New Guinea singing dog
to be
feral
Canis familiaris
. Therefore, it did not assess them for the
IUCN Red List
of
threatened species
18
Domestication
Main article:
Domestication of the dog
Wolves (left) were domesticated by humans into dogs (right)
The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in
Bonn-Oberkassel
, Germany.
Contextual
isotopic
genetic
, and
morphological
evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf.
19
Dated to 14,223 years ago, the dog was found buried along with a man and a woman; all three had been sprayed with red
hematite
powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had survived
canine distemper
as a puppy - survival without intensive human care is unlikely, and occurred at an age before the dog could have had any utilitarian use.
20
This timing indicates that the dog was the
first species to be domesticated
21
22
during the
hunter-gatherer
era,
23
predating agriculture.
Earlier remains dating back 30,000 years have been described as
Paleolithic dogs
, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated
24
because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the
Late Pleistocene
DNA sequences
show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population that was distinct from any
modern wolf
lineage. Some studies have posited that all living wolves are more closely related to each other than to dogs,
25
23
while others have suggested that dogs are more closely related to modern Eurasian wolves than to American wolves.
26
The dog is a domestic animal that likely travelled a
commensal
pathway into domestication (i.e. humans initially neither benefitted nor were harmed by wild dogs eating refuse from their camps).
24
27
The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated remains uncertain.
21
Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia.
28
In 2021, a
literature review
of the current evidence
infers
that the dog was domesticated in
Siberia
23,000 years ago by
ancient North Siberians
, then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia,
19
with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas.
19
Some studies have suggested that the extinct
Japanese wolf
is closely related to the ancestor of domestic dogs.
26
In 2018, a study identified 429 genes that differed between modern dogs and modern wolves. As the differences in these genes could also be found in ancient dog fossils, these were regarded as being the result of the initial domestication and not from recent breed formation. These genes are linked to
neural crest
and
central nervous system
development. These genes affect
embryogenesis
and can confer tameness, smaller jaws, floppy ears, and diminished craniofacial development, which distinguish domesticated dogs from wolves and are considered to reflect domestication syndrome. The study concluded that during early dog domestication, the initial selection was for behavior. This trait is influenced by those genes which act in the neural crest, which led to the phenotypes observed in modern dogs.
29
Breeds
Main article:
Dog breed
Further information:
Dog type
There are around 450 official
dog breeds
, the most of any mammal.
28
30
Dogs began diversifying in the
Victorian era
, when humans took control of their natural selection.
22
Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years.
22
28
Since then, dogs have undergone rapid
phenotypic change
and have been subjected to
artificial selection
by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of
carnivores
. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type, and colour.
22
As such, humans have long used dogs for their desirable traits to complete or fulfill a certain work or role. Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, hunting,
22
retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression.
22
Present-day dogs are dispersed around the world.
28
An example of this dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era.
23
Morphological variation
in six dogs
Phenotypic variation
in four dogs
Anatomy and physiology
Main article:
Dog anatomy
Size and skeleton
A lateral view of a dog skeleton
Dogs are extremely variable in size, ranging from one of the largest breeds, the
Great Dane
, at
50–79
kg (110–174
lb)
and
71–81
cm (28–32
in)
, to one of the smallest, the
Chihuahua
, at
0.5–3
kg (1.1–6.6
lb)
and
13–20
cm (5.1–7.9
in)
31
32
All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have the same number of bones (with the exception of the tail), although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types.
33
34
The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the
vertebrae
on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of
epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles
, to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the heart and lungs; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for flexibility.
33
34
35
Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton increase in size for larger types such as
mastiffs
and miniaturised for smaller types such as
terriers
dwarfism
has been selectively bred for some types where short legs are preferred, such as
dachshunds
and
corgis
34
Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with
naturally short tails
have as few as three.
33
Skulls of different breeds, from left to right: pug; boxer; rottweiler; wolf; collie; standard poodle
The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant
divergence in terms of skull shape
between types.
34
36
The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in
sighthounds
, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.
34
36
The jaw contains around 42 teeth, and it has evolved for the consumption of flesh. Dogs use their
carnassial teeth
to cut food into bite-sized chunks, more especially meat.
37
Senses
Further information:
Dog anatomy §
Senses
The left half of the image shows the estimated difference in a dog's vision.
Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and
magnetoreception
. One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in
Earth's magnetic field
38
Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north–south position in calm
magnetic field
conditions.
39
Dogs' vision is
dichromatic
; their visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays.
40
They have difficulty differentiating between red and green,
41
and much like other mammals, the dog's eye is composed of two types of cone cells compared to the human's three. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12 to 25°, depending on the breed, which can have different retina configurations.
42
43
The
fovea centralis
area of the eye is attached to a
nerve fiber
, and is the most sensitive to
photons
44
Additionally, a study found that dogs'
visual acuity
was up to eight times less effective than a human, and their ability to discriminate levels of
brightness
was about two times worse than a human.
45
While the human brain is dominated by a large
visual cortex
, the dog brain is dominated by a large
olfactory cortex
. Dogs have roughly forty times more
smell-sensitive receptors
than humans, ranging from about 125
million to nearly 300
million in some dog breeds, such as
bloodhounds
46
This sense of smell is the most prominent sense of the species; it detects chemical changes in the environment, allowing dogs to pinpoint the location of mating partners, potential stressors, resources, etc.
47
Dogs also have an acute sense of hearing up to four times greater than that of humans. They can pick up the slightest sounds from about
400
m (1,300
ft)
compared to
90
m (300
ft)
for humans.
48
Dogs have stiff, deeply embedded hairs known as
whiskers
that sense atmospheric changes, vibrations, and objects not visible in low light conditions. The lower most part of whiskers hold more receptor cells than other hair types, which help in alerting dogs of objects that could collide with the nose, ears, and jaw. Whiskers likely also facilitate the movement of food towards the mouth.
49
Coat
Main article:
Dog coat
The
coats
of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common in dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse
guard hair
and a soft
down hair
, or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.
50
Premature graying can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with
impulsive behaviors
anxiety
behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals.
51
Some dog breeds are hairless, while others have a very thick corded coat. The coats of certain breeds are often groomed to a characteristic style, for example, the
Yorkshire Terrier
's "show cut".
37
Dewclaw
A dog's
dewclaw
is the fifth
digit
in its forelimb and hind legs. Dewclaws on the forelimbs are attached by bone and ligament, while the dewclaws on the hind legs are attached only by skin. Most dogs are not born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the
proximal phalanges and distal phalanges
. Some publications theorize that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.
52
53
Tail
A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the
vertebral column
, which is made up of a string of 5 to 23
vertebrae
enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state.
54
The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its
anal gland
's scent through the tail's position and movement.
