Esperanto - Wikipedia

Esperanto - Wikipedia
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International auxiliary language
This article is about the language. For other uses, see
Esperanto (disambiguation)
Esperanto
Lingvo Internacia
Esperanto
Esperanto flag
Pronunciation
[espeˈranto]
Created by
L. L. Zamenhof
Date
1887
Setting and usage
International: most parts of the world
Users
Native
c.
1,000
(2022)
L2
: estimated 30,000 to 2 million
Sidney Culbert: Around 2 million
Amri Wandel: Above 2 million
Svend Vendelbo: 30,000–180,000
Purpose
Constructed language
International auxiliary language
A posteriori language
Esperanto
Early form
Proto-Esperanto
Writing system
Latin script
Esperanto alphabet
Esperanto Braille
Signed forms
Signuno
Sources
Primarily
Romance
and
Germanic languages
, with some influence of
Slavic
, and
Greek
Official status
Regulated by
Akademio de Esperanto
Language codes
ISO 639-1
eo
ISO 639-2
epo
ISO 639-3
epo
Linguist List
epo
Glottolog
espe1235
Linguasphere
51-AAB-da
Esperantujo
: Number of individual
UEA
members per million population in 2020.
none
< 0.5
0.5
2–3
4–5
6–9
10+
This article contains
IPA
phonetic symbols.
Without proper
rendering support
, you may see
question marks, boxes, or other symbols
instead of
Unicode
characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
Help:IPA
Part of a series on
Esperanto flag
Esperanto
Language
Grammar
Phonology
Orthography
Braille
Vocabulary
Etymology
History
Zamenhof
Proto-Esperanto
Unua Libro
Dua Libro
La Esperantisto
Fundamento de Esperanto
Declaration of Boulogne
Montevideo Resolution
Manifesto of Rauma
Manifesto of Prague
Modern evolution of Esperanto
Culture
Esperanto movement
Esperantist
Esperantujo
Literature
Music
Film
La Espero
Libera Folio
Literatura Mondo
Native speakers
Libraries
Pop culture references
Publications
Symbols
Profanity
Zamenhof Day
Organizations and services
World Esperanto Congress
Akademio de Esperanto
Universal Esperanto Association
World Esperanto Youth Organization
International Youth Congress
Esperanto Youth Week
World Anational Association
Encyclopedia
Pasporta Servo
Plouézec Meetings
Europe–Democracy–Esperanto
Panamerican Congress
Skolta Esperanto Ligo
By country
Austria
Bulgaria
China
Czech Republic
Hungary
Japan
Korea
Malaysia
Poland
Romania
Slovakia
Soviet Union
Related topics
Auxiliary language
Constructed language
Ido
Homaranismo
Linguistic discrimination
Wikimedia
Outline
Esperanto Wikipedia
Vikipedio
Vikivortaro
Vikicitaro
Vikifontaro
Vikilibroj
Vikikomunejo
Vikispecoj
Vikinovaĵoj
Vikivojaĵo
Esperanto
ɑː
oʊ
oʊ
is the world's most widely spoken
constructed
auxiliary language
. Created by
L. L. Zamenhof
in 1887 as "the International Language" (
la Lingvo Internacia
), it is intended to be a universal
second language
for international communication. He described the language in
Dr. Esperanto's International Language
(known as
Unua Libro
, the "first book"), which he published under the pseudonym
Doktoro
Esperanto
. Early adopters of the language liked the name
Esperanto
and soon used it to describe his language. The word translates into English as "one who hopes".
Within the range of constructed languages, Esperanto occupies a middle ground between "naturalistic" (imitating existing natural languages) and
a priori
(where features are not based on existing languages). Esperanto's
vocabulary
syntax
and
semantics
derive predominantly from languages of the
Indo-European group
. A substantial majority of its vocabulary (approximately 80%) derives from
Romance languages
, but it also contains elements derived from
Germanic
Greek
, and
Slavic
languages.
10
One of the language's most notable features is its
extensive system of derivation
, where prefixes and suffixes may be freely combined with roots to generate words, making it possible to communicate effectively with a smaller set of words.
Esperanto is the most successful constructed international auxiliary language, and the only such language with a sizeable population of
native speakers
denaskuloj
), of which there are an estimated 2,000.
Usage estimates are difficult, but two estimates put the number of people who know how to speak Esperanto at around 100,000.
Concentration of speakers is highest in Europe, East Asia, and South America. Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially,
Esperantujo
('Esperanto land') is used as a name for the collection of places where it is spoken. The language has also gained a noticeable presence on the Internet. It is becoming increasingly accessible on platforms such as
Wikipedia
Amikumu
Google Translate
and
Duolingo
11
12
Esperanto speakers are often called Esperantists (
Esperantistoj
). A number of reforms, known as
Esperantidos
, have been proposed over the years.
Esperanto largely replaced
Volapük
in the 19th and 20th centuries as the most major international auxiliary language, as many previous Volapükists switched to Esperanto due to its much simpler language structure.
13
14
15
History
edit
Main article:
History of Esperanto
Background
edit
Prior to the existence of Esperanto,
Johann Martin Schleyer
(1831 – 1912) already had the idea of creating an
international auxiliary language
to become the neutral universal second language of humanity, that could be learned by all through the creation of
Volapük
. His movement had proved that there was real demand for a neutral common language in the 19th century, as it gained widespread and active usage. However, the internal collapse of the Volapük movement caused its gradual replacement by Esperanto, as many of its speakers joined the Esperanto movement which was linguistically simpler, and lacked central control; many former Volapük clubs became Esperanto clubs. The influence of Volapük was thus a major driver of the initial Esperanto movement, as it set the stage for the widespread usage of constructed languages, though its own usage declined radically.
15
16
Creation
edit
Zamenhof,
c.
1895
The first Esperanto book by L. L. Zamenhof, now known as
Unua Libro
, published in 1887 in
Russian
. The title translates to:
International Language: Preface and Complete Tutorial
Esperanto was created in the late 1870s and early 1880s by
L. L. Zamenhof
, a Jewish
ophthalmologist
from
Białystok
, then part of the
Russian Empire
, but now part of
Poland
. After several iterations (
Proto-Esperanto
), he self-published the first book of Esperanto grammar (
Unua Libro
) on July 26, 1887. He did so under the pseudonym
Doktoro
Esperanto
lit.
"one who hopes") and simply called the language "the international language" (
la lingvo internacia
). Early speakers grew fond of the name
Esperanto
and began to use it as the name for the language.
17
Zamenhof's goal was to create an easy and flexible language that would serve as a universal
second language
, to foster
world peace
and international understanding, and to build a "community of speakers".
18
Zamenhof wrote that he wanted mankind to "learn and use ... en masse ... the proposed language as a living one".
19
The goal for Esperanto to become an
international auxiliary language
was not Zamenhof's only goal; he also wanted to "enable the learner to make direct use of his knowledge with persons of any nationality, whether the language be universally accepted or not; in other words, the language is to be directly a means of international communication".
19
His feelings and the situation in Białystok may be gleaned from an extract from his letter to Nikolai Borovko:
20
In Białystok the inhabitants were divided into four distinct elements: Russians, Poles, Germans, and Jews; each of these spoke their own language and looked on all the others as enemies. In such a town a sensitive nature feels more acutely than elsewhere the misery caused by language division and sees at every step that the diversity of languages is the first, or at least the most influential, basis for the separation of the human family into groups of enemies. I was brought up as an idealist; I was taught that all people were brothers, while outside in the street at every step I felt that there were no people, only Russians, Poles, Germans, Jews, and so on.
— L. L. Zamenhof, in a letter to Nikolai Borovko, c. 1895
Because people were reluctant to learn a new language which hardly anyone spoke, Zamenhof asked people to sign a promise to start learning Esperanto once ten million people made the same promise. He "was disappointed to receive only a thousand responses".
21
Nevertheless, the number of speakers grew rapidly over the next few decades; at first, primarily in the Russian Empire and Central Europe, then in other parts of Europe, the Americas, China, and Japan.
In 1905, Zamenhof published the
Fundamento de Esperanto
as a definitive guide to the language. Later that year, French Esperantists organized with his participation the first
World Esperanto Congress
, an ongoing annual conference, in
Boulogne-sur-Mer
, France. Zamenhof also proposed to the first congress that an independent body of linguistic scholars should steward the future evolution of Esperanto, foreshadowing the founding of the
Akademio de Esperanto
(in part modeled after the
Académie française
), which was established soon thereafter.
20th century
edit
Map of Esperanto groups in Europe in 1905
After the
First World War
, a great opportunity for Esperanto seemingly presented itself, when the Iranian delegation to the
League of Nations
proposed that the language be adopted for use in international relations following a report by a Japanese delegate to the League named
Nitobe Inazō
, in the context of the 13th World Congress of Esperanto, held in
Prague
22
Ten delegates accepted the proposal with only one voice against, the French delegate,
Gabriel Hanotaux
. Hanotaux opposed all recognition of Esperanto at the League, from the first resolution on December 18, 1920, and subsequently through all efforts during the next three years.
