Tibetan Language

Summary: Tibetan is a language spoken by approximately 8 million people, belonging to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family.

# Tibetan Language

## Overview

Tibetan is a language spoken by approximately 8 million people, primarily in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, as well as in parts of India, Nepal, and Bhutan. It belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family and has a rich literary tradition dating back to the 7th century CE. The language is written using an alphabetic script that was developed specifically for Tibetan and has undergone several reforms throughout its history.

## History

### Ancient Linguistic Period

The earliest linguistic period in Tibetan history corresponds to the ancient Zhangzhung civilization, where Zhangzhung linguistics served the ancient Tibetan civilization. According to historical records like *Legs bzhad rin bo chei gter mstod* and works by Nangkhawang Norbu on the ancient history of Zhangzhung and Tibetan civilizations, this period established important linguistic foundations.

The later transmitted *brda sprod nyi shu bdun pa* can be seen as the continuation and development of this linguistic research tradition. The ancient Zhangzhung Buddhist scriptures *Zhangzhung Kangyur* contain texts with Zhangzhung characters alongside Tibetan equivalents, providing valuable insights into this linguistic heritage.

While later interpretations were influenced by religious sectarianism, limiting their spread, these texts remain invaluable historical documents for linguistic science and represent a school of thought that was never abandoned. Through their descriptions of linguistic facts and grammatical rules, they preserve knowledge about Zhangzhung language and writing, which is considered a dead civilization.

### Medieval Linguistic Period

The medieval linguistic period, known as the Thonmi Sambhota grammar era, was characterized by the parallel development of Sanskrit and Tibetan grammar. This was a stage where Tibetan linguists studied and incorporated ancient Indian linguistic theories and methods to establish a standardized writing system and grammatical framework for Tibetan.

Thonmi Sambhota emerged as the most prominent figure of this period. His linguistic works and the new standardized writing system he created represent immortal milestones in the history of Tibetan linguistics. As the "father of Tibetan script," his contributions served to enhance the prestige and power of the rising Tibetan Empire. There may also have been political motivations to establish a new cultural banner for Tibet, potentially to counter the civilization of rival Zhangzhung.

After studying in India for 13 years, Thonmi Sambhota was stationed at Maru Palace near Lhasa, where he systematically analyzed and researched the phonological system and pragmatic rules of his native language. The king undoubtedly provided all necessary resources and support for Thonmi and his assistants.

By selecting various ancient Indian languages and scripts, Thonmi chose one with highly developed writing and grammar systems and a sophisticated alphabetic system. He adapted it to the phonetic characteristics of medieval Tibetan in Yarlung or Lhasa, removing unnecessary phonetic letters and adding new ones, successfully creating "a phonetic script that basically reflected the phonetic features of Tibetan at that time, used to record Tibetan, engage in translation and composition, leaving behind vast literature and classics" (Dai Qingxia, 1998, *Research on Ethnic Minority Languages in China in the 20th Century*, Shuhai Publishing House: p. 69).

Along with this new writing system, Thonmi created eight linguistic works, most of which were destroyed during cultural conflicts or lost for other reasons. The works that have survived to this day are primarily *Thirty Verses on Grammar* and *Theory of Letter Properties*. The former focuses on explaining the classification of Tibetan consonants and vowels, case grammar, and grammatical categories and classification of function words. The latter, as Chapter Six of the second of the eight fundamental works, explores phonological structure, letter combinations, verb inflection patterns, and semantic-syntactic relationships between nouns and verbs. Together, they developed into the core of Tibetan phonological and grammatical research systems.

Other valuable linguistic literature from this period includes *Eight Volumes on Phonetics* by Jì Qūzhōu and the *Great Dictionary of Terms* and *Two Volumes on Language Combination* compiled under the support of the Tibetan royal court by translators Gā, Jué, and Xiàng.

In the mid-9th century, after Buddhism and ancient Indian civilization suffered major disasters, the Tibetan royal court fragmented, providing an opportunity for Buddhism to re-emerge in Tibet itself. The ancient Guge Kingdom in Tsang became an important center for Buddhist development. Translators during the later propagation period of Buddhism, such as Rinchen Zangpo, promoted the inheritance and teaching of linguistic disciplines. Pandita Mitra Jampai composed *smra sgo msthon cha*, further supplementing grammar and phonological theory.

In response to the actual development of Tibetan language, Translator Ngönchö wrote *Common Orthography*, beginning to eliminate the post-initial consonant -d and the final small 'a' (v) in written records. This established a model for Tibetan linguistics to break through previous traditions and focus on recording spoken language facts, also adapting to the social needs of more popular dissemination of Buddhist culture and spirit.