55
Dogs can have a
violet gland
(or supracaudal gland) characterized by
sebaceous glands
on the dorsal surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a
bald spot from hair loss
, can be caused by
Cushing's disease
or an excess of sebum from
androgens
in the sebaceous glands.
56
A black
Standard Schnauzer
with a docked tail
A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right side".
57
58
Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is called
kennel tail
happy tail
bleeding tail
, or
splitting tail
59
In some
hunting dogs
, the tail is traditionally
docked
to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails because of a DNA variant in the
T gene
, which can also result in a congenitally short (bobtail) tail.
60
Tail docking is opposed by many veterinary and animal welfare organisations such as the
American Veterinary Medical Association
61
and the
British Veterinary Association
62
Evidence from veterinary practices and
questionnaires
showed that around 500 dogs would need to have their tail docked to prevent one injury.
63
Health
Main article:
Dog health
Numerous disorders are known to affect dogs. Some are
congenital
and others are acquired. Dogs can acquire upper respiratory tract diseases, including diseases that affect the
nasal cavity
, the
larynx
, and the
trachea
; lower respiratory tract diseases, which includes
pulmonary disease
and acute respiratory diseases;
heart diseases
, which include any
cardiovascular
inflammation or dysfunction of the heart;
haemopoietic diseases
, including
anaemia
and
clotting disorders
gastrointestinal disease
such as
diarrhoea
and
gastric dilatation volvulus
hepatic diseases
, such as
portosystemic shunts
and
liver failure
pancreatic diseases
, such as
pancreatitis
renal disease
; lower urinary tract disease such as
cystitis
and
urolithiasis
endocrine disorders
, such as
diabetes mellitus
Cushing's syndrome
hypoadrenocorticism
, and
hypothyroidism
nervous system
diseases, such as
seizures
and
spinal injury
musculoskeletal diseases
, such as
arthritis
and
myopathies
dermatological disorders
, such as
alopecia
and
pyoderma
Ophthalmological diseases
, such as
conjunctivitis
glaucoma
entropion
, and
progressive retinal atrophy
; and
neoplasia
64
Common dog parasites are
lice
fleas
fly larvae
ticks
mites
cestodes
nematodes
, and
coccidia
Taenia
is a notable genus with 5 species in which dogs are the
definitive host
65
Additionally, dogs are a source of
zoonoses
for humans. They are responsible for 99% of
rabies
cases worldwide;
66
however, in some developed countries such as the UK, rabies is absent from dogs and is instead only transmitted by bats.
67
Other common zoonoses are
hydatid disease
leptospirosis
pasteurellosis
ringworm
, and
toxocariasis
67
Common infections in dogs include
canine adenovirus
canine distemper virus
canine parvovirus
leptospirosis
canine influenza
, and
canine coronavirus
. All of these conditions have vaccines available.
67
Dogs are the companion animal most frequently reported for exposure to
toxins
. Most poisonings are accidental; in the US more than 80% of reports of exposure to the
ASPCA
animal poisoning hotline are due to oral exposure. The most common substances people report exposure to are: pharmaceuticals, toxic foods, and
rodenticides
68
Data from the Pet Poison Helpline shows that human drugs are the most frequent cause of toxicosis death. The most common household products ingested are cleaning products. Most food related poisonings involved
theobromine poisoning
(chocolate). Other common food poisonings include
xylitol
Vitis
(grapes, raisins, etc.), and
Allium
(garlic, onions, etc.).
Pyrethrin
insecticides were the most common cause of pesticide poisoning.
Metaldehyde
, a common pesticide for snails and slugs, typically causes severe outcomes when ingested by dogs.
69
Neoplasia
is the most common cause of death for dogs.
70
71
72
Other common causes of death are
heart
and
renal failure
72
Their
pathology
is similar to that of humans, as is their
immune response
to treatment and their outcomes. Genes found in humans to be responsible for disorders are investigated in dogs as being the cause and vice versa.
28
73
Lifespan
Further information:
Aging in dogs
The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the median longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is about 12.7 years.
74
75
Obesity correlates negatively with longevity, with one study finding obese dogs to have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less than dogs with a healthy weight.
74
A 2024 UK study analyzing 584,734 dogs concluded that purebred dogs live longer than crossbred dogs, challenging the previous notion of the latter having the higher life expectancies. The authors noted that their study included "
designer dogs
" as crossbred and that purebred dogs were typically given better care than their crossbred counterparts, which likely influenced the outcome of the study.
76
Other studies also show that fully
mongrel
dogs live about a year longer on average than dogs with pedigrees.
77
Furthermore, small dogs with longer muzzles have been shown to have higher lifespans than larger medium-sized dogs with much more depressed muzzles.
78
For free-ranging dogs, less than 1 in 5 reach sexual maturity,
79
and the median life expectancy for feral dogs is less than half of dogs living with humans.
80
Reproduction
Main article:
Canine reproduction
Two dogs
tied after mating
In domestic dogs,
sexual maturity
happens around six months to one year for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age in some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first
estrous cycle
, characterized by their
vulvas
swelling and producing
discharges
, usually lasting between 4 and 20 days.
81
82
They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for
pregnancy
. At the peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to
copulation
. Because the
ova
survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can sire the same litter.
83
Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation. After
ejaculation
, the dogs are
coitally tied
for around 5–30 minutes because of the male's
bulbus glandis
swelling and the female's
constrictor vestibuli
contracting; the male will continue ejaculating until they untie naturally due to
muscle relaxation
84
14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the
uterus
, and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.
85
86
Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after
fertilization
83
87
with an average of 63 days, although the length of
gestation
can vary. An average litter consists of about six
puppies
88
Neutering
Neutering
is the sterilization of animals via
gonadectomy
, which is an
orchidectomy
(castration) in dogs and
ovariohysterectomy
(spay) in bitches. Neutering reduces problems caused by
hypersexuality
, especially in male dogs.
89
Spayed females are less likely to develop
cancers
affecting the
mammary glands
ovaries
, and other
reproductive organs
90
However, neutering increases the risk of
urinary incontinence
and
pyometra
in bitches,
91
prostate cancer
in dogs,
92
and
osteosarcoma
hemangiosarcoma
cruciate ligament rupture
obesity
, and
diabetes mellitus
in either sex.
93
Neutering is the most common surgical procedure in dogs less than a year old in the US and is seen as a control method for overpopulation. Neutering often occurs as early as 6–14 weeks in shelters in the US.
94
The
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
(ASPCA) advises that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.
95
96
However, the Society for Theriogenology and the American College of Theriogenologists made a joint statement that opposes mandatory neutering; they said that the cause of overpopulation in the US is cultural.