23
However, two years later, the League recommended that its member states include Esperanto in their educational curricula. The French government retaliated by banning all instruction in Esperanto in France's schools and universities.
24
25
The French Ministry of Public Instruction said that "French and English would perish and the literary standard of the world would be debased".
25
Nonetheless, many people see the 1920s as the heyday of the Esperanto movement. During this time,
anarchism
as a political movement was very supportive of both
anationalism
and the Esperanto language.
26
Fran Novljan
was one of the chief promoters of Esperanto in the former
Kingdom of Yugoslavia
. He was among the founders of the Croatian
Prosvjetni savez
(Educational Alliance), of which he was the first secretary, and organized Esperanto institutions in
Zagreb
. Novljan collaborated with Esperanto newspapers and magazines, and was the author of the Esperanto textbook
Internacia lingvo esperanto i Esperanto en tridek lecionoj
27
28
In 1920s
Korea
, socialist thinkers pushed for the use of Esperanto through a series of columns in
The Dong-a Ilbo
as resistance to both
Japanese occupation
as well as a counter to the growing nationalist movement for Korean language standardization. This lasted until the
Mukden Incident
in 1931, when changing colonial policy led to an outright ban on
Esperanto education in Korea
29
Official repression
edit
7th Esperanto congress,
Antwerp
, August 1911
Esperanto attracted the suspicion of many states. Repression was especially pronounced in
Nazi Germany
Francoist Spain
up until the 1950s, and the
Soviet Union under Stalin
, from 1937 to 1956.
In Nazi Germany, there was a motivation to ban Esperanto because Zamenhof was Jewish, and due to the internationalist nature of Esperanto, which was perceived as "Bolshevist". In his work
Mein Kampf
Adolf Hitler
specifically mentions Esperanto as an example of a language that could be used by an international Jewish conspiracy once they achieved world domination.
30
Esperantists
were killed during the
Holocaust
, with Zamenhof's family in particular singled out to be killed.
31
The efforts of a minority of German Esperantists to
expel their Jewish colleagues
and overtly align themselves with the Reich were futile, and Esperanto was legally forbidden in 1935. Esperantists in German concentration camps did, however, teach Esperanto to fellow prisoners, telling guards they were teaching Italian, the language of one of Germany's
Axis allies
32
In
Imperial Japan
, the left wing of the Japanese Esperanto movement was forbidden, but its leaders were careful enough not to give the impression to the government that the Esperantists were socialist revolutionaries, which proved a successful strategy.
33
After the
October Revolution
of 1917, Esperanto was given a measure of government support by the new communist states in the
former Russian Empire
and later by the
Soviet Union
government, with the
Soviet Esperantist Union
being established as an organization that, temporarily, was officially recognized.
34
In his biography on
Joseph Stalin
Leon Trotsky
mentions that Stalin had studied Esperanto.
35
However, in 1937, at the height of the
Great Purge
, Stalin completely reversed the Soviet government's policies on Esperanto; many Esperanto speakers were executed, exiled or held in captivity in the
Gulag
labour camps. Quite often the accusation was: "You are an active member of an international spy organization which hides itself under the name of 'Association of Soviet Esperantists' on the territory of the Soviet Union." Until the end of the Stalin era, it was dangerous to use Esperanto in the Soviet Union, even though it was never officially forbidden to speak Esperanto.
32
Fascist Italy
allowed the use of Esperanto, publishing some tourist material in the language.
36
37
During and after the
Spanish Civil War
, Francoist Spain suppressed
anarchists
, socialists and
Catalan nationalists
for many years, among whom the use of Esperanto was extensive,
38
but in the 1950s the Esperanto movement was again tolerated.
32
Modern history
edit
See also:
Modern evolution of Esperanto
In 1954, the
United Nations
— through
UNESCO
— granted official support to Esperanto as an
international auxiliary language
in the
Montevideo Resolution
39
However, Esperanto is not one of the six
official languages of the UN
40
The development of Esperanto has continued unabated into the 21st century.
41
The advent of the
Internet
has had a significant impact on the language, as learning it has become increasingly accessible on platforms such as
Duolingo
, and as speakers have increasingly networked on platforms such as
Amikumu
11
42
With up to two million speakers, it is the most widely spoken constructed language in the world.
43
Although no country has adopted Esperanto officially,
Esperantujo
("Esperanto-land") is the name given to the collection of places where it is spoken.
44
On February 22, 2012,
Google Translate
added Esperanto as its 64th language.
45
On July 25, 2016,
Yandex Translate
added Esperanto as a language.
46
Variant logo for the Esperanto Wikipedia's 200,000-article milestone
As of January 2025,
Esperanto Wikipedia
(Vikipedio) contains about 385,000 articles, making it the 37th-largest Wikipedia, as measured by the number of articles,
47
and is the largest Wikipedia in a constructed language.
48
49
About 150,000 users consult the Vikipedio regularly, as attested by Wikipedia's automatically aggregated log-in data, which showed that in October 2019 the website has 117,366 unique individual visitors per month, plus 33,572 who view the site on a mobile device instead.
50
Official use
edit
In 1908,
Wilhelm Molly
proposed making
Neutral Moresnet
the world's first Esperanto‑speaking state.
International organizations
edit
Esperanto is the working language of several non-profit international organizations such as the
Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda
, a left-wing cultural association which had 724 members in over 85 countries in 2006.
51
There is also Education@Internet, which has developed from an Esperanto organization; most others are specifically Esperanto organizations. The largest of these, the
Universal Esperanto Association
, has an official consultative relationship with the United Nations and
UNESCO
, which recognized Esperanto as a medium for international understanding in 1954.
52
53
The Universal Esperanto Association collaborated in 2017 with UNESCO to deliver an Esperanto translation
54
of its magazine
UNESCO Courier
Esperanto
Unesko Kuriero en Esperanto
). The
World Health Organization
offered an Esperanto version of the
COVID-19 pandemic
occupational safety and health
education course.
55
The
League of Nations
made attempts to promote the teaching of Esperanto in its member countries, but the resolutions were defeated (mainly by French delegates, who did not feel there was a need for it).
56
Esperanto was the first language of teaching and administration of the now-defunct
International Academy of Sciences San Marino
57
All personal documents sold by the
World Service Authority
, including the
World Passport
, are written in Esperanto, together with the official languages of the
United Nations
French
Spanish
Russian
Arabic
, and
Chinese
58
Media
edit
The Chinese government has used Esperanto since 2001 for an Esperanto version of its
China Internet Information Center
. China also uses Esperanto in
China Radio International
, and for the Internet magazine
El Popola Ĉinio
59
The
Vatican Radio
has an Esperanto version of its podcasts and its website.
60
In the summer of 1924, the
American Radio Relay League
adopted Esperanto as its official international auxiliary language,
61
and hoped that the language would be used by radio amateurs in international communications, but its actual use for radio communications was negligible.
62
Proposed microstates and micronations
edit
The
Republic of Rose Island
in the
Adriatic Sea
used Esperanto as its official language in 1968; it has since been demolished
Beginning in 1908, there were efforts to establish the world's first Esperanto state in
Neutral Moresnet
, which at the time was a
Belgian
Prussian
condominium
in central-western Europe. Any such efforts came to an end with the beginning of
World War I
and the
German invasion of Belgium
, voiding the treaty which established joint sovereignty over the territory. The
Treaty of Versailles
subsequently awarded the disputed territory to Belgium, effective January 10, 1920.
63
The self-proclaimed
micronation
of
Rose Island
, on an artificial island near
Italy
in the
Adriatic Sea
, used Esperanto as its official language in 1968. Another micronation, the extant
Republic of Molossia
, near
Dayton, Nevada
, uses Esperanto as an official language alongside English.
64
Linguistic properties
edit
Classification
edit
Esperanto has been described as "a language
lexically
predominantly
Romanic
morphologically
intensively
agglutinative
, and to a certain degree
isolating
in character".
65
Approximately 80% of Esperanto's vocabulary is derived from Romance languages, and the remainder primarily from
German
Greek
and
Slavic
languages.
10
New words are formed through extensive use of affixes and
compounds
Typologically
, Esperanto has
prepositions
and a
pragmatic word order
that by default is
subject–verb–object
(SVO). Adjectives can be freely placed before or after the nouns they modify, though placing them before the noun is more common.
66
67
The
article
la
"the",
demonstratives
such as
tiu
"that" and
prepositions
(such as
ĉe
"at") must come before their related nouns. Similarly, the negative
ne
"not" and
conjunctions
such as
kaj
"and" and
ke
"that" must precede the
phrase
or
clause
that they introduce. In
copular
(A = B) clauses, word order is just as important as in English: "people are animals" is distinguished from "animals are people".
Esperanto's
phonology
grammar
vocabulary
, and
semantics
are based on the
Indo-European languages
spoken in Europe. Beside his native Yiddish and (Belo)Russian, Zamenhof studied German, Hebrew, Latin, English, Spanish, Lithuanian, Italian, French, Aramaic and
Volapük
, knowing altogether something of 13 different languages, which had an influence on Esperanto's linguistic properties.