### Modern Linguistic Period

The modern linguistic period represents the establishment and development of descriptive linguistics. This was an attempt to establish and consolidate indigenous modern linguistics based on recording and analyzing linguistic facts. Gendün Chöphel was a representative figure in this movement.

While serving at the Royal Asiatic Society in Britain, he was exposed to and attempted to introduce modern linguistic theories and methods into Tibetan studies. He conducted preliminary and sporadic analyses of the 7th-century Tibetan phonological system, the origin of Tibetan writing, features of complex consonants in different periods, the formation of standard Tibetan, its written advantages, and the distribution of Tibetan dialects. He aimed to develop historical comparative methods and synchronic linguistic descriptions for native language research. However, due to his early death, this new field did not achieve as much as traditional grammatical research.

Over the past 1,300 years, Tibetan script has undergone four reforms, occurring in the 7th century, 8th century, 8th century again, and 1070 CE respectively. These reforms successively standardized Tibetan characters and grammar, unified vocabulary, and established Tibetan writing conventions.

After the peaceful liberation of Tibet, to promote the learning, use, and development of Tibetan language, the state and government spent nearly 20 years of research before formulating the *Provisions on the Learning, Use, and Development of the Tibetan Language in the Tibet Autonomous Region (Trial)* in 1987.

In 1988, the Tibet Autonomous Region officially established the Tibetan Language Work Steering Committee, led by major party and government leaders. Similar committees were established in various prefectures and cities across the region.

Meanwhile, the Tibetan encoding international standard was approved by the International Organization for Standardization in 1997, becoming the first ethnic minority script in China to have an international standard.

## Key Information

| Feature | Description |
|---------|-------------|
| Language Family | Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Tibetan |
| Speakers | Approximately 8 million |
| Writing System | Tibetan script (30 basic letters) |
| Vowels | /a/, /i/, /u/, /e/, /o/ |
| Language Codes | ISO 639-1: bo, ISO 639-2: bod |
| Major Dialects | Ü-Tsang (Central), Kham (Eastern), Amdo (Northern) |
| Unicode Range | U+0F00-U+0FFF |

## Cultural Significance

Tibetan language holds profound cultural significance as the primary medium for preserving and transmitting Tibetan Buddhism, literature, and philosophy. The development of Tibetan script by Thonmi Sambhota was instrumental in preserving Buddhist texts that were later translated from Sanskrit, creating a distinct Tibetan Buddhist canon.

The language's relationship with Buddhism is particularly significant, as many linguistic developments were driven by the need to translate and interpret religious texts. This relationship is evident in how Tibetan grammatical traditions were often integrated into Buddhist educational systems, with scholars treating "grammar" (sgra) as equally important as "inner science" (nang mdzod) and "logic" (tshad ma) in higher Buddhist education.

Tibetan literature encompasses a vast body of religious texts, philosophical works, historical records, and folk literature. The language's ability to convey complex philosophical concepts while maintaining poetic beauty has made it a vital component of Tibetan cultural identity.

## Modern Status

Today, Tibetan is an official language in the Tibet Autonomous Region and several other Tibetan autonomous areas in China. It is used in education, administration, media, and religious contexts. The language faces challenges from the increasing dominance of Chinese in official and educational settings, but efforts are being made to preserve and promote Tibetan through various initiatives.

The digital age has brought both challenges and opportunities for Tibetan. While the language faces pressure from global languages, the development of digital tools, Unicode support, and online resources has facilitated its use in modern contexts. The Tibetan script's inclusion in Unicode has enabled its use on computers and mobile devices, contributing to its preservation in the digital era.

Language revitalization efforts include Tibetan-medium education programs, media production, and cultural preservation initiatives. These efforts are supported by both governmental and non-governmental organizations, recognizing the importance of Tibetan language for cultural heritage and ethnic identity.

## References

1. Dai, Q. (1998). *Research on Ethnic Minority Languages in China in the 20th Century*. Shuhai Publishing House.

2. Tournadre, N. (2008). *Manual of Standard Tibetan: Language, Grammar, and Usage*. Snow Lion Publications.

3. Dotson, B. (2010). *The Old Tibetan Sutra: A Critical Edition of the *Rgya nag mdzod kyi 'grel pa*. Verlag der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.