94
Neutering is less common in most European countries, especially in
Nordic countries
—except for the UK, where it is common. In Norway neutering is illegal unless for the benefit of the animal's health (e.g., ovariohysterectomy in case of ovarian or uterine neoplasia). Some European countries have similar laws to Norway, but their wording either explicitly allows for neutering for controlling reproduction or it is allowed in practice or by contradiction through other laws. Italy and Portugal have passed recent laws that promote it. Germany forbids early-age neutering, but neutering is still allowed at the usual age. In Romania neutering is mandatory except for when a pedigree to select breeds can be shown.
94
97
Inbreeding depression
See also:
Inbreeding depression
A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to
mate them between close relatives
(e.g., between half- and full-siblings).
98
In a study of seven dog breeds (the
Bernese Mountain Dog
Basset Hound
Cairn Terrier
Brittany
German Shepherd Dog
Leonberger
, and
West Highland White Terrier
), it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.
99
Another analysis of data on 42,855
Dachshund
litters found that as the
inbreeding coefficient
increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.
100
In a study of
Boxer
litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.
101
Behavior
Main article:
Dog behavior
See also:
Dog intelligence
See also:
Dog behavior §
Behavior compared with other canids
Dog behavior
has been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. They have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and are uniquely attuned to human behaviors.
102
103
Behavioral scientists suggest that a set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs that are not possessed by the dog's canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as
great apes
, are parallel to children's social-cognitive skills.
104
Dogs have about twice the number of neurons in their cerebral cortexes than what cats have, which suggests they could be about twice as intelligent.
105
Most domestic animals were initially bred for the production of goods. Dogs, on the other hand, were selectively bred for desirable behavioral traits.
106
107
In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs.
108
These gene variations indicate the occurrence of
artificial selection
and the subsequent divergence of behavior and anatomical features. These genes have been shown to affect the
catecholamine synthesis
pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the
fight-or-flight response
107
109
(i.e., selection for
tameness
) and emotional processing.
107
Compared to their wolf counterparts, dogs tend to be less timid and less aggressive, though some of these genes have been associated with aggression in certain dog breeds.
110
107
Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to
Williams-Beuren syndrome
in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of
problem-solving ability
111
In a 2023 study of 58 dogs, some dogs classified as
attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
-like showed lower
serotonin
and
dopamine
concentrations.
112
A similar study claims that hyperactivity is more common in male and young dogs.
113
A dog can become aggressive because of trauma or abuse, fear or anxiety, territorial protection, or protecting an item it considers valuable.
114
Acute stress reactions
from
post-traumatic stress disorder
(PTSD) seen in dogs can evolve into
chronic stress
115
Police dogs with PTSD can often refuse to work.
116
Dog swimming over to catch a ball
Dogs have a natural instinct called
prey drive
(the term is chiefly used to describe
training dogs
' habits) which can be influenced by breeding. These instincts can drive dogs to consider objects or other animals to be prey or drive possessive behavior. These traits have been enhanced in some breeds so that they may be used to hunt and kill
vermin
or other pests.
117
Puppies or dogs sometimes
bury food underground
. One study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food caches, likely due to a "difference in motivation" between wolves and dogs.
118
Some puppies and dogs engage in
coprophagy
out of habit, stress, for attention, or boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the behavior was inherited from wolves, a behavior likely evolved to lessen the presence of
intestinal parasites
in dens.
119
Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs, around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim without a trainer in a
swimming pool
120
A study of 55 dogs found a correlation between swimming and 'improvement' of the hip
osteoarthritis joint
121
Nursing
A bitch nursing her newborn puppies
The female dog (bitch) may produce
colostrum
, a type of milk high in nutrients and antibodies, 1–7
days before giving birth. Milk production lasts for around three months,
122
123
and increases with litter size.
123
The dog can sometimes vomit and refuse food during
child contractions
124
In the later stages of the dog's pregnancy,
nesting behaviour
may occur.
125
Puppies are born with a
protective fetal membrane
that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.
126
127
While male-parent dogs can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,
128
most can play with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.
129
A bitch may abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.
130
Intelligence
Main article:
Dog intelligence
Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by
inference
. A study with
Rico
, a
Border Collie
, showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items after four weeks of the initial exposure. A study of another Border Collie,
Chaser
, documented that he had learned the names and could associate them by verbal command with over 1,000 words.
131
One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are similar to those of
horses
chimpanzees
, or
cats
132
One study of 18 household dogs found that the dogs could not distinguish food bowls at specific locations without distinguishing cues; the study stated that this indicates a lack of
spatial memory
133
A study stated that dogs have a
visual sense for number
. The dogs showed a ratio-dependent
activation
both for numerical values from 1–3 to larger than four.
134
Dogs demonstrate a
theory of mind
by engaging in deception.
135
Another experimental study showed evidence that Australian
dingos
can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.
136
Another study showed that dogs stared at humans after failing to complete an impossible version of the same task they had been trained to solve. Wolves, under the same situation, avoided staring at humans altogether.
137
Communication
Main article:
Dog communication
Dog sounds
A dog making noises and barking
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Dog communication is the transfer of information between dogs, as well as between dogs and humans.
138
Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression,
139
140
vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Dogs mark their
territories
by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment.
141
142
Both sexes of dogs may also urinate to communicate anxiety or frustration, submissiveness, or when in exciting or relaxing situations.
143
Overarousal in dogs can be a result of the dogs' higher
cortisol
levels.
144
Dogs begin socializing with other dogs by the time they reach the ages of 3 to 8 weeks, and at about 5 to 12 weeks of age, they alter their focus from dogs to humans.
145
Belly exposure in dogs can be a defensive behavior that can lead to a bite or to seek comfort.
146
Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. With their acute sense of hearing, dogs rely on the auditory aspect of communication for understanding and responding to various cues, including the distinctive
barking
patterns that convey different messages. A study using
functional magnetic resonance imaging
(fMRI) has shown that dogs respond to both vocal and nonvocal voices using the brain's region towards the
temporal pole
, similar to that of humans' brains. Most dogs also looked significantly longer at the face whose expression matched the
valence of vocalization
147
148
149
A study of
caudate responses
shows that dogs tend to respond more positively to social rewards than to food rewards.
150
Ecology
Population
The dog is the most widely abundant large
carnivoran
living in the human environment.
151
152
In 2020, the estimated global dog population was between 700
million and 1
billion.
153
In the same year, a study found the dog to be the most popular pet in the United States, as they were present in 34 out of every 100 homes.
About 20% of the dog population live in
developed countries
154
World Animal Protection
estimated in 2011 that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives as
feral
village
, or community dogs.
155
Most of these dogs live as
scavengers
and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing that village dogs' most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%) or respond aggressively (11%).
156
Competitors
Feral and
free-ranging dogs
' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans.
151
Although wolves are known to kill dogs, wolves tend to live in pairs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage when facing large dog groups.
157
158
In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.
159
Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, there is still a fear among humans of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.
157
Coyotes
and
big cats
have also been known to attack dogs. In particular,
leopards
are known to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter their size.