68
69
Esperantist and linguist
Ilona Koutny
notes that Esperanto's vocabulary, phrase structure, agreement systems, and semantic typology are similar to those of Indo-European languages spoken in Europe. However, Koutny and Esperantist
Humphrey Tonkin
also note that Esperanto has features that are atypical of Indo-European languages spoken in Europe, such as its agglutinative morphology.
66
67
Claude Piron argued that Esperanto word-formation has more in common with that of Chinese than with
typical European languages
, and that the number of Esperanto features shared with Slavic languages warrants the identification of a Slavic-derived stratum of language structure that he calls the "Middle Plane".
70
A 2010
linguistic typological
study concluded that "Esperanto is indeed somewhat European in character, but considerably less so than the European languages themselves."
71
Phonology
edit
Main article:
Esperanto phonology
Esperanto typically has 22 to 24 consonants (depending on the phonemic analysis and individual speaker), five vowels, and two
semivowels
that combine with the vowels to form six
diphthongs
. (The consonant
/j/
and semivowel
/i̯/
are both written
⟨j⟩
, and the uncommon consonant
/dz/
is written with the digraph
⟨dz⟩
72
which is the only consonant that does not have its own letter.)
Tone
is not used to distinguish meanings of words.
Stress
is always on the second-to-last vowel in proper Esperanto words, unless a final vowel
is
elided
, a phenomenon mostly occurring in poetry. For example,
familio
"family" is
[fa.mi.ˈli.o]
, with the stress on the second
, but when the word is used without the final
famili’
),
the stress remains on the second
[fa.mi.ˈli]
Consonants
edit
Labial
Alveolar
Post-
alveolar
Velar
Glottal
Nasal
⟨m⟩
⟨n⟩
Plosive
⟨p⟩
⟨b⟩
⟨t⟩
⟨d⟩
⟨k⟩
⟨g⟩
Affricate
t͡s
⟨c⟩
d͡z
⟨dz⟩
t͡ʃ
⟨ĉ⟩
d͡ʒ
⟨ĝ⟩
Fricative
⟨f⟩
⟨v⟩
⟨s⟩
⟨z⟩
⟨ŝ⟩
⟨ĵ⟩
⟨ĥ⟩
⟨h⟩
Approximant
⟨l⟩
⟨j⟩
Trill
⟨r⟩
The uncommon affricate
d͜z
does not have a distinct letter in the orthography, but is written with the digraph
dz
, as in
edzo
('husband'). Not everyone agrees with Kalocsay & Waringhien that
edzo
and
peco
are a near rhyme, differing only in voicing, or on the status of
/d͡z/
as a phoneme;
Wennergren
considers it to be a simple sequence of /d/ + /z/.
73
The phoneme
/x/
is largely replaceable with /k/ in Greek loanwords and is now found mostly in other than Greek loanwords such as
ĥano
('a khan'; cf.
kano
'reed, cane') and a very few established words such as
ĉeĥo
('a Czech'; cf.
ĉeko
'a check').
Vowels
edit
Since there are only five vowel qualities, significant variation in pronunciation is tolerated. For instance,
commonly ranges from
[e]
(French
) to
[ɛ]
(French
). These details often depend on the speaker's native language. A
glottal stop
may occur between adjacent vowels in some people's speech, especially when the two vowels are the same, as in
heroo
"hero" (
[he.ˈro.o]
or
[he.ˈro.ʔo]
) and
praavo
"great-grandfather" (
[pra.ˈa.vo]
or
[pra.ˈʔa.vo]
).
There are 6 historically stable diphthongs:
/ai̯/
/oi̯/
/ui̯/
/ei̯/
and
/au̯/
/eu̯/
. However, some authors such as
John C. Wells
regard them as vowel–consonant sequences –
/aj/
/oj/
/uj/
/ej/
/aw/
/ew/
– while Wennergren regards
/aj/
/oj/
/uj/
/ej/
as vowel–consonant sequences and only
/au̯/
/eu̯/
as diphthongs, there otherwise being no
/w/
in Esperanto.
74
A few additional sounds found in
loan words
, such as
/ou̯/
and
/ji/
, are not stable (see below).
The letter
/u̯/ is sometimes used as a consonant in onomatopoeia and unassimilated foreign names (see below).
Monophthongs
Front
Back
Close
Mid
Open
Diphthongs
Front
Back
Close
ui̯
⟨uj⟩
Mid
ei̯
⟨ej⟩
eu̯
⟨eŭ⟩
oi̯
⟨oj⟩
Open
ai̯
⟨aj⟩
au̯
⟨aŭ⟩
Orthography
edit
Main article:
Esperanto orthography
Alphabet
edit
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does not
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The Esperanto alphabet is based on the
Latin script
, using a one-sound-one-letter principle, with the exception of [d͡z]. It includes six
letters
with
diacritics
: five with circumflexes (⟨ĉ⟩, ⟨ĝ⟩, ⟨ĥ⟩, ⟨ĵ⟩, and ⟨ŝ⟩), and one with a
breve
(⟨ŭ⟩). The alphabet does not include the letters ⟨q⟩, ⟨w⟩, ⟨x⟩, or ⟨y⟩, which are only used in the writing of proper names and unassimilated borrowings.
Esperanto alphabet
Number
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
Upper case
Lower case
IPA
phoneme
t͡s
t͡ʃ
d͡ʒ
i̯
u̯
The alphabet was designed with a French typewriter in mind, and although modern computers support Unicode, entering the letters with diacritic marks can be more or less problematic with certain operating systems or hardware. One of the first reform proposals (for
Esperanto 1894
) sought to do away with these marks and the language
Ido
went back to the basic Latin alphabet.
Phonology
edit
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any
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by
adding citations to reliable sources
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All letters lacking diacritics are pronounced approximately as their respective
IPA
symbols, with the exception of ⟨c⟩.
The letters ⟨j⟩ and ⟨c⟩ are used in a way that is familiar to speakers of many Central and Eastern European languages, but may be unfamiliar to English speakers. ⟨j⟩ has the sound of English ⟨y⟩, as in
ellow
and
bo
(Esperanto
jes
has the same pronunciation as its English cognate
yes
), and ⟨c⟩ has a "
ts
" sound, as in
hi
ts
or the ⟨zz⟩ in
pi
zz
. In addition, the ⟨g⟩ in Esperanto is always 'hard', as in
ift
. Esperanto makes use of the five-vowel system, essentially identical to the vowels of Spanish and Modern Greek.
The accented letters are:
⟨ĉ⟩ is pronounced like English
ch
in
ch
atting
⟨ĝ⟩ is pronounced like English
in
em
⟨ĥ⟩ is pronounced like the
ch
in German
Ba
ch
or Scottish English
lo
ch
⟨ĵ⟩ is pronounced like the
in English
fu
ion
or the
in French
acques
⟨ŝ⟩ is pronounced like English
sh
⟨ŭ⟩ in ⟨aŭ⟩ is pronounced like English
ow
in
ow
According to one of Zamenhof's entries in the
Lingvaj respondoj
, the letter ⟨n⟩ ought to be pronounced as [n] in all cases, but a rendering as [ŋ] is admissible before ⟨g⟩, ⟨k⟩, and ⟨ĥ⟩.
Diacritics and Substitutions
edit
Main article:
Substitutions of the Esperanto alphabet
Even with the widespread adoption of
Unicode
, the letters with diacritics (found in the "
Latin-Extended A
" section of the
Unicode Standard
) can cause problems with printing and computing, because they are not found on most physical keyboards and are left out of certain fonts.
There are two principal workarounds to this problem, which substitute
digraphs
for the accented letters. Zamenhof, the inventor of Esperanto, created an "h-convention", which replaces ⟨ĉ⟩, ⟨ĝ⟩, ⟨ĥ⟩, ⟨ĵ⟩, ⟨ŝ⟩, and ⟨ŭ⟩ with ⟨ch⟩, ⟨gh⟩, ⟨hh⟩, ⟨jh⟩, ⟨sh⟩, and ⟨u⟩, respectively.
75
The main issue with this convention is its ambiguity: If used in a database, a program could not easily determine whether to render, for example, ⟨ch⟩ as /c/ followed by /h/ or as /ĉ/. Such words do exist in Esperanto:
senchava
could not be rendered unambiguously, unless its component parts were intentionally separated, as in
senc·hava
. A more recent "x-convention" has also gained prominence with the advent of computing, utilizing an otherwise absent ⟨x⟩ to produce the digraphs ⟨cx⟩, ⟨gx⟩, ⟨hx⟩, ⟨jx⟩, ⟨sx⟩, and ⟨ux⟩; this has the incidental advantage of alphabetizing correctly in most cases, since the only letter after ⟨x⟩ is ⟨z⟩.