![Tibetan](/static/img/articles/tibetan/tibetan-illustration-01.jpg)


藏语

藏语演变播报编辑

## 藏语演变

上古语言学时期

上古语言学时期——古象雄文明时期，为古代藏族文明服务的象雄语言学。

在Legs bzhad rin bo chei gther mstod中和南喀诺布先生古代象雄和吐蕃文明史等资料中有介绍。

后世传播的《brda sprod nyi shu bdun pa》可以看作是这个语言研究传统的承继和发展。

古象雄佛法《象雄大藏经》古象雄文字象雄文与藏文对照的文字

虽然被赋予教派色彩并使其传播有所局限，但作为语言科学的历史文献以及一个未曾遗弃的语言学派，其价值丝毫不应该否定。更为重要的是，还能够透过其对言语事实的描写和规则概括，常常认识到一些关于一个公认为死亡了的古文明载体——象雄语言文字的局部知识。

中古语言学时期

中古语言学时期——桑布扎文法时代：吐蕃梵语和藏语语法并行时期。

这是藏族语言学家学习和靠拢古印度语言学，继而套用其理论和方法，建立符合藏语的规范文字和语法体系的阶段。

吞弥·桑布札是这个时期最杰出的代表，他的语言学著作和创制的新规范文字，是藏族语言学发展史上不朽的里程碑。

这位“藏文之父”的功勋，对吐蕃赞布来说，是为了提升日益强盛的吐蕃王朝的威望和势力，也有可能是为了击跨敌对势力的文明传统——象雄文明，树立吐蕃文化的新旗帜。

对雪域高原的人民和源源不断的文明长河来说，“语文功臣”的美德更是无以伦比。

吞弥在印度学了13年，回国后专门安排在拉萨附近的玛茹宫，系统地分析、研究本族语言的语音系统和语用规则。国王肯定提供了这些语言学家——吞弥和他的助手们——所需要的全部便利和服务。

通过筛选当时古印度的各种语言和文字，这位圣贤决定选择文字学和语法学高度发达、字母系统相当完善的古代印度文字做基础，依据故地雅隆或者新址拉萨的中古藏语语音特点加以改造，去掉不需要的音素字母，增添几个新的音位字母，成功地“创制了一套基本上反映当时藏语语音面貌的拼音文字，用于记录藏语，从事翻译和著述，留下了浩瀚的文献典籍”（戴庆夏主编，1998年《二十世纪的中国少数民族语言研究》，书海出版社：P69）。

与这个新创文字相配套，吞弥创作了8部语言学著作，绝大多数在与文明冲突中销毁或者其他原因失传，传播至今的主要著作是《文法三十颂》和《字性组织论》。

前者侧重讲解藏语辅音和元音之分类、格语法、虚词的语法范畴和归类等；后者则是8部根本著作之第二篇第六章，重点探讨语音结构、字母搭配、动词屈折变化规律，名词和动词的语义句法关系等。二者发展为藏语语音和语法研究系统的核心。

吉·曲周的《声明八卷》、在吐蕃王室支持下大译师噶、觉、象三位编纂的《翻译名义大集》《语合二卷》等，还保留了更多可贵的语言文献。

9世纪中叶，佛教和印度古文明遭受重大劫难后，同时导致吐蕃王室的四分五裂而很快得到重新在西藏本土崛起的机会。

地处后藏的古格王国成为佛教发展的重镇，所谓佛教后弘期的代表译师仁钦桑布等推动了语言学科的传承和讲学，班智达弥底·占贝冶西创作《smra sgo msthon cha》，进一步补充文法和语音理论。

针对西藏语言的发展实际，俄译师著《常用正字法》，开始取消书面记录中的次后置辅音–d以及音节辅音尾小“阿”（v），树立了藏传语言学敢于突破前人、注重记录口语事实的典范，也适应了更通俗地传播和发展佛教文化和精神的社会需要。

中世纪语言学时期

中世纪语言学时期——言语学的确立和发展时期。

这是以学科理论为前提，从佛教理论和教义的需要出发，全面地研究和传播梵语语法，并独立记录和分析藏语的阶段，也是语言学科本土化的重要历程。

12–13世纪，藏语方言的划分日趋明显，萨迦·索南泽摩（1142–1182）著《藏文读法启蒙》，对标准藏语语音进行描述，奠定了基于佛教文化的标准藏语（chos skad）形成和延续的理论基础。

其后，13世纪时萨迦班智达·贡噶坚赞著《启蒙释文——利蒙》、《正字拼读宝海》，把语言研究推广到更高的层面。

他们对藏语复辅音的结构、读音及语音特征所作的描述，为今人研究断代语言提供了全面的语言科学资料。

随着佛教的大规模传播和寺院经院教育的空前发展，声明理论的讲习和研究得不断得到重视，佛教学者把内明、因明和声明的知识积累提高到同等的位置，纳入佛教高等教育的正体体系，西藏的语言学得到不断发展和完善。