160
Siberian tigers
in the
Amur river
region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. They will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way.
161
Striped hyenas
are known to kill dogs in their range.
162
Dogs as introduced predators have affected the ecology of
New Zealand
, which lacked indigenous land-based mammals before human settlement.
163
Dogs have made 11
vertebrate
species extinct and are identified as a 'potential threat' to at least 188 threatened species worldwide.
164
Dogs have also been linked to the extinction of 156 animal species.
165
Dogs have been documented to have killed a few birds of the endangered species, the
kagu
, in
New Caledonia
166
Diet
See also:
Dog food
golden retriever
gnawing on a pig's foot bone
Dogs are typically described as
omnivores
83
167
168
Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have
extra copies of amylase
and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.
169
Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their
saliva
and are classified as having a high-starch diet.
170
Despite being an omnivore, dogs are only able to conjugate
bile acid
with
taurine
. They must get
vitamin D
from their diet.
171
Of the
twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms
(including
selenocysteine
), dogs cannot synthesize ten:
arginine
histidine
isoleucine
leucine
lysine
methionine
phenylalanine
threonine
tryptophan
, and
valine
172
173
174
Like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain
nitrogen balance
. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores.
175
Range
As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog has notable exceptions of presence in:
The
Aboriginal Tasmanians
, who were separated from Australia before the arrival of
dingos
on that continent
176
The
Andamanese peoples
, who were isolated when
rising sea levels
covered the
land bridge
to Myanmar
177
178
The
Fuegians
, who instead domesticated the
Fuegian dog
, an already extinct different canid species
179
Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs or where the dogs died out after original settlement, notably the
Mariana Islands
180
Palau
181
and most of the
Caroline Islands
with exceptions such as
Fais Island
and
Nukuoro
182
the
Marshall Islands
183
the
Gilbert Islands
183
New Caledonia
184
Vanuatu
184
185
Tonga
185
Marquesas
185
Mangaia
in the
Cook Islands
Rapa Iti
in
French Polynesia
Easter Island
185
the
Chatham Islands
186
and
Pitcairn Island
(settled by the
Bounty
mutineers
, who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships).
187
Dogs were introduced to
Antarctica
as
sled dogs
. Starting practice in December 1993, dogs were later outlawed by the
Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty international agreement
due to the possible risk of spreading infections.
188
Roles with humans
Main article:
Human–canine bond
The
domesticated dog
originated as a
predator
and
scavenger
189
190
They inherited complex behaviors, such as
bite inhibition
, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been
pack hunters
with complex
body language
. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for dogs' trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations,
191
and probably also their co-existence with early human hunter-gatherers.
192
193
Dogs perform many roles for people, such as
hunting
herding
pulling loads
protection
assisting police
and the
military
companionship
, and
aiding disabled individuals
. These roles in human society have earned them the nickname "
man's best friend
" in the
Western world
. In some cultures, however, dogs
are also a source of meat
194
195
Pets
Siberian husky
with a human companion
The keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.
196
Pet-dog populations grew significantly after
World War II
as
suburbanization
increased.
196
In the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's functions, such as the increased role of dogs in the
emotional support
of their human guardians.
197
198
199
Within the second half of the 20th century, more and more dog owners considered their animal to be a part of the family. This major social status shift allowed the dog to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior.
199
The second has been the broadening of the concepts of family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.
199
Products such as dog-training books, classes, and television programs target dog owners.
200
201
Some dog-trainers have promoted a
dominance model
of dog-human relationships. However, the idea of the
"alpha dog"
trying to be dominant is based on a controversial theory about wolf packs.
202
203
It has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions.
204
Human family members have increased participation in activities in which the dog is an integral partner, such as
dog dancing
and
dog yoga
200
According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5
million people in the United States have pet dogs.
205
The source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% own two dogs, and nearly 9% own more than two dogs. The data also shows an equal number of male and female pet dogs; less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from
shelters
205
Workers
In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for
herding livestock
(such as
collies
and
sheepdogs
); for hunting; for
rodent control
(such as terriers); as
search and rescue dogs
206
207
as
detection dogs
(such as those trained to detect
illicit drugs
or
chemical weapons
);
208
209
as homeguard dogs; as
police dogs
(sometimes nicknamed "K-9"); as
welfare-purpose dogs
; as dogs who assist fishermen retrieve their nets; and as dogs that pull loads (such as
sled dogs
).
83
In 1957, the dog
Laika
became one of the first animals to be launched into
Earth orbit
aboard the
Soviets
's
Sputnik 2
; Laika died during the flight from
overheating
210
211
Various kinds of service dogs and assistance dogs, including
guide dogs
hearing dogs
mobility assistance dogs
, and
psychiatric service dogs
, assist individuals with disabilities.
212
213
A study of 29 dogs found that 9 dogs owned by people with epilepsy were reported to exhibit attention-getting behavior to their handler 30 seconds to 45 minutes prior to an impending seizure; there was no significant correlation between the patients' demographics, health, or attitude towards their pets.
214
Shows and sports
See also:
Dog show
Dogs compete in breed-conformation shows and
dog sports
(including
racing
sledding
, and
agility competitions
). In dog shows, also referred to as "breed shows", a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in a
breed standard
215
Weight pulling
, a dog sport involving pulling weight, has been criticized for promoting
doping
and for its risk of injury.
216
Dogs as food
Main article:
Dog meat
Humans have consumed dog meat going back at least 14,000 years. It is unknown to what extent prehistoric dogs were consumed and bred for meat. For centuries, the practice was prevalent in
Southeast Asia
East Asia
, Africa, and
Oceania
before cultural changes triggered by the spread of religions resulted in dog meat consumption declining and becoming more taboo.
217
Switzerland
Polynesia
, and
pre-Columbian Mexico
historically consumed dog meat.
218
219
220
Some
Native American dogs
, like the
Peruvian Hairless Dog
and
Xoloitzcuintle
, were raised to be sacrificed and eaten.
221
222
Han Chinese
traditionally ate dogs.
223
Consumption of dog meat declined but did not end during the
Sui dynasty
(581–618) and
Tang dynasty
(618–907) due in part to the spread of Buddhism and the upper class rejecting the practice.
224
225
Dog consumption was rare in India, Iran, and Europe.
217
Eating dog meat is a
social taboo
in most parts of the world,
226
though some still consume it in
modern times
227
228
It is still consumed in some
East Asian
countries, including
China
194
Vietnam
195
Korea
229
Indonesia
230
and the
Philippines
231
An estimated 30
million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year.
223
China is the world's largest consumer of dogs, with an estimated 10 to 20 million dogs killed every year for human consumption.
232
In Vietnam, about 5
million dogs are slaughtered annually.
233
In 2024, China, Singapore, and Thailand placed a ban on the consumption of dogs within their borders.