There are computer
keyboard layouts
that support the Esperanto alphabet, and some systems use software that automatically replaces x- or h-convention digraphs with the corresponding diacritic letters (for example,
Amiketo
76
for
Microsoft Windows
Mac OS X
, and
Linux
and
Gboard
and AnySoftKeyboard for
Android
). On Linux, the
GNOME
Cinnamon
, and
KDE
desktop environments support the entry of characters with Esperanto diacritics.
77
78
Vocabulary
edit
Main article:
Esperanto vocabulary
For a list of words relating to Esperanto, see the
Esperanto language
category of words
in
Wiktionary
, the free dictionary.
The core vocabulary of Esperanto was defined by
Unua Libro
, published by Zamenhof in 1887. This book listed 917 roots; these could be expanded into tens of thousands of words using prefixes, suffixes, and compounding. In 1894, Zamenhof published the first Esperanto
dictionary
Universala Vortaro
eo
, which had a larger set of roots. The rules of the language allowed speakers to borrow new roots as needed; it was recommended, however, that speakers use most international forms and then derive related meanings from these.
Since then, many words have been borrowed, primarily (but not solely) from the European languages. Not all proposed borrowings become widespread, but many do, especially
technical
and
scientific
terms. Terms for everyday use, on the other hand, are more likely to be derived from existing roots;
komputilo
"computer", for instance, is formed from the verb
komputi
"compute" and the suffix
-ilo
"tool". Words are also
calqued
; that is, words acquire new meanings based on usage in other languages. For example, the word
muso
"mouse" has acquired the meaning of a
computer mouse
from its usage in many languages (English
mouse
, French
souris
, Dutch
muis
, Spanish
ratón
, etc.). Esperanto speakers often debate about whether a particular borrowing is justified or whether meaning can be expressed by deriving from or extending the meaning of existing words.
Some compounds and formed words in Esperanto are not entirely straightforward; for example,
eldoni
, literally "give out", means "publish", paralleling the usage of certain European languages (such as German
herausgeben
, Dutch
uitgeven
, Russian
издать izdat'
). In addition,
the suffix
-um-
has no defined meaning; words using the suffix must be learned separately (such as
dekstren
"to the right" and
dekstrumen
"clockwise").
There are not many idiomatic or slang words in Esperanto, as these forms of speech tend to make international communication difficult—working against Esperanto's main goal.
79
Instead of derivations of Esperanto roots, new roots are taken from European languages in the endeavor to create an international language.
80
Grammar
edit
Main article:
Esperanto grammar
Esperanto words are mostly
derived
by stringing together
roots
, grammatical endings, and at times
prefixes
and
suffixes
. This process is regular so that people can create new words as they speak and be understood.
Compound
words are formed with a modifier-first,
head-final
order, as in English (compare "birdsong" and "songbird", and likewise,
birdokanto
and
kantobirdo
). Speakers may optionally insert an
between the words in a compound noun if placing them together directly without the
would make the resulting word hard to say or understand.
The different
parts of speech
are marked by their own suffixes: all
common nouns
are marked with the suffix
-o
, all
adjectives
with
-a
, all derived adverbs with
-e
, and all
verbs
except the
jussive
(or
imperative
) and
infinitive
end in
-s
, specifically in one of six
tense
and
mood
suffixes, such as the
present tense
-as
; the jussive mood, which is tenseless, ends in
-u
. Nouns and adjectives have two cases:
nominative
for grammatical subjects and in general, and
accusative
for direct objects and (after a preposition) to indicate direction of movement.
Singular
nouns used as
grammatical subjects
end in
-o
plural
subject nouns in
-oj
(pronounced [oi̯] like English "oy"). Singular
direct object
forms end in
-on
, and plural direct objects with the combination
-ojn
([oi̯n]; rhymes with "coin"):
-o
indicates that the word is a noun,
-j
indicates the plural, and
-n
indicates the
accusative
(direct object) case. Adjectives
agree
with their nouns; their endings are singular subject
-a
([a]; rhymes with "ha!"), plural subject
-aj
([ai̯], pronounced "eye"), singular object
-an
, and plural object
-ajn
([ai̯n]; rhymes with "fine"). In the past some people found the
Classical Greek
forms of the plural (nouns in
-oj,
adjectives in
-aj)
to be awkward, proposing instead that Italian
-i
be used for nouns, and that no plural be used for adjectives. These suggestions were adopted by the
Ido
reform.
81
82
Noun
Subject
Object
Singular
on
Plural
oj
ojn
Adjective
Subject
Object
Singular
an
Plural
aj
ajn
The suffix
-n
, besides indicating the direct object, is used to indicate movement and a few other things as well.
The six verb
inflections
consist of three tenses and three moods. They are
present tense
-as
future tense
-os
past tense
-is
infinitive
mood
-i
conditional mood
-us
and
jussive mood
-u
(used for wishes and commands). Verbs are not marked for person or number. Thus,
kanti
means "to sing",
mi kantas
means "I sing",
vi kantas
means "you sing", and
ili kantas
means "they sing".
Verbal tense
Suffix
Present
-as
(kantas)
Past
-is
(kantis)
Future
-os
(kantos)
Verbal mood
Suffix
Infinitive
-i
(kanti)
Jussive
-u
(kantu)
Conditional
-us
(kantus)
Gender-neutrality
edit
See also:
Gender reform in Esperanto
Esperanto is sometimes accused of being inherently
sexist
, because the default form of some nouns is used for descriptions of men while a derived form is used for the women. This is said to retain traces of the male-dominated society of late 19th-century Europe of which Esperanto is a product.
83
84
These nouns are primarily titles, such as
baron/baroness
, and kinship terms, such as
sinjoro
"Mr, sir" vs.
sinjorino
"Ms, lady" and
patro
"father" vs.
patrino
"mother". Before the movement toward equal rights for women, this also applied to professional roles assumed to be predominantly male, such as
doktoro,
a holder of a doctorate (male or unspecified), versus
doktorino,
a female doctorate-holder. This paralleled the contemporary situation with the English suffix
-ess,
as in the words
waiter/waitress
actor/actress
, etc.
On the other hand, the pronoun
ĝi
("it") may be used generically to mean he/she/they; the pronoun
li
("he") is always masculine and
ŝi
("she") is always female, despite some authors' arguments.
85
A gender-neutral singular pronoun
ri
has gradually become more widely used in recent years, although it is minority usage.
86
The plural pronoun
ili
("they") is always neutral, while nouns with the prefix
ge–
specifically includes both sexes, for example
gesinjoroj
(equivalent, depending on context, to either
sinjoro kaj sinjorino
"Mr. and Ms." or
sinjoroj kaj sinjorinoj
"Ladies and Gentlemen"),
gepatroj
"parents" (equivalent to
patro kaj patrino
"mother and father").
Simple phrases
edit
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cite
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sources
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Listed below are some useful Esperanto words and phrases along with
IPA
transcriptions:
Esperanto
IPA
Hello
Saluton
[sa.ˈlu.ton]
Yes
Jes
[ˈjes]
No
Ne
[ˈne]
Good morning
Bonan matenon
[ˈbo.nan
ma.ˈte.non]
Good day
Bonan tagon
[ˈbo.nan
ˈta.gon]
Good evening
Bonan vesperon
[ˈbo.nan
ves.ˈpe.ron]
Good night
Bonan nokton
[ˈbo.nan
ˈnok.ton]
Goodbye
Ĝis (la revido)
[ˈd͡ʒis
(la
re.ˈvi.do)]
What is your name?
Kio estas via nomo?
Kiel vi nomiĝas?
[ˈki.o
ˌes.tas
ˌvi.a
ˈno.mo]
[ˈki.el
ˌvi
no.ˈmi.d͡ʒas]
My name is Marco.
Mia nomo estas Marko
Mi nomiĝas Marko
[ˌmi.a
ˈno.mo
ˌes.tas
ˈmar.ko]
[mi
no.ˌmi.d͡ʒas
ˈmar.ko]
How are you?
Kiel vi fartas?
[ˈki.el
vi
ˈfar.tas]
I am well.
Mi fartas bone
[mi
ˈfar.tas
ˈbo.ne]
Do you speak Esperanto?
Ĉu vi parolas Esperanton?
[ˈt͡ʃu
vi
pa.ˈro.las
ˌes.pe.ˈran.ton]
I don't understand you
Mi ne komprenas vin
[mi
ˌne
kom.ˈpre.nas
vin]
All right
Bone
/ En ordo
[ˈbo.ne]
[en
ˈor.do]
Okay
Thank you
Dankon
[ˈdan.kon]
You're welcome
Ne dankinde
/ Nedankinde
[ˌne.dan.ˈkin.de]
Please
Bonvolu
/ Mi petas
[bon.ˈvo.lu]
[mi
ˈpe.tas]
Forgive me/Excuse me
Pardonu min
[par.ˈdo.nu
min]
Bless you!
Sanon!
[ˈsa.non]
Congratulations!
Gratulon!
[ɡra.ˈtu.lon]
I love you
Mi amas vin
[mi
ˈa.mas
vin]
One beer, please
Unu bieron, mi petas
[ˈu.nu
bi.ˈe.ron,
mi
ˈpe.tas]
Where is the toilet?