最优秀的语言学者莫过于噶玛司徒（名司徒·缺吉迥乃），这位精通梵文的17世纪学者，先后赴印度、尼泊尔等诸多外域，全面研究古印度声明。经与印度、尼泊尔学者校勘，重新翻译了该部《声明月八戒论》和《声明妙音论》。尤其对月八戒论所做注疏，深刻剖析，准确无误，胜过印度学者之解释，被誉为箴言至宝。该作名《司徒声明广注》（si tu sgra vgrel chen mo），共计三大卷，收入其全集，至今留传。

在当时政府高官的倡导下，他近14年连续游遍藏区中土边疆各地，深入调查研究藏族的语言和交际符号语法，于36岁修改完成初撰于30岁时的著名语法学著作《司徒藏语文法详解》（garma si tuvi sum rtags vgrel chen mkhas pavi mgul rgyan mu tig phring mdzes）。他对土弥·桑布札著作作了详尽的解疏，是讲解藏语文法的“三十颂”和“字性组织法”的权威著作之一。其声明广注和藏语文法详解，被称为两大司徒符号交际学著作，在藏族传统梵语语法和藏语研究中占有很高的地位。

五世赛多·洛桑次成嘉措，也是藏族传统语言学的集大成者，对历代学者的语法著作做了周密和严谨的比较，提出了许多独到的见解（上个世纪，整理者还根据其著作第一次使用一目了然的表格形式分类各种语法现象、语音搭配形式和词语变化规则，成为多人参考和引用的直接成果）。

俄曲·达玛巴扎、觉顿·仁钦扎西、扎德·仁钦冬朱等，也同样是优秀的藏语语言学学家。周炜《西藏古代的文法研究》（西南民族学院学报，1999年第4期P29–34）以及其博士论文对这些学者和著作做了较全面的介绍。

通过德格版、纳唐版、拉萨版、北京版《甘》语言学部分，毛尔盖·桑木丹、才旦夏茸的历代语言学名著索引等，能够全面地领略到这些先辈语言研究的惊人成就。

近代语言学时期

近代语言学时期——早期描写语言学的产生和发展时期。藏文书法

这是在记录和分析藏语言语事实的基础上，确立和巩固本土化现代语言学的尝试阶段。以根登群培为代表。

他在英国的亚洲皇家研究院服务起，接触并尝试把现代语言学理论和方法引进藏学领域，对七世纪藏语语音系统、藏文的起源、断代复辅音特征、标准藏语的形成和书面优势、藏语方言的分布等进行初步和零星的分析，以开拓本族语言研究的历史比较手法及共时语言描写，但因其早年逝世（杜永彬先生的著作，为不懂藏语藏文的读者了解这位西藏人文主义先驱的传奇故事提供了很好的平台，确实值得一读），后无从者，故这个新领域的成就不及传统文法研究。

在迄今的1300年里，藏文经历了四次改革。此四次改革分别发生在公元7世纪、公元8世纪、公元8世纪和公元1070年。四次改革先后整理规范了藏文字和语法、统一了用词用语、确立藏文字的书写法。