234
In some parts of
Poland
235
236
and
Central Asia
237
238
dog fat is reportedly believed to be beneficial for the lungs.
239
Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is Western hypocrisy and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.
240
241
242
243
There is a long history of
dog meat consumption in South Korea
, but the practice has fallen out of favor.
244
A 2017 survey found that under 40% of participants supported a ban on the distribution and consumption of dog meat. This increased to over 50% in 2020, suggesting changing attitudes, particularly among younger individuals.
In 2018, the
South Korean government
passed a bill banning restaurants that sell dog meat from doing so during that year's
Winter Olympics
245
On 9 January 2024, the
South Korean parliament
passed a law banning the distribution and sale of dog meat. It will take effect in 2027, with plans to assist dog farmers in transitioning to other products.
246
The primary type of dog raised for meat in South Korea has been the
Nureongi
247
In
North Korea
where meat is scarce, eating dog is a common and accepted practice, officially promoted by the government.
248
249
Health risks
Further information:
Dog bite
Canine vector-borne disease
, and
Dog bite prevention
In 2018, the
World Health Organization
(WHO) reported that 59,000 people died globally from
rabies
, with 59.6% of the deaths in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most significant
vector
250
Dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year.
251
The primary victims of dog bite incidents are children. They are more likely to sustain more serious injuries from bites, which can lead to death.
251
Sharp claws can lacerate flesh and cause serious infections.
252
In the United States
, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.
253
It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study concluded that dog-associated
road accidents
involving injuries more commonly involve
two-wheeled vehicles
254
Some countries and cities have also banned or restricted certain dog breeds, usually for safety concerns.
255
Toxocara canis
(dog
roundworm
) eggs in dog feces can cause
toxocariasis
. It is estimated that nearly 14% of people in the United States are infected with
Toxocara
; about 10,000 cases are reported each year.
256
Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.
257
Dog feces can also contain
hookworms
that cause
cutaneous larva migrans
in humans.
258
259
Health benefits
A woman walking a dog
The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical and psychological well-being.
260
Studies suggest that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being, but they have been criticized for being "poorly controlled".
261
262
One study states that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and
social supports
but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal".
263
Earlier studies have shown that pet-dog or -cat guardians make fewer hospital visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-guardians.
263
People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats or those without pets; these effects are relatively long-term.
264
Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased survival in cases of
coronary artery disease
. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute
myocardial infarction
than those who do not own dogs.
265
Studies have found a small to moderate correlation between dog-ownership and increased adult physical-activity levels.
266
A 2005 paper by the
British Medical Journal
states:
260
Recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of
cardiovascular disease
, a reduced use of
general practitioner
services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less
absenteeism
from school through sickness among children who live with pets.
Health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety
267
and are exposed to
immune-stimulating microorganisms
, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases (according to the
hygiene hypothesis
). Other benefits include dogs as social support.
268
One study indicated that wheelchair-users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not.
269
In a 2015 study, it was found that having a pet made people more inclined to foster positive relationships with their neighbors.
270
In one study, new guardians reported a significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, which was sustained through the 10-month study.
264
Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late-18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with
mental disorders
271
Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase smiling and laughing among people with
Alzheimer's disease
272
One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and
conduct disorders
who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, knowledge, and skill-objectives and decreased
antisocial
and
violent behavior
compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.
273
Cultural importance
Main articles:
Cultural depictions of dogs
and
Dogs in religion
Further information:
List of fictional dogs
Cerberus
with the gluttons in
Dante
's
Third Circle of Hell
, depicted by
William Blake
Artworks have depicted dogs as symbols of
guidance
protection
loyalty
fidelity
faithfulness
alertness
, and
love
274
In ancient
Mesopotamia
, from the
Old Babylonian period
until the
Neo-Babylonian period
, dogs were the symbol of
Ninisina
, the goddess of healing and medicine,
275
and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her.
275
In the
Neo-Assyrian
and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs served as emblems of magical protection.
275
In
China
Korea
, and
Japan
, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.
276
In mythology, dogs often appear as pets or as watchdogs.
276
Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies
277
278
and may originate from
Proto-Indo-European traditions
277
278
In
Greek mythology
Cerberus
is a three-headed,
dragon
-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of
Hades
276
Dogs also feature in association with the Greek goddess
Hecate
279
In
Norse mythology
, a dog called
Garmr
guards
Hel
, a
realm of the dead
276
In
Persian mythology
, two four-eyed dogs guard the
Chinvat Bridge
276
In
Welsh mythology
Cŵn Annwn
guards
Annwn
276
In
Hindu mythology
Yama
, the god of death, owns two watchdogs named
Shyama and Sharvara
, which each have four eyes—they are said to watch over the gates of
Naraka
280
A black dog is considered to be the
vahana
(vehicle) of
Bhairava
(an incarnation of Shiva).
281
In
Christianity
, dogs represent faithfulness.
276
Within the
Roman Catholic
denomination specifically, the iconography of
Saint Dominic
includes a dog after the saint's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and became pregnant shortly after that.
282
As such, the
Dominican Order
Ecclesiastical Latin
Domini canis
) means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord".
282
In Christian folklore, a
church grim
often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their
churchyards
from
sacrilege
283
Jewish law
does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets but requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and to make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.
284
285
The view on dogs in
Islam
is
mixed
, with some schools of thought viewing them as unclean,
276
although
Khaled Abou El Fadl
states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition [...] falsely attributed to the Prophet".
286
The Sunni
Maliki school
jurists disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean.
287
Terminology
Dog
– the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.
288
Bitch
– any female member of the species (or subspecies).
289
Puppy
or
pup
– a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.
290
Sire
– the male parent of a litter.
290
Dam
– the female parent of a litter.
290
Litter
– all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.
290
Whelping
– the act of a bitch giving birth.
290
Whelps
– puppies still dependent upon their dam.
290
See also
List of dog breeds
List of individual dogs
List of canids
References
Thalmann O, Perri AR (2018). "Paleogenomic Inferences of Dog Domestication". In Lindqvist C, Rajora O (eds.).
Paleogenomics
. Population Genomics. Springer, Cham. pp.
273–
306.
doi
10.1007/13836_2018_27
ISBN
978-3-030-04752-8
Linnæus C (1758).
Systema naturæ per regna tria naturæ, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I
(in Latin) (10
ed.). Holmiæ (Stockholm): Laurentius Salvius. pp.
38–
40.
Archived
from the original on 8 November 2012
. Retrieved
11 February
2017
Wozencraft WC
(2005).
"Order Carnivora"
. In
Wilson DE
, Reeder DM (eds.).
Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference
(3rd
ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp.
575–
577.
ISBN
978-0-8018-8221-0
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62265494
(via Google Books)
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al. (9 February 2021).