Kie estas la necesejo?
[ˈki.e
ˌes.tas
la
ˌne.t͡se.ˈse.jo]
What is that?
Kio estas tio?
[ˈki.o
ˌes.tas
ˈti.o]
That is a dog
Tio estas hundo
[ˈti.o
ˌes.tas
ˈhun.do]
We will love!
Ni amos!
[ni
ˈa.mos]
Peace!
Pacon!
[ˈpa.t͡son]
I am a beginner in Esperanto.
Mi estas komencanto de Esperanto
[mi
ˌes.tas
ˌko.men.ˈt͡san.to
de
ˌes.pe.ˈran.to]
Sample texts
edit
Caption text
Text in Esperanto
Text in English
Source and attribution
Ĉiuj homoj estas denaske liberaj kaj egalaj laŭ digno kaj rajtoj. Ili posedas racion kaj konsciencon, kaj devus konduti unu al alia en spirito de frateco.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
The
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
, Article I
87
88
En multaj lokoj de Ĉinio estis temploj de la drako-reĝo. Dum trosekeco oni preĝis en la temploj, ke la drako-reĝo donu pluvon al la homa mondo. Tiam drako estis simbolo de la supernatura estaĵo. Kaj pli poste, ĝi fariĝis prapatro de la plej altaj regantoj kaj simbolis la absolutan aŭtoritaton de la feŭda imperiestro. La imperiestro pretendis, ke li estas la filo de la drako. Ĉiuj liaj vivbezonaĵoj portis la nomon drako kaj estis ornamitaj per diversaj drakofiguroj. Nun ĉie en Ĉinio videblas drako-ornamentaĵoj, kaj cirkulas legendoj pri drakoj.
Listen to this excerpt
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In many places in China, there were temples of the dragon-king. During times of drought, people would pray in the temples that the dragon-king would give rain to the human world. At that time the dragon was a symbol of the supernatural creature. Later on, it became the ancestor of the highest rulers and symbolized the absolute authority of a feudal emperor. The emperor claimed to be the son of the dragon. All of his personal possessions carried the name "dragon" and were decorated with various dragon figures. Now dragon decorations can be seen everywhere in China, and legends about dragons circulate.
Excerpt translated from a pedagogical Esperanto textbook discussing cultural mythology in China.
89
Maljusteco ie ajn estas minaco al justeco ĉie ajn. Ni estas kaptitaj en neevitebla reto de reciproka kunrilato, ligitaj en unuopa vesto de destino. Kio ajn tuŝas iun rekte, tuŝas ĉiujn malrekte. Ni havas respondecon ne nur laŭleĝan, sed ankaŭ moralan, por obei justajn leĝojn, kaj moralan respondecon por malobei maljustajn leĝojn. Protekti la rajtojn de la individuo estas protekti la integrecon de la homa familio. Ni devas labori senĉese por levi nian nacian politikon el la movsablo de rasa maljusteco al la solida roko de homa digno, kreante mondon, kie ĉiu viro kaj virino estas respektataj kiel infano de la universo.
Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly. We have not only a legal but a moral responsibility to obey just laws, and a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. To protect the rights of the individual is to protect the integrity of the human family. We must work unceasingly to lift our national policy from the quicksand of racial injustice to the solid rock of human dignity, creating a world where every man and woman is respected as a child of the universe.
Paraphrased summary of central arguments from Martin Luther King Jr.’s open letter on civil disobedience, justice, and moral responsibility, written during his imprisonment in Birmingham.
90
Education
edit
Formal education
edit
This section needs to be
updated
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
May 2022
Esperanto has not been a secondary official language of any recognized country.
Esperanto instruction is occasionally available at schools, including four primary schools in a pilot project under the supervision of the
University of Manchester
, and by one count at a few universities.
91
Esperanto has entered the education systems of several countries, including Hungary
92
and China.
93
Outside China and
Hungary
, Esperanto education mostly involves informal arrangements, rather than dedicated departments or state sponsorship.
Eötvös Loránd University
in
Budapest
had a department of
Interlinguistics
and Esperanto from 1966 to 2004, after which time instruction moved to
vocational colleges
; there are state examinations for Esperanto instructors.
94
95
Additionally,
Adam Mickiewicz University
in Poland offers a
diploma
in Interlinguistics.
96
The
Senate of Brazil
passed a bill in 2009 that would make Esperanto an optional part of the curriculum in
public schools
, although mandatory if there is demand for it.
As of 2015
[update]
, the bill is still under consideration by the
Chamber of Deputies
97
98
99
In the United States, Esperanto is notably offered as a weekly evening course at
Stanford University's
Bechtel International Center.
Conversational Esperanto, The International Language
, is a free drop-in class that is open to Stanford students and the general public on campus during the academic year.
With administrative permission, Stanford students can take the class for two credits a quarter through the Linguistics Department.
100
Esperanto-USA
suggests that Esperanto can be learned in, at most, one quarter of the amount of time required for other languages.
101
Internet resources
edit
Esperanto speakers often learn the language through
self-directed study
, online tutorials, and correspondence courses taught by volunteers.
On May 28, 2015, the language learning platform
Duolingo
launched a free Esperanto course for English speakers.
102
On March 25, 2016, when the first Duolingo Esperanto course completed its beta-testing phase, that course had 350,000 people registered to learn Esperanto through the medium of English. By July 2018, the number of learners had risen to 1.36 million.
As of October 2018,
Lernu!
, another online learning platform for Esperanto, had 320,000 registered users, and nearly 75,000 monthly visits.
103
The language-learning platforms
Drops
Memrise
and LingQ also have materials for Esperanto.
104
The Zagreb method
edit
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does not
cite
any
sources
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by
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The Zagreb method is an Esperanto teaching method that was developed in the city of
Zagreb
in the late 1970s to early 1980s as a response to the unsatisfactory learning outcomes of traditional natural-language teaching techniques when used for Esperanto. Its goal was to streamline the material in order to equip learners with practical knowledge that could be put to use in as short a time frame as possible. It is now implemented and available on some of the well-known learning websites in the community.
citation needed
Third-language acquisition
edit
Main article:
Paderborn method
From 2006 to 2011, four primary schools in
Britain
, with 230 pupils, followed a course in "propaedeutic Esperanto"—that is, instruction in Esperanto to raise language awareness, and to accelerate subsequent learning of foreign languages—under the supervision of the University of Manchester. As they put it,
Many schools used to teach children the
recorder
, not to produce a nation of recorder players, but as a preparation for learning other instruments. [We teach] Esperanto, not to produce a nation of Esperanto-speakers, but as a preparation for learning other languages.
105
The results showed that the pupils achieved enhanced metalinguistic awareness, though the study did not indicate whether a course in a language other than Esperanto would have led to similar results.
106
Similar studies have been conducted in
New Zealand
107
the
United States
108
109
England
110
and
Germany
111
Many of these experiments' findings were compromised by unclear objectives, brief or
anecdotal
reporting, and a lack of methodological rigor.
112
However, the results of these studies were consistently favorable, and suggested that studying Esperanto before another foreign language expedites the acquisition of the other, natural language.
Community
edit
Main article:
Esperantujo
Geography and demography
edit
Location map of hosts of
Pasporta Servo
, the Esperanto
homestay
community, by 2015
Esperanto is by far the most widely spoken
constructed language
in the world.
113
Speakers are most numerous in Europe and East Asia, especially in urban areas, where they often form
Esperanto clubs
114
Esperanto is particularly prevalent in the northern and central countries of Europe; in
China
South Korea
Japan
, and
Iran
within Asia;
33
in
Brazil
, and the
United States
in the
Americas
and in
Togo
in Africa.
115
Countering a common criticism against Esperanto, the
statistician
Svend Nielsen has found no significant correlation between the number of Esperanto speakers and the similarity of a given national
native language
to Esperanto. He concludes that Esperanto tends to be more popular in rich countries with widespread Internet access and a tendency to contribute more to science and culture. Linguistic diversity within a country was found to have no, or perhaps a slightly reductive, correlation with Esperanto popularity.
116
Number of speakers
edit
An estimate of the number of Esperanto speakers was made by
Sidney S. Culbert
, a retired
psychology
professor at the
University of Washington
and a longtime
Esperantist
, who tracked down and tested Esperanto speakers in sample areas in dozens of countries over a period of twenty years. Culbert concluded that between one and two million people speak Esperanto at
Foreign Service Level 3
, "professionally proficient" (able to communicate moderately complex ideas without hesitation, and to follow speeches, radio broadcasts, etc.).
117
Culbert's estimate was not made for Esperanto alone, but formed part of his listing of estimates for all languages of more than one million speakers, published annually in the
World Almanac and Book of Facts
. Culbert's most detailed account of his methodology is found in a 1989 letter to David Wolff.
118
Since Culbert never published detailed intermediate results for particular countries and regions, it is difficult to independently gauge the accuracy of his results.