西藏和平解放后，为促进藏语的学习、使用和发展，国家和政府历时近20年的研究，于1987年制订了《西藏自治区学习、使用和发展藏语文的若干规定（试行）》。

1988年，西藏正式成立了西藏自治区藏语文工作指导委员会，由党委、政府主要领导人兼任领导。各地市均成立了藏语文工作指导委员会。

与此同时，藏文编码国际标准于1997年获国际标准组织的通过，成为中国少数民族文字中第一个具有国际标准的文字。

藏语特点播报编辑

## 藏语特点

藏语是我国藏族使用的语言，属汉藏语系藏缅语族藏语支。

现代藏语有以下特点：

1、浊辅音趋于清化，局部地区所保留的浊辅音都是来源于古复辅音中的浊基本辅音；

2、复辅音趋于简化和消失，只在局部地区保留带前置辅音的二合复辅音；

3、单元音增多，特别是鼻化元音；

4、元音有长短区别，并与声调有互补关系；

5、有鼻化和非鼻化两类真性复元音；

6、辅音韵尾趋于简化，从而引起带辅音韵尾元音的简化；

7、有较完整而稳定的声调系统，而且数量有增多的趋势；

8、谓语是后置表达系统（即谓语的语法意义由谓语之后的部分表示）；

9、构语和构形的语素之间有丰富的减缩变化；

10、动词只保留简化的屈折变化，而且它已失去独立表达语法意义的功能；

11、动词有丰富的体的范畴；

12、判断动词和存在动词有两种表示不同人称的词汇形式；

13、动词无人称和方位范畴；

14、单一部分表示否定（即在所否定的词的前或后加否定成分表示）；

15、有丰富的助词，而且常常有减缩和独立两种形式；

16、形容词和部分派生名词有构词后缀；

17、有敬语和非敬语的区别。

藏语文字和语音播报编辑

## 藏语文字和语音

藏语自7世纪松赞干布王时开始有文字，是博学的吞弥·桑布扎去印度学习后创制的。

藏文字母表有30个基本字母，分八行排列，前七行四个字母、最后一行两个字母。

前五行前两个字母是清音、后两个字母是浊音，第六行全是浊音，第七行前面两个字母是浊音、后两个字母是清音，第八行前一个字母是清音、后一个字母是元音。

藏文字母在Unicode编码中的范围是0x0f00-0x0fff

0xf40-0x0f6f——辅音字母

0xf90-0x0fbf——辅音字母对应的下接形式

0x0f70-0x0f8f——元音部分

0x0f20-0x0f33——数字部分

其余部分——符号

|  | 字母 | 转写 | 拼音 | 字母 | 转写 | 拼音 | 字母 | 转写 | 拼音 | 字母 | 转写 | 拼音 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 第一行 | ཀ་40 | ka | gá | ཁ་41 | kha | ká | ག་42 | ga | kà | ང་44 | nga | ngà |
| 第二行 | ཅ་45 | ca | já | ཆ་46 | cha | qá | ཇ་47 | ja | qà | ཉ་49 | nya | nyà |
| 第三行 | ཏ་4F | ta | dá | ཐ་50 | tha | tá | ད་51 | da | tà | ན་53 | na | nà |
| 第四行 | པ་54 | pa | bá | ཕ་55 | pha | pá | བ་56 | ba | pà | མ་58 | ma | mà |
| 第五行 | ཙ་59 | tsa | zá | ཚ་5A | tsha | cá | ཛ་5B | dza | cà | ཝ་5D | wa | wà |
| 第六行 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ཞ་5E | zha | xà | ཟ་5F | za | sà |
| – | – | – | – | – | – | འ་60 | 'a | à | ཡ་61 | ya | yà |
| 第七行 | – | – | – | – | – | – | ར་62 | ra | rà | ལ་63 | la | là |
| ཤ་64 | sha | xá | ས་66 | sa | sá | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| 第八行 | ཧ་67 | ha | há | ཨ་68 | a | á | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| – | 以上清音字母，基础高调 ˊ（f） ˥˥ 55 | 以上浊音字母，基础低调 ˋ（v）˩˨ 12 |
| 元音标记 | ི72 | i | i | ུ74 | u | u | ེ7A | e | e | ོ7C | o | o |
| 扩展辅音字母 | གྷ་43 | gha | – | ཊ་4A | tt | – | ཋ་4B | tth | – | ཌ་4C | dd | – |
| ཌྷ་4D | ddh | – | ཎ་4E | nn | – | དྷ་52 | dh | – | བྷ་57 | bh | – |
| ཛྷ་5C | dzh | – | ཥ་65 | ssa | – | ཀྵ་69 | kssa | – | – | – | – |

以上清音字母，基础高调 ˊ（f） ˥˥ 55

以上浊音字母，基础低调 ˋ（v）˩˨ 12

藏文按音节拼写，音节间用“་”隔开，词尾用“།”终结。

图1所示的是一个典型的藏文音节（བསྒྲོནད་），由基字ག、下加字 ྲ、、前加字བ、元音符号 ོ、后加字ན、再后加字ད构成。

### 前加字

前加字有ག་ད་བ་མ་འ་

1.ག་ཇ་ད་བ་ཛ་等读低调的送气音前，加ག་ད་བ་变成不送气音；

2.ང་ཉ་མ་ན་等读低调的鼻音和半元音ཡ་，前加ག་ད་བ་读高调；

3.ག་ཇ་ད་བ་ཛ等读低调的送气音，前加འ་མ་增加对应部位的鼻冠音；

4.基字བ་，前加ད་，变半元音或零声母。དབའ་ wá、དབྱ་ yá、དབྲ་ rá、དབུ་ ú、དབུལ úe、དབོ་ ó、དབྱི í。

### 上加字

上加字有ར་ལ་ས་

1.ག་ཇ་ད་བ་ཛ་等读低调的送气音，上加ར་ལ་变成不送气音，

2.ང་ཉ་མ་ན་等读低调的鼻音，上加ར་ལ་ལ་读高调，

3.ག་ཇ་ད་བ་ཛ等读低调的送气音，上加ལ་增加对应部位的鼻冠音。

### 下加字

下加字有 ྱ(ཡ་བདགས། -yadâk)、 ྲ(ར་བདགས། -radâk)、 ླ(ལ་བདགས། -ladâk)、 ྭ (ཝ་ཟུར། -wàsùr)等四个。