"Dog domestication and the dual dispersal of people and dogs into the Americas"
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(6) e2010083118.
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Koepfli KP, Pollinger J, Godinho R, Robinson J, Lea A, Hendricks S, et
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L. jacobita
Ocelot (
L. pardalis
Oncilla (
L. tigrinus
Margay (
L. wiedii
Lynx
Canada lynx (
L. canadensis
Eurasian lynx (
L. lynx
Iberian lynx (
L. pardinus
Bobcat (
L. rufus
Puma
lineage
Acinonyx
Cheetah (
A. jubatus
Jaguarundi (
Herpailurus yagouaroundi
Puma
Cougar (
P. concolor
Leopard cat
lineage
Pallas's cat (
Otocolobus manul
Prionailurus
Leopard cat (
P. bengalensis
Sunda leopard cat (
P. javanensis
Flat-headed cat (
P. planiceps
Rusty-spotted cat (
P. rubiginosus
Fishing cat (
P. viverrinus
Felis
Chinese mountain cat (
F. bieti
Domestic cat (
F. catus
Jungle cat (
F. chaus
African wildcat (
F. lybica
Sand cat (
F. margarita
Black-footed cat (
F. nigripes
European wildcat (
F. silvestris
Viverroidea
see below↓
Viverroidea
Viverridae
Palm civets
Hemigalinae
Owston's palm civet (
Chrotogale owstoni
Otter civet (
Cynogale bennettii
Hose's palm civet (
Diplogale hosei
Banded palm civet (
Hemigalus derbyanus
Paradoxurinae
Binturong (
Arctictis binturong
Small-toothed palm civet (
Arctogalidia trivirgata
Sulawesi palm civet (
Macrogalidia musschenbroekii
Masked palm civet (
Paguma larvata
Paradoxurus
Asian palm civet (
P. hermaphroditus
Brown palm civet (
P. jerdoni
Golden palm civet (
P. zeylonensis
Viverrinae
sensu lato
Viverrinae
sensu stricto
Small Indian civet (
Viverricula indica
African civet (
Civettictis civetta
Viverra
Malabar large-spotted civet (
V. civettina
Large-spotted civet (
V. megaspila
Malayan civet (
V. tangalunga
Large Indian civet (
V. zibetha
Genettinae
Poiana
(African linsangs)
Central African oyan (
P. richardsonii
West African oyan (
P. leightoni
Genetta
(genets)
Abyssinian genet (
G. abyssinica
Angolan genet (
G. angolensis
Bourlon's genet (
G. bourloni
Crested servaline genet (
G. cristata
South African small-spotted genet (
G. felina
Common genet (
G. genetta
Johnston's genet (
G. johnstoni
Letaba genet (
G. letabae
Rusty-spotted genet (
G. maculata
Pardine genet (
G. pardina
Aquatic genet (
G. piscivora
King genet (
G. poensis
Schouteden's genet (
G. schoutedeni
Servaline genet (
G. servalina
Hausa genet (
G. thierryi
Cape genet (
G. tigrina
Giant forest genet (
G. victoriae
Herpestoidea
see below↓
Herpestoidea
Hyaenidae
(hyenas)
Proteles
Aardwolf (
P. cristata
Hyaeninae
(bone-crushing hyenas)
Striped hyena (
Hyaena hyaena
Brown hyena (
Parahyaena brunnea
Crocuta
Spotted hyena (
C. crocuta
Herpestidae
sensu lato
Eupleridae
(Malagasy
carnivorans)
Euplerinae
(Malagasy civets)
Fossa (
Cryptoprocta ferox
Malagasy civet (
Fossa fossana
Eupleres
(falanoucs)
Eastern falanouc (
E. goudotii
Western falanouc (
E. major
Galidiinae
(vontsira)
Ring-tailed vontsira (
Galidia elegans
Galidictis
Broad-striped Malagasy mongoose (
G. fasciata
Grandidier's mongoose (
G. grandidieri
Narrow-striped mongoose (
Mungotictis decemlineata
Salanoia
Brown-tailed mongoose (
S. concolor
Durrell's vontsira (
S. durrelli
Herpestidae
sensu stricto
(mongooses)
Mungotinae
Suricata
Meerkat (
S. suricatta
Liberian mongoose (
Liberiictus kuhni
Mungos
Gambian mongoose (
M. gambianus
Banded mongoose (
M. mungo
Pousargues's mongoose (
Dologale dybowskii
Helogale
Ethiopian dwarf mongoose (
H. hirtula
Common dwarf mongoose (
H. parvula
Crossarchus
(kusimanses)
Alexander's kusimanse (
C. alexandri
Angolan kusimanse (
C. ansorgei
Common kusimanse (
C. obscurus
Flat-headed kusimanse (
C. platycephalus
Herpestinae
Marsh mongoose (
Atilax paludinosus
Long-nosed mongoose (
Xenogale naso
Urva
(Asian mongooses)
Small Indian mongoose (
U. auropunctata
Short-tailed mongoose (
U. brachyura
Indian grey mongoose (
U. edwardsii
Indian brown mongoose (
U. fusca
Javan mongoose (
U. javanica
Collared mongoose (
U. semitorquata
Ruddy mongoose (
U. smithii
Crab-eating mongoose (
U. urva
Stripe-necked mongoose (
U. vitticolla
White-tailed mongoose (
Ichneumia albicauda
Yellow mongoose (
Cynictis penicillata
Selous's mongoose (
Paracynictis selousi
Meller's mongoose (
Rhynchogale melleri
Bdeogale
Bushy-tailed mongoose (
B. crassicauda
Jackson's mongoose (
B. jacksoni
Black-footed mongoose (
B. nigripes
Herpestes
(slender mongooses)
Angolan slender mongoose (
H. flavescens
Egyptian mongoose (
H. ichneumon
Somalian slender mongoose (
H. ochracea
Cape gray mongoose (
H. pulverulenta
Common slender mongoose (
H. sanguinea
Caniformia
("dog-like" carnivorans)
Canidae
(dogs)
Urocyon
Gray fox (
U. cinereoargenteus
Island fox (
U. littoralis
Vulpini
Bat-eared fox (
Otocyon megalotis
Nyctereutes
(raccoon dogs)
Common raccoon dog (
N. procyonoides
Japanese raccoon dog (
N. viverrinus
Vulpes
(true
foxes
Bengal fox (
V. bengalensis
Blanford's fox (
V. cana
Cape fox (
V. chama
Corsac fox (
V. corsac
Tibetan fox (
V. ferrilata
Arctic fox (
V. lagopus
Kit fox (
V. macrotis
Pale fox (
V. pallida
Rüppell's fox (
V. rueppelli
Swift fox (