In the Almanac, his estimates for numbers of language speakers were rounded to the nearest million, thus the number of Esperanto speakers is shown as two million. This latter figure appears in
Ethnologue
. Assuming that this figure is accurate, that means that about 0.03% of the world's population speaks the language. Although it does not meet Zamenhof's goal of a
universal language
, it still represents a level of popularity unmatched by any other constructed language.
Marcus Sikosek (now Ziko van Dijk) has challenged this figure of 1.6 million as exaggerated. He estimated that even if Esperanto speakers were evenly distributed, assuming one million Esperanto speakers worldwide would lead one to expect about 180 in the city of
Cologne
. Van Dijk finds only 30
fluent
speakers in that city, and similarly smaller-than-expected figures in several other places thought to have a larger-than-average concentration of Esperanto speakers. He also notes that there are a total of about 20,000 members of the various Esperanto organizations (other estimates are higher). Though there are undoubtedly many Esperanto speakers who are not members of any Esperanto organization, he thinks it unlikely that there are fifty times more speakers than organization members.
114
In 1996,
Finnish
linguist
Jouko Lindstedt
, an expert on native-born Esperanto speakers, presented the following scheme
119
to show the overall proportions of language capabilities within the Esperanto community:
1,000 have Esperanto as their native family language.
10,000 speak it fluently.
100,000 can use it actively.
One million understand a large amount passively.
Ten million have studied it to some extent at some time.
In 2017, doctoral student Svend Nielsen estimated around 63,000 Esperanto speakers worldwide, taking into account association memberships, user-generated data from Esperanto websites and census statistics. This number, however, was disputed by statistician Sten Johansson, who questioned the reliability of the source data and highlighted a wide margin of error, the latter point with which Nielsen agrees. Both have stated, however, that this new number is likely more realistic than some earlier projections.
In the absence of Culbert's detailed sampling data, or any other census data, it is impossible to state the number of speakers with certainty. According to the website of the
Universal Esperanto Association
Numbers of
textbooks
sold and membership of local societies put "the number of people with some knowledge of the language in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions".
120
Native speakers
edit
Main article:
Native Esperanto speakers
Native Esperanto speakers (eo:
denaskuloj
lit.
person from/since birth
) have learned the language from birth from Esperanto-speaking parents.
121
This usually happens when Esperanto is the chief or only common language in an international family, but sometimes occurs in a family of Esperanto speakers who often use the language.
122
In 2004, an estimated 2,000 children in about a thousand families use Esperanto as one of their languages.
123
Citing this research, the 2022 edition of
Ethnologue
gives 1,000 first language users.
However, native speakers do not occupy an authoritative position in the Esperanto community, as they would in other language communities. This presents a challenge to linguists, whose usual source of grammaticality and meanings are native speakers.
124
125
Culture
edit
Esperanto books at the
World Esperanto Congress
, Rotterdam 2008
Main articles:
Esperanto culture
Esperanto literature
Esperanto film
, and
Esperanto music
Esperantists
participate in an international culture, including a large body of original as well as translated
literature
. There are more than 25,000 Esperanto books, both originals and translations, as well as several regularly distributed
Esperanto magazines
. In 2013, a museum about Esperanto opened in China.
126
Esperantists use the language for free accommodations with Esperantists in 92 countries using the
Pasporta Servo
or to develop
pen pals
through
Esperanto Koresponda Servo
eo
127
Every year, Esperantists meet for the
World Congress of Esperanto
Universala Kongreso de Esperanto
128
129
World congresses have been held in different countries every year, except during the two World Wars, and the 2020
COVID-19 pandemic
(when it was moved to an online-only event). Since the
Second World War
, they have been attended by an average of more than 2,000 people, and up to 6,000 people at the most.
Historically, much music has been written in the language such as
Kaj Tiel Plu
130
There is also a variety of classical and semi-classical choral music, both original and translated, as well as large ensemble music that includes voices singing Esperanto texts.
Lou Harrison
, who incorporated styles and instruments from many world cultures in his music, used Esperanto titles and/or texts in several of his works, most notably
La Koro-Sutro
(1973).
David Gaines
used Esperanto poems as well as an excerpt from a speech by Zamenhof for his
Symphony No. One (Esperanto)
for mezzo-soprano and orchestra (1994–98). He wrote original Esperanto text for his
Povas plori mi ne plu
I Can Cry No Longer
) for unaccompanied
SATB
choir (1994).
There are also shared holidays, such as
Zamenhof Day
(also known as Esperanto Book Day, December 15) and
Esperanto Day
(July 26).
52
Proponents of Esperanto, such as
Humphrey Tonkin
, a professor at the
University of Hartford
, argue that Esperanto is "culturally neutral by design, as it was intended to be a facilitator between cultures, not to be the carrier of any one national culture". The late Scottish Esperanto author
William Auld
wrote extensively on the subject, arguing that Esperanto is "the expression of a
common human culture
, unencumbered by national frontiers. Thus it is considered a culture on its own."
131
Esperanto heritage
edit
Several Esperanto associations also advance Esperanto education, and aim to preserve its culture and heritage.
132
Poland added Esperanto to its list of
intangible cultural heritage
in 2014.
133
Notable authors in Esperanto
edit
Main article:
Esperanto authors
Muztar Abbasi
(translated the
Quran
into Esperanto)
William Auld
Julio Baghy
Kazimierz Bein
Kabe
Marjorie Boulton
Jorge Camacho
Fernando de Diego
(mainly translations)
Vasili Eroshenko
Jean Forge
Antoni Grabowski
Kálmán Kalocsay
Anna Löwenstein
Kenji Miyazawa
(translated his pre-existing works into Esperanto)
Nikolai Nekrasov
István Nemere
Claude Piron
Edmond Privat
Frederic Pujulà i Vallès
Baldur Ragnarsson
Reto Rossetti
Raymond Schwartz
Tibor Sekelj
Tivadar Soros
Spomenka Štimec
Éva Tófalvy
Vladimir Varankin
Gaston Waringhien
L. L. Zamenhof
Þórbergur Þórðarson
Popular culture
edit
Main article:
Esperanto in popular culture
In the futuristic novel
Lord of the World
by Robert Hugh Benson, Esperanto is presented as the predominant language of the world, much as Latin is the language of the Church.
134
A reference to Esperanto appears in the science-fiction story
War with the Newts
by
Karel Čapek
, published in 1936. As part of a passage on what language the salamander-looking creatures with human cognitive ability should learn, it is noted that "...in the Reform schools, Esperanto was taught as the medium of communication." (p. 206).
135
Esperanto has been used in many films and novels. The
Charlie Chaplin
film
The Great Dictator
(1940) showed
Jewish ghetto
shop signs in Esperanto. Two full-length feature films have been produced with
dialogue
entirely in Esperanto:
Angoroj
in 1964, and
Incubus
a 1965
B-movie
horror film which is also notable for starring
William Shatner
shortly before he began working on
Star Trek
. In
Captain Fantastic
(2016) there is a dialogue in Esperanto. The 1994 film
Street Fighter
contains Esperanto dialogue spoken by the character Sagat. Finally, Mexican film director
Alfonso Cuarón
has publicly shown his fascination for Esperanto,
136
going as far as naming his film production company
Esperanto Filmoj
("Esperanto Films").
Science
edit
Hungarian Cosmonaut
Bertalan Farkas
, the first Esperantist in space
In 1921 the
French Academy of Sciences
recommended using Esperanto for international scientific communication.
137
A few scientists and mathematicians, such as
Maurice Fréchet
(mathematics),
John C. Wells
(linguistics),
Helmar Frank
(pedagogy and cybernetics), and
Nobel laureate
Reinhard Selten
(economics) have published part of their work in Esperanto. Frank and Selten were among the founders of the
International Academy of Sciences
in San Marino, sometimes called the "Esperanto University", where Esperanto was the primary language of teaching and administration.
138
139
Commerce and trade
edit
Esperanto business groups have been active for many years. Research conducted in the 1920s by the French Chamber of Commerce and reported in
The New York Times
suggested that Esperanto seemed to be the best business language.
140
Goals of the movement
edit
Zamenhof had three goals, as he wrote in 1887: to create an easy language, to create a language ready to use "whether the language be universally accepted or not" and to find some means to get many people to learn the language.
19
So Zamenhof's intention was not only to create an easy-to-learn language to foster peace and international understanding as a general language, but also to create a language for immediate use by a (small) language community. Esperanto was to serve as an international auxiliary language, that is, as a universal second language, not to replace ethnic languages. This goal was shared by Zamenhof among Esperanto speakers at the beginning of the movement.
141
Later, Esperanto speakers began to see the language and the culture that had grown up around it as ends in themselves, even if Esperanto is never adopted by the United Nations or other international organizations.
137
Esperanto speakers who want to see Esperanto adopted officially or on a large scale worldwide are commonly called
finvenkistoj
, from
fina venko
, meaning "final victory".
142
There are two kinds of
finvenkismo
desubismo
aims to spread Esperanto between ordinary people (
desube
, from below) to form a steadily growing community of Esperanto speakers, while
desuprismo
aims to act from above (
desupre
), beginning with politicians.