1.下加字 ྱ（ཨ་བདགས།）的作用是基字的腭化，ཀྱ་ཁྱ་གྱ་ k/k’→c/c’、པྱ་ཕྱ་བྱ་མྱ་ p/p’→tɕ/tɕ’。

2.下加字 ྲ（ར་བདགས།）的作用是基字的卷舌，ཀྲ་ཁྲ་གྲ་ k/k’→ʈʂ/ʈʂ’/、ཏྲ་ཐྲ་དྲ་ t/t’→ʈʂ/ʈʂ’、པྲ་ཕྲ་བྲ་ p/p’→ʈʂ/ʈʂ’、ཧྲ་ x→ʂ。སྲ་和ས་发音一样，མྲ་和མ་发音一样。

3.下加字 ླ（ལ་བདགས།）的作用是边音化和鼻音化，ཀླ་གླ་ k/k’→l（高调）、བླ་ p’→l（高调）、ཟླ་ →nt’（低调）；སླཚ、རླ་ 则相当于ལ་加上加字ར་、ས་，即由低调变为高调。

4.下加字 ྭ（ཝ་ཟུར།）的作用是圆唇，对发音已无影响。

### 后加字

后加字有འ་ག་ང་བ་མ་ར་ལ་ན་ས་ད་འ后加字是占位符，将前面的字母指定为基字。

1.ར་延长元音(a→a: / o→o: / u→u: / e→e: / i→i:)；

2.ལ་、འི་改变元音(a→ɛ / o→ø / u→y / e→e: / i→i:)；

3.འུ་、འེ་、འོ་与前面的元音构成长元音或复元音；

4.ད་改变元音(a→ɛ̃ / o→ø̃ / u→ỹ/ e→ẽ/ i→ĩ)；

5.ང་、མ་形成韵尾ŋ、m；

6.ག་、བ་形成韵尾q、p，并触发变调(f→h、v→w)；

7.后音节词尾བ་（wa）和前音节合并，构成长元音或复元音。

8.ས་、ད་形成韵尾ʔ，并触发变调(f→h、v→w)；

9.再后加字ས་加在ག་ང་བ་མ་等韵尾后面(གས་ངས་བས་མས་)，触发变调(f→h、v→w)；

10.再后加字ད་加在ར་ལ་ད་等后加字后面(རད་ལད་ནད་)，触发变调(f→h、v→w)，九世纪时已经取消此写法。

### 拼读规则

藏文每个音节会有一个基字，基字是拼读的基础。

音节中带附标（元音符号或上下加字）的字母是基字；无带附标字母时，双字母音节前字母是基字；四字母时第二个字母是基字；三字母音节通常中间字母是基字（若后两个字母是གས、ངས、བས、མས，其前面的字母是基字）。

### 声母

基字和前加字、上加字、下加字构成声母，藏语总共有28个辅音，35个声母（27个单辅音、7个复辅音）。

| – | 双唇音 | 龈音 | 龈音 | 卷舌音 | 龈后音 | 硬腭音 | 软腭音 | 声门音 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 鼻音 | མ་[m] | – | ན་[n] | – | ཉ་[ɲ] | ང་[ŋ] | – | [ʔ] |
| 不送气塞音 | པ་[p] | – | ཏ་[t] | – | – | ཀྱ་[c] | ཀ་[k] | – |
| 送气塞音 | ཕ་བ་[pʰ] | – | ཐ་ད་[tʰ] | – | – | ཁྱ་གྱ[cʰ] | ཁ་ག་[kʰ] | – |
| 不送气塞擦音 | – | ཙ་[ts] | – | ཀྲ་[ʈʂ] | ཅ་[tɕ] | – | – | – |
| 送气塞擦音 | – | ཚ་ཛ་[tsʰ] | – | ཁྲ་གྲ་[ʈʂʰ] | ཆ་ཇ་[tɕʰ] | – | – | – |
| 清擦音 | – | ས་ཟ་[s] | ལྷ་[ɬ] | ཧྲ[ʂ] | ཤ་ཞ་[ɕ] | – | ཧ་[x] | – |
| 近、边、通音 | ཝ་[w] | ར་[ɹ] | ལ་[l] | – | – | ཡ་[j] | – | – |

ཀྱ་[c]

ཕ་བ་[pʰ]

ཐ་ད་[tʰ]

ཁྱ་གྱ[cʰ]

ཁ་ག་[kʰ]