V. velox
Red fox (
V. vulpes
Fennec fox (
V. zerda
Canini
(true dogs)
Cerdocyonina
(zorro)
Maned wolf (
Chrysocyon brachyurus
Speothos
Bush dog (
S. venaticus
Short-eared dog (
Atelocynus microtis
Crab-eating fox (
Cerdocyon thous
Lycalopex
(South American foxes)
Culpeo (
L. culpaeus
Darwin's fox (
L. fulvipes
South American gray fox (
L. griseus
Pampas fox (
L. gymnocercus
Sechuran fox (
L. sechurae
Hoary fox (
L. vetulus
Canina
(wolf-like canids)
Lupulella
Side-striped jackal (
L. adustus
Black-backed jackal (
L. mesomelas
Lycaon
African wild dog (
L. pictus
Dhole (
Cuon alpinus
Canis
Golden jackal (
C. aureus
Domestic dog (
C. familiaris
Coyote (
C. latrans
African wolf (
C. lupaster
Wolf (
C. lupus
Eastern wolf (
C. lycaon
Red wolf (
C. rufus
Ethiopian wolf (
C. simensis
Arctoidea
Ursidae
(bears)
Ailuropoda
Giant panda (
A. melanoleuca
Tremarctos
Spectacled bear (
T. ornatus
Ursinae
Sloth bear (
Melursus ursinus
Sun bear (
Helarctos malayanus
Ursus
American black bear (
U. americanus
Asian black bear (
U. thibetanus
Brown bear (
U. arctos
Polar bear (
U. maritimus
Mustelida
Pinnipedia
(seals)
see below↓
Musteloidea
see below↓
Pinnipedia
(seals)
Odobenidae
Walrus (
Odobenus rosmarus
Otariidae
(eared seals)
Callorhinus
(northern
fur seals
Northern fur seal (
C. ursinus
Otariinae
sea lions
Steller sea lion (
Eumetopias jubatus
Zalophus
California sea lion (
Z. californianus
Galápagos sea lion (
Z. wollebaeki
South American sea lion (
Otaria flavescens
Neophoca
Australian sea lion (
N. cinerea
New Zealand sea lion (
Phocarctos hookeri
Arctocephalus
(southern
fur seals
South American fur seal (
A. australis
Australasian fur seal (
A. forsteri
Galápagos fur seal (
A. galapagoensis
Antarctic fur seal (
A. gazella
Juan Fernández fur seal (
A. philippii
Brown fur seal (
A. pusillus
Guadalupe fur seal (
A. townsendi
Subantarctic fur seal (
A. tropicalis
Phocidae
(earless seals or true seals)
Phocinae
("northern seals")
Bearded seal (
Erignathus barbatus
Hooded seal (
Cystophora cristata
Phocini
Harp seal (
Pagophilus groenlandicus
Ribbon seal (
Histriophoca fasciata
Grey seal (
Halichoerus grypus
Phoca
Spotted seal (
P. largha
Harbor seal (
P. vitulina
Pusa
Caspian seal (
P. caspica
Ringed seal (
P. hispida
Baikal seal (
P. sibirica
Monachinae
("southern seals")
Monachini
(monk seals)
Mediterranean monk seal (
Monachus monachus
Neomonachus
Hawaiian monk seal (
N. schauinslandi
Mirounga
(elephant seals)
Northern elephant seal (
M. angustirostris
Southern elephant seal (
M. leonina
Lobodontini
(Antarctic seals)
Leopard seal (
Hydrurga leptonyx
Weddell seal (
Leptonychotes weddellii
Crabeater seal (
Lobodon carcinophagus
Ross seal (
Ommatophoca rossi
Musteloidea
Ailuridae
Red panda (
Ailurus fulgens
Mephitidae
skunks
Conepatus
(hog-nosed skunks)
Molina's hog-nosed skunk (
C. chinga
Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk (
C. humboldtii
American hog-nosed skunk (
C. leuconotus
Striped hog-nosed skunk (
C. semistriatus
Mephitis
Hooded skunk (
M. macroura
Striped skunk (
M. mephitis
Mydaus
(stink badgers)
Sunda stink badger (
M. javanensis
Palawan stink badger (
M. marchei
Spilogale
(spotted skunks)
Southern spotted skunk (
S. angustifrons
Western spotted skunk (
S. gracilis
Eastern spotted skunk (
S. putorius
Pygmy spotted skunk (
S. pygmaea
Procyonidae
Kinkajou (
Potos flavus
Bassariscus
Ringtail (
B. astutus
Cacomistle (
B. sumichrasti
Procyon
(raccoons)
Crab-eating raccoon (
P. cancrivorus
Raccoon (
P. lotor
Cozumel raccoon (
P. pygmaeus
Bassaricyon
(olingos)
Eastern lowland olingo (
B. alleni
Northern olingo (
B. gabbii
Western lowland olingo (
B. medius
Olinguito (
B. neblina
Nasuina
(coatis)
Nasua
White-nosed coati (
N. narica
South American coati (
N. nasua
Nasuella
(mountain coatis)
Eastern mountain coati (
N. meridensis
Western mountain coati (
N. olivacea
Mustelidae
see below↓
Mustelidae
Mustelidae
American badger (
Taxidea taxus
Mellivora
Honey badger (
M. capensis
Melinae
Arctonyx
(hog badgers)
Northern hog badger (
A. albogularis
Greater hog badger (
A. collaris
Sumatran hog badger (
A. hoevenii
Meles
(Eurasian badgers)
Japanese badger (
M. anakuma
Caucasian badger (
M. canescens
Asian badger (
M. leucurus
European badger (
M. meles
Melogale
(ferret-badgers)
Vietnam ferret-badger (
M. cucphuongensis
Bornean ferret badger (
M. everetti
Chinese ferret-badger (
M. moschata
Javan ferret-badger (
M. orientalis
Burmese ferret-badger (
M. personata
Formosan ferret-badger (
M. subaurantiaca
Guloninae
Tayra (
Eira barbara
Pekania
Fisher (
P. pennanti
Gulo
Wolverine (
G. gulo
Martes
(martens)
American marten (
M. americana
Pacific marten (
M. caurina
Yellow-throated marten (
M. flavigula
Beech marten (
M. foina
Nilgiri marten (
M. gwatkinsii
European pine marten (
M. martes
Japanese marten (
M. melampus
Sable (
M. zibellina
Ictonychinae
Lyncodontini
Patagonian weasel (
Lyncodon patagonicus
Galictis
(grisons)
Lesser grison (
G. cuja
Greater grison (
G. vittata
Ictonychini
(African polecats)
Vormela
Marbled polecat (
V. peregusna
African striped weasel (
Poecilogale albinucha
Ictonyx
Saharan striped polecat (