Zamenhof considered the first way more plausible, as "for such affairs as ours, governments come with their approval and help usually only when everything is completely ready".
143
Those who focus on the intrinsic value of the language are commonly called
raŭmistoj
, from
Rauma
, Finland, where a declaration on the short-term improbability of the
fina venko
and the value of Esperanto culture was made at the International Youth Congress in 1980.
144
However the "Manifesto de Raŭmo" clearly mentions the intention to further spread the language: "We want to spread Esperanto to put into effect its positive values more and more, step by step".
145
In 1996 the
Prague Manifesto
was adopted at the annual congress of the Universal Esperanto Association (UEA); it was subscribed by individual participants and later by other Esperanto speakers. More recently, language-learning apps like
Duolingo
and
Amikumu
have helped to increase the amount of fluent speakers of Esperanto, and find others in their area to speak the language with.
Symbols and flags
edit
Main article:
Esperanto symbols
Esperanto symbols
The flag of Esperanto
The
verda stelo
The
jubilea simbolo
The earliest flag, and the one most commonly used today, features a green five-pointed star against a white
canton
, upon a field of green. It was proposed to Zamenhof by
Richard Geoghegan
, author of the first Esperanto textbook for English speakers, in 1887. The flag was approved in 1905 by delegates to the first conference of Esperantists at Boulogne-sur-Mer.
The green star on white (
la verda stelo
) is also used by itself as a round (buttonhole, etc.) emblem by many esperantists, among other reasons to enhance their visibility outside the Esperanto world.
A version with an
superimposed over the green star is sometimes seen.
Other variants include that for Christian Esperantists, with a white
Christian cross
superimposed upon the green star, and that for Leftists, with
the color of the field changed from green to red
146
In 1987, a second flag design was chosen in a contest organized by the UEA celebrating the first centennial of the language.
It featured a white background with two stylised curved "E"s facing each other.
Dubbed the
jubilea simbolo
jubilee symbol
),
147
it attracted criticism from some Esperantists, who dubbed it the
melono
(melon) for its elliptical shape.
It is still in use, though to a lesser degree than the traditional symbol, known as the
verda stelo
(green star).
148
Politics
edit
Esperanto has been placed in many proposed political situations. The most popular of these is the
Europe–Democracy–Esperanto
, which aims to establish Esperanto as the
official language
of the
European Union
. In 2005, Swiss economist
François Grin
published a report at the request of the
Haut conseil de l'éducation
that found that the use of English as the
lingua franca
within the European Union costs billions annually and significantly benefits English-speaking countries financially. The report considered a scenario where Esperanto would be the lingua franca, and found that it would have many advantages, particularly economically speaking, as well as ideologically.
149
Left-wing
currents exist in the wider Esperanto world, mostly organized through the
Sennacieca Asocio Tutmonda
founded by French theorist
Eugène Lanti
150
Other notable Esperanto socialists include
Nikolai Nekrasov
and
Vladimir Varankin
, both of whom were put to death in October 1938 during the
Stalinist repressions
151
Nekrasov was accused of being "an organizer and leader of a fascist, espionage, terrorist organization of Esperantists."
151
Religion
edit
Oomoto
edit
The
Oomoto
religion in Japan encourages the use of Esperanto among its followers and includes Zamenhof as one of its deified spirits.
152
Baháʼí Faith
edit
The
Baháʼí Faith
encourages the
use of an auxiliary international language
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
praised the ideal of Esperanto, and there was an affinity between Esperantists and Baháʼís during the late 19th century and early 20th century.
153
154
On February 12, 1913, ʻAbdu'l-Bahá gave a talk to the Paris Esperanto Society, stating:
Now, praise be to God that Dr. Zamenhof has invented the Esperanto language. It has all the potential qualities of becoming the international means of communication. All of us must be grateful and thankful to him for this noble effort; for in this way he has served his fellowmen well. With untiring effort and self-sacrifice on the part of its devotees Esperanto will become universal. Therefore every one of us must study this language and spread it as far as possible so that day by day it may receive a broader recognition, be accepted by all nations and governments of the world, and become a part of the curriculum in all the public schools. I hope that Esperanto will be adopted as the language of all the future international conferences and congresses, so that all people need acquire only two languages—one their own tongue and the other the international language. Then perfect union will be established between all the people of the world. Consider how difficult it is today to communicate with various nations. If one studies fifty languages one may yet travel through a country and not know the language. Therefore I hope that you will make the utmost effort, so that this language of Esperanto may be widely spread.
155
Lidia Zamenhof
, daughter of L. L. Zamenhof, became a Baháʼí around 1925.
154
James Ferdinand Morton Jr.
, an early member of the
Baháʼí Faith in Greater Boston
, was vice-president of the
Esperanto League for North America
156
Ehsan Yarshater
, the founding editor of
Encyclopædia Iranica
, notes how as a child in Iran he learned Esperanto and that when his mother was visiting Haifa on a
Baháʼí pilgrimage
he wrote her a letter in Persian as well as Esperanto.
157
At the request of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá,
Agnes Baldwin Alexander
became an early advocate of Esperanto and used it to spread the Baháʼí teachings at meetings and conferences in Japan.
Today there exists an active sub-community of Baháʼí Esperantists and various volumes of
Baháʼí literature
have been translated into Esperanto. In 1973, the
Baháʼí Esperanto-League
for active Baháʼí supporters of Esperanto was founded.
154
Spiritism
edit
In 1908,
spiritist
Camilo Chaigneau wrote an article named "Spiritism and Esperanto" in the periodic
La Vie d'Outre-Tombe
recommending the use of Esperanto in a "central magazine" for all spiritists and Esperantists. Esperanto then became actively promoted by spiritists, at least in
Brazil
, initially by
Ismael Gomes Braga
and
František Lorenz
; the latter is known in Brazil as Francisco Valdomiro Lorenz, and was a pioneer of both spiritist and Esperantist movements in this country.
158
The Brazilian Spiritist Federation publishes Esperanto coursebooks, translations of
Spiritism's basic books
, and encourages Spiritists to become Esperantists.
159
William T. Stead
, a famous spiritualist and occultist in the United Kingdom, co-founded the first Esperanto club in the U.K.
160
: 113
Theosophy
edit
For broader coverage of this topic, see
Theosophy
The
Teozofia Esperanta Ligo
(Theosophical Esperantist League) was formed in 1911, and the organization's journal,
Espero Teozofia
, was published from 1913 to 1928.
160
: 113
Bible translations
edit
Main article:
Bible translations into Esperanto
The first translation of the
Bible
into Esperanto was a translation of the
Tanakh
(or Old Testament) done by
L. L. Zamenhof
. The translation was reviewed and compared with other languages' translations by a group of British clergy and scholars before its publication at the
British and Foreign Bible Society
in 1910. In 1926 this was published along with a New Testament translation, in an edition commonly called the "
Londona Biblio
". In the 1960s, the
Internacia Asocio de Bibliistoj kaj Orientalistoj
tried to organize a new, ecumenical Esperanto Bible version.
161
Since then, the Dutch
Remonstrant
pastor Gerrit Berveling has translated the
Deuterocanonical
or apocryphal books, in addition to new translations of the Gospels, some of the New Testament epistles, and some books of the Tanakh. These have been published in various separate booklets, or serialized in
Dia Regno
, but the Deuterocanonical books have appeared in recent editions of the
Londona Biblio
Christianity
edit
Mass in Esperanto during the 95th World Congress of Esperanto in Havana, 2010
Christian Esperanto organizations and publications include:
After a failed attempt to start a Catholic Esperanto organization, Emile Peltier, a parish priest near
Tours
, France, published the first issue of
Espero Katolika
(Catholic Hope) in 1902. A year after Peltier's death, the
International Union of Catholic Esperantists
(Internacia Katolika Unuiĝo Esperantista, IKUE) was formed in 1910.
160
Father
Max Metzger
founded the World Peace League of the White Cross in 1916 and the
German Catholics' Peace Association
in 1919, both of which used Esperanto as their working language.
162
Two Roman Catholic popes,
John Paul II
and
Benedict XVI
, regularly used Esperanto in their multilingual
Urbi et Orbi
blessings at Easter and Christmas each year since Easter 1994.
163
164
In 1911, The
International League of Christian Esperantists
Kristana Esperantista Ligo Internacia
, KELI) was founded during the Universal Congress of Esperanto in
Antwerp
. The founder, Paul Hübner (1881-1970), was an early supporter of the
Nazi
movement, a fact which disenfranchised liberal and Jewish members, thus severely limiting the growth of the KELI during the first half of the 20th century.
160
KELI's bimonthly interdenominational magazine,
Dia Regno
, continues to be published and is reportedly made available to readers in 48 countries.
165
They have also published several Esperanto hymnals including the 1971
Adoru Kantante
(Worship by Singing) and
Tero kaj Ĉielo Kantu
(Earth and Heaven Sing).