不送气塞擦音

ཙ་[ts]

ཀྲ་[ʈʂ]

ཅ་[tɕ]

ཚ་ཛ་[tsʰ]

ཁྲ་གྲ་[ʈʂʰ]

ཆ་ཇ་[tɕʰ]

ས་ཟ་[s]

ལྷ་[ɬ]

ཤ་ཞ་[ɕ]

近、边、通音

复辅音主要是前加字འ་མ་和上加字ལ་加到ག་ཇ་ང་བ་ཛ等基字上。

| [ŋk] | [ɲtɕ] | [nt] | [mp] | [nts] | [ɲc] | [ɳʈʂ] |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| ལྒ་ | ལྗ་ | ལྦྱ | ལྡ་ | ལྦ་ | ལྫ | ལྒྱ | ལྒྲ་ | ལྡྲ་ | ལྦྲ་ |
| མགའ་ | མཇའ་ | – | མདའ་ | – | མཛའ་ | མགྱ་ | མགྲ་ | མདྲ་ | མབྲ་ |
| འགའ་ | འཇའ་ | འབྱ | འདའ་ | འབའ་ | འཛའ་ | འགྱ | འགྲ་ | འདྲ་ | འབྲ་ |

### 声母演变

藏语的7世纪复声母向现代拉萨音单声母的演变

| 拉萨音 | 拼写形式 | 七世纪藏语发音 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| ká | དཀའ་བཀའ་རྐ་བརྐ་སྐ་བསྐ་ལྐ་ཀྭ་ | dka, bka, rka, brka, ska, bska, lka, kwa |
| kà | དགའ་བགའ་རྒ་བརྒ་སྒ་བསྒ་ | dga, bga, rga, brga, sga, bsga |
| ŋkà

![Tibetan](/static/img/articles/tibetan/tibetan-illustration-01.jpg)


Uyghur Language

Summary: The Uyghur language is a Turkic language spoken primarily by the Uyghur people in Xinjiang, China.

## Overview

The Uyghur language (Uyghurcheئۇيغۇرچە, Uyghurche) is a Turkic language belonging to the Karluk branch of the Turkic language family. It is primarily spoken by the Uyghur people, a Turkic ethnic group living mainly in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. The language has approximately 13 million speakers (as of 2015 in China), with significant communities in Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Russia, Ukraine, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, and Canada.

## History

The history of the Uyghur language can be divided into three main periods: Old Uyghur, Chagatai, and Modern Uyghur.

### Ancient Uyghur Language

The ancient Uyghur language (also known as Old Uyghur or Huihe) emerged after the 8th century as the common written language of the Uyghur people. It belonged to the Altai language family, Turkic branch, and Karluk subgroup. The literary works from this period include the *Turkish Dictionary of Mahmud al-Kashgari* (Divân Lugât at-Turk), *Wisdom of Royal Glory* (Qutadghu Bilig), and numerous Dunhuang and Turpan documents.

### Chagatai Uyghur Language

Chagatai Uyghur, also known as Chagatai, was used from the 13th to the 20th century, a period of over 600 years. It served not only as the literary language of the Uyghur people but also as a common language for multiple ethnic groups in the region. During this period, the Arabic script was used for writing. The era produced famous works such as Nava'i's *Chahaar Diwan*, *Hemsa*, and *Muhakimetul Lugheteyin*. Many scholars, poets, and historians created significant literary works during this time.

### Modern Uyghur Language

Modern Uyghur is the language used by contemporary Uyghur people. It is divided into three main dialects: Central, Hotan (Khotan), and Lop (Luobu), with the primary differences being phonological. The modern standard written language is based on the phonological system of the Central dialect, represented by the Ürümqi dialect. After several standardization efforts, the modern Uyghur literary language has become the unified written form used by Uyghur people today.

## Key Information

| Feature | Description |
|---------|-------------|
| Language Family | Turkic (Karluk branch) |
| Writing Systems | Arabic script (UEY), Latin script (ULY), Cyrillic script (USY) |
| Number of Speakers | Approximately 13 million (2015 estimate) |
| Official Status | Official in Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, China |
| Main Dialects | Central, Hotan, Lop |
| Standard Based | Central dialect (Ürümqi pronunciation) |

## Cultural Significance

The Uyghur language holds significant cultural importance for the Uyghur people, serving as a vessel for their rich literary tradition, oral history, and cultural identity. Classical works like *Qutadghu Bilig* (Wisdom of Royal Glory) and the *Divân Lugât at-Turk* represent important contributions to Turkic literature and scholarship. The language has also preserved elements of ancient Turkic culture and religious traditions, particularly through the influence of Islamic literature following the adoption of Islam by the Uyghur people.