I. libycus
Striped polecat (
I. striatus
Lutrinae
(otters)
Giant otter (
Pteronura brasiliensis
Lontra
North American river otter (
L. canadensis
Marine otter (
L. felina
Neotropical otter (
L. longicaudis
Southern river otter (
L. provocax
Enhydra
Sea otter (
E. lutris
Spotted-necked otter (
Hydrictis maculicollis
Lutra
Eurasian otter (
L. lutra
Hairy-nosed otter (
L. sumatrana
Lutrogale
Smooth-coated otter (
L. perspicillata
Aonyx
African clawless otter (
A. capensis
Asian small-clawed otter (
A. cinereus
Congo clawless otter (
A. congicus
Mustelinae
Neogale
(New World weasels)
Amazon weasel (
N. africana
Colombian weasel (
N. felipei
Long-tailed weasel (
N. frenata
American mink (
N. vison
Mustela
(weasels)
subgenus
Mustela
(paraphyletic)
Sichuan weasel (
M. aistoodonnivalis
Mountain weasel (
M. altaica
Stoat/Beringian ermine (
M. erminea
Haida ermine (
M. haidarum
Yellow-bellied weasel (
M. kathiah
Least weasel (
M. nivalis
American ermine (
M. richardsonii
subgenus
Lutreola
(paraphyletic)
Japanese weasel (
M. itatsi
European mink (
M. lutreola
Indonesian mountain weasel (
M. lutreolina
Malayan weasel (
M. nudipes
Siberian weasel (
M. sibirica
Back-striped weasel (
M. strigidorsa
subgenus
Putorius
Steppe polecat (
M. eversmannii
Ferret (
M. furo
Black-footed ferret (
M. nigripes
European polecat (
M. putorius
See also:
Mink
Polecat
Extant
gray wolf
subspecies
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Mammalia
Order:
Carnivora
Family:
Canidae
Genus:
Canis
Species:
lupus
Old World
subspecies
Tundra wolf (
C. l. albus
Arabian wolf (
C. l. arabs
Steppe wolf (
C. l. campestris
Mongolian wolf (
C. l. chanco
Himalayan wolf (
C. l. chanco
Dingo (
C. l. dingo
Domestic dog (
C. l. familiaris
or
C. familiaris
Eurasian wolf (
C. l. lupus
Indian wolf (
C. l. pallipes
New World
subspecies
Arctic wolf (
C. l. arctos
Mexican wolf (
C. l. baileyi
British Columbian wolf (
C. l. columbianus
Vancouver Coastal Sea wolf (
C. l. crassodon
Hudson Bay wolf (
C. l. hudsonicus
Northern Rocky Mountain wolf (
C. l. irremotus
Labrador wolf (
C. l. labradorius
Alexander Archipelago wolf (
C. l. ligoni
Eastern wolf (
C. l. lycaon
Mackenzie River wolf (
C. l. mackenzii
Baffin Island wolf (
C. l. manningi
Northwestern wolf (
C. l. occidentalis
Greenland wolf (
C. l. orion
Alaskan Interior wolf (
C. l. pambasileus
Red wolf (
C. l. rufus
(taxonomy disputed)
Alaskan tundra wolf (
C. l. tundrarum
Animal actors
Dogs
Ace the Wonder Dog
Brigitte
Brownie the Wonder Dog
Buddy
Cook
Cosmo
Daisy
Darla
Doug the Pug
Dynamite the Dog
Enzo
Flame
Gidget
Higgins
Indy
Jean
Jed
Koko
Koton
Kuma von Clifford
Lassie
Lightning
Luke the Dog
Madison
Messi
Moonie
Moose
Olivia
Pal
Pete the Pup
Peggy
Pickles
Rin Tin Tin
Sanggeun
Shep
Silver Streak
Skippy
Soccer
Spike
Strongheart
Sykes
Teddy
Terry (Toto)
Thunder
Uggie
Primates
(non-human)
Cheeta
Crystal the Monkey
J. Fred Muggs
Jiggs
Jimmy the Chimp
Jovian
Manis
Joe Martin
Jo Mendi II
Kokomo Jr.
Marquis Chimps
Pankun
Rancho
Horses
Bamboo Harvester
Budweiser Clydesdales
Bunting
Buttermilk
Cass Ole
Champion the Wonder Horse
Docs Keepin Time
El Mokhtar
Popcorn Deelites
Rex the Wonder Horse
Trigger
Wonder horses
Bears
Bart the Bear
Bart the Bear 2
Brody the Bear
Bruno
Hercules
Cats
The lions of MGM
Lil Bub
Grumpy Cat
Henry
Morris the Cat
Orangey
Birds
Douglas
(parrot)
Jimmy
(raven)
Mr Percival
(pelican)
Elephants
Charlie
Chirakkal Kalidasan
Tai
Cetaceans
Keiko
(orca)
Namu
(orca)
Winter
(dolphin)
Reptiles
Burt
(crocodile)
Frank
(lizard)
Pocho
(crocodile)
Livestock
Charlie
(goat)
Domestication of animals
Vertebrates
Alpaca
Bactrian camel
Bali cattle
Cat
Cattle
Chicken
Dog
Donkey
Dromedary
Domestic duck
Domestic Muscovy duck
Ferret
Fuegian dog
Gayal
Goat
Guinea pig
Horse
Llama
Fancy mouse
Pig
Poultry
Domestic rabbit
Reindeer
Sheep
Domesticated silver fox
Domestic turkey
Water buffalo
Yak
Zebu
Invertebrates
Honey bee
Silkworm
History
Domestication of the cat
cats in ancient Egypt
Domestication of the dog
Domestication of the goat
Domestication of the Syrian hamster
Domestication of the horse
theories
Domesticated animals of Austronesia
Domestication of the sheep
Related topics
List of domesticated animals
Selective breeding
Self-domestication
The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication
Genomics of domestication
Taxon identifiers
Canis lupus familiaris
Wikidata
Q26972265
ADW
Canis_lupus_familiaris
CoL
5G6ZJ
EoL
1228387
EPPO
CANIFA
GBIF
6164210
ISC
90295
ITIS
726821
MSW
14000752
NatureServe
2.100911
NCBI
9615
NZOR:
db725874-7d02-4221-a93d-18894fb55417
Open Tree of Life
247333
TaiCOL
t0085383
Canis familiaris
Wikidata
Q20717272
Wikispecies
Canis familiaris
AFD
Canis_familiaris
CoL
QLXF
GBIF
5219200
iNaturalist
47144
IRMNG
10681653
ITIS
183815
MDD
1005940
NCBI
9615
Open Tree of Life
247333
Paleobiology Database
104153
WoRMS
1461482
ZooBank
05C23FE8-F45D-4EA6-A309-46864DE24097
Authority control databases
International
GND
National
United States
France
BnF data
Japan
Czech Republic
Spain
Israel
Other
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
İslâm Ansiklopedisi
Yale LUX
Portals
Animal
Mammal