165
The
Quaker
Esperanto Society (
Kvakera Esperanto-Societo
, KES) was established in 1921
166
and described in multiple issues of "
The Friend
167
168
Advices and Queries
Konsiloj kaj Demandoj)
and several other Quaker texts have been translated.
169
Well-known Esperantists who were also Quakers include authors and historians,
Edmond Privat
and
Montagu Christie Butler
The first
Christadelphian
publications in Esperanto were published in 1910.
170
171
The
Book of Mormon
has been partially translated into Esperanto, although the translation has not been officially endorsed by
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
172
There exists a group of Latter-day Saint Esperantists who distribute church literature in the language.
173
Islam
edit
Ayatollah Khomeini
of Iran called on Muslims to learn Esperanto and praised its use as a medium for better understanding among peoples of different religious backgrounds. After he suggested that Esperanto replace English as an international
lingua franca
, it began to be used in the seminaries of
Qom
. An Esperanto translation of the
Qur'an
was published by the state shortly thereafter.
when?
174
175
Modifications
edit
Main article:
Esperantido
Though Esperanto itself has changed little since the publication of
Fundamento de Esperanto
Foundation of Esperanto
),
176
a number of reform projects have been proposed over the years, starting with
Zamenhof's proposals in 1894
and
Ido
in 1907. Several later constructed languages, such as
Universal
Saussure
Romániço
Internasia
Esperanto sen Fleksio
, and Mundolingvo, were all based on Esperanto.
In modern times, conscious attempts have been made to eliminate perceived sexism in the language, such as
Riism
. Many words with
now have alternative spellings with
and occasionally
, so that
arĥitekto
may also be spelled
arkitekto
; see
Esperanto phonology
for further details of
replacement. Reforms aimed at altering country names have also resulted in a number of different options, either due to disputes over suffixes or Eurocentrism in naming various countries.
citation needed
Eponymous entities
edit
See also:
Zamenhof-Esperanto object
There are some geographical and astronomical features named after Esperanto, or after its creator L. L. Zamenhof. These include
Esperanto Island
in
Antarctica
177
and the asteroids
1421 Esperanto
and
1462 Zamenhof
discovered by Finnish astronomer and Esperantist
Yrjö Väisälä
See also
edit
Constructed languages portal
Language portal
Outline of Esperanto
World Esperanto Youth Organization
Esperantology
Esperantic Studies Foundation
Esperanto library
Encyclopedias in Esperanto
Esperanto movement
Global language system
Economics of language
Homaranismo
Interlingua
Novial
Comparison with Esperanto
International English
Standard French
Arcaicam Esperantom
Esperanto in China
China Esperanto League
References
edit
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March 15,
2022
Rakontinte mallonge la tutan konstruon de l' "Lingvo internacia" kaj ĝian gramatikon,[...]
"Plena Ilustrita Vortaro de Esperanto 2020"
Esperanto
at
Ethnologue
(25th ed., 2022)
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Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems
13
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318–
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doi
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A simple calculation accompanied by reasonable refinements leads to a number of approximately two million Esperanto users within the internet community alone, probably significantly more worldwide
63,000 −50%/+200%:
"Nova takso: 60.000 parolas Esperanton"
[New estimate: 60,000 speak Esperanto] (in Esperanto). Libera Folio. February 13, 2017.
Archived
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February 13,
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Mein Kampf
itself (1925). The Nazi Minister for Education banned the teaching of Esperanto on May 17, 1935. [...] all Esperantists were essentially enemies of the state – serving, through their language, Jewish-internationalist aims.
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Volapük... at one time it surpassed the Esperanto Wikipedia in number of articles, though Esperanto now has the largest Wikipedia of any constructed language.
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Evidence also shows that he learned Yiddish from his mother and that he studied German, English, Spanish, Lithuanian, Italian and French. In addition, Zamenhof learned the classical languages Hebrew, Latin and Aramaic in school. Esperanto was not even the first constructed language he'd dealt with. First, he learned a bit of Volapük, which was invented in Germany almost a decade before Esperanto. Having command of so many languages had a tremendous impact on his creation of Esperanto, which would be Zamenhof's 14th language.
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La Bona Lingvo
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La lingvo volas eleganti, ne elefanti.
"The language wants to be elegant, not elephantine."
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[The actual use of gender-neutral pronouns according to an empirical research study].
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{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
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{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (
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Esperanto without Myths
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Based on the number of textbooks sold and membership ..., the number of people with some knowledge of Esperanto is in the hundreds of thousands and possibly millions. ... In 1954 ... UNESCO ... recognised that the achievements of Esperanto match UNESCO's aims and ideals, and official relations were established between UNESCO and UEA.
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51.
doi
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The task of linguistics is to reveal the principles which relate sentences to meanings. One cannot work out these principles if one does not know (1) the grammatical sentences of the language and (2) their meanings. Due to absence of native speakers (the usual source of grammaticality and of meanings), sentence-meanings and grammaticality in Esperanto are radically imprecise in comparison with those of ethnic languages. Due to this imprecision it is not possible to construct linguistic arguments regarding Esperanto: esperantology [sic] is possible, but not a linguistics of Esperanto.
Miner, Ken (August 4, 2015).
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The Esperanto Phenomenon
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Esperantists speak of the
fina venko
, or 'final victory'. The concept is that eventually every moderately educated person ... will know Esperanto enough to ... order a cup of coffee ...
Parolado antaŭ la Sesa Kongreso Esperantista en Washington en la 15a de aŭgusto 1910
(Speech before the Sixth Esperantist Congress in Washington, 15 August 1910): "La celo, por kiu ni laboras, povas esti atingita per du vojoj: aŭ per laborado de homoj privataj, t.e. de la popolaj amasoj, aŭ per dekreto de la registaroj. Plej kredeble nia afero estos atingita per la vojo unua, ĉar al tia afero, kiel nia, la registaroj venas kun sia sankcio kaj helpo ordinare nur tiam, kiam ĉio estas jam tute preta."
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2010
"Elektitaj Ĉapitroj el la Libro de Mormon"
Archived
from the original on October 6, 2017
. Retrieved
October 6,
2017
"Por-Esperanta Mormonaro"
Por-Esperanta Mormonaro
. Archived from
the original
on September 21, 2018
. Retrieved
September 21,
2018
"Esperanto – Have any governments opposed Esperanto?"
. Donald J. Harlow. Archived from
the original
on February 2, 2009
. Retrieved
August 26,
2006
"Esperanto in Iran (in Persian)"
. Porneniu.
Archived
from the original on November 19, 2006
. Retrieved
August 26,
2006
Blanke, Detlev (January 1, 2009).
"Causes of the relative success of Esperanto"
Language Problems and Language Planning
33
(3):
251–
266.
doi
10.1075/lplp.33.3.04bla
ISSN
0272-2690
"Esperanto Island"
. Data.aad.gov.au.
Archived
from the original on May 24, 2011
. Retrieved
January 14,
2015
Literature
edit
Lins, Ulrich (February 10, 2017).
Dangerous Language – Esperanto under Hitler and Stalin
. Springer.
ISBN
978-1-137-54917-4
Schor, Esther (2016).
Bridge of Words: Esperanto and the Dream of a Universal Language
. New York:
Henry Holt and Company
ISBN
978-1-42994-341-3
LCCN
2015018907
. Retrieved
May 8,
2017
Matthias, Ulrich (2002).
Esperanto: The New Latin for the Church and Ecumenism
. Translated by Leon, Mike; Mullarney, Maire. Antwerp: Flandra Esperanto-Ligo.
ISBN
90-77066-04-7
. Archived from
the original
on September 17, 2008.
Further reading
edit
Fians, Guilherme (2021).
Esperanto Revolutionaries and Geeks - Language Politics, Digital Media and the Making of an International Community
. Palgrave Macmillan.
ISBN
978-3-030-84229-1
Butler, Montagu C.
Step by Step in Esperanto
. ELNA 1965/1991.
ISBN
0-939785-01-3
DeSoto, Clinton (1936).
200 Meters and Down
. West Hartford, Connecticut, US:
American Radio Relay League
, p. 92.
Gledhill, Christopher.
The Grammar of Esperanto: A Corpus-Based Description.
Second edition. Lincom Europa, 2000.
ISBN
3-89586-961-9
Ludovikologia dokumentaro I
Archived
December 22, 2012, at the
Wayback Machine
Tokyo: Ludovikito, 1991. Facsimile reprints of the
Unua Libro
in Russian, Polish, French, German, English and Swedish, with the earliest Esperanto dictionaries for those languages.
Okrent, Arika.
In the Land of Invented Languages
Archived
June 2, 2015, at the
Wayback Machine
Patterson, Robert; Huff, Stanley M. (November 1999).
"The Decline and Fall of Esperanto"
Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association
(6):
444–
446.
doi
10.1136/jamia.1999.0060444
PMC
61387
PMID
10579602
Wells, John
Lingvistikaj aspektoj de Esperanto
("
Linguistic Aspects of Esperanto
"). Second edition. Rotterdam: Universala Esperanto-Asocio, 1989.
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