The Uyghur script has undergone several transformations throughout history, reflecting the cultural and political changes in the region. From the Old Turkic script to the Sogdian-derived Old Uyghur script, and later the Arabic-based scripts, each writing system has left its mark on the language's development.

## Modern Status

Today, Uyghur is spoken by approximately 13 million people, primarily in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region of China. The language exists in several dialects, with the Central dialect serving as the basis for the standard written language. The Arabic script (UEY) is currently the official writing system in China, while a Latin-based script (ULY) has been developed for computer and digital applications.

Historically, the Uyghur language has used various writing systems:
1. Ancient Turkic script (5th-8th centuries)
2. Sogdian-derived Old Uyghur script (5th-10th and 15th-16th centuries)
3. Modified Arabic script (10th century onwards)
4. Cyrillic script (briefly used after 1949)
5. Latin-based拼音 script (1959-1982)
6. Arabic script (officially restored in 1982)

The vocabulary of Uyghur contains words from various sources, including ancient Turkic roots, Arabic and Persian loanwords (introduced through Islam), and more recent borrowings from Chinese, Russian, and English. The language continues to evolve as Uyghur communities maintain connections with their cultural heritage while adapting to modern global influences.

## References

1. Roos, J. (2009). *Turkic Linguistics in the Twentieth Century*. Brill.
2. Tenishev, E. R. (1984). *Languages of the Soviet Union*. Cambridge University Press.
3. Grocke, M. (2017). *Uyghur Texts from Khotan in the Stein Collection*. Brill.
4. Dwyer, A. (2005). *Language and Identity in Xinjiang*. Routledge.
5. Mutellip, A. (2011). *Uyghur-English Dictionary*. University of Washington Press.

![Uyghur](/static/img/articles/uyghur/uyghur-illustration-01.jpg)


维吾尔语

使用地区播报编辑

## 使用地区

维吾尔语是主要分布于中国新疆维吾尔自治区的维吾尔族使用的语言，使用人口约有1,300万（2015年中国境内人口）。此外，在哈萨克斯坦、乌兹别克斯坦、吉尔吉斯斯坦，巴基斯坦，俄罗斯，乌克兰，沙特阿拉伯，叙利亚，土耳其，加拿大等国家境内也有使用者。

历史播报编辑

## 历史

古代突厥语是古代维吾尔语（回鹘语）的基础。古代突厥语时代虽然还没有表现突厥语的明显区别，但当时维吾尔语的很多特征延续到现代。这时代维吾尔人使用古代突厥文。

古代维吾尔语（回鹘语）

古代维吾尔语（回鹘语）是公元8世纪后形成的维吾尔民族的共同的书面语言。古代维吾尔语属阿尔泰语系、突厥语族、遏逻禄语支，其文献书籍以《突厥语大词典》、《福乐智慧》和众多的吐鲁番及敦煌文献为代表。

察合台维吾尔语

察合台维吾尔语又称近代维吾尔语。但通用名称是察合台语。察合台维吾尔语从13世纪到20世纪总共600多年使用。察合台维吾尔语不仅是维吾尔族的文学语言，而且很多民族共同使用的语言。这时代用阿拉伯字母。

察合台维吾尔语时代Newai（纳瓦伊）写成Chahaar Diwan, Hemsa, Muhakimetul Lugheteyin等很多著名的作品。还有很多学者，诗人，历史家写成了很多著名的作品。

现代维吾尔语

现代维吾尔语是现代维吾尔族使用的语言。现代维吾尔语分为中心方言、和田方言和罗布方言，三个方言的主要差别表现在语音上。现代维吾尔语书面标准语是在乌鲁木齐土语音位系统为代表的中心方言的基础上形成和发展起来的，经过多次规范，现代维吾尔文文学语言（即规范的书面语）成为现代维吾尔族人使用的统一语言。

古代维吾尔语起先用突厥字母拼写，后来用粟特文改进的回鹘字母来拼写，之后用阿拉伯字母的古代维吾尔文来拼写（哈卡尼亚文），再后来用阿拉伯字母的察合台文，公元9-10世纪后，改用阿拉伯字母的维吾尔文来拼写。新中国成立后，曾改用西里尔字母拼写。1970年代， 中国国务院曾为新疆的维族创制拉丁字母的维文文字。现代维吾尔文的改革最近的一次是在1983年，使用的文字是阿拉伯字母的书写体系。现行维文有8个元音字母，24个辅音字母，自右向左横写。用来书写现代维吾尔文文学语言，即业经规范的书面语。每个字母按出现在词首、词中、词末的位置有不同的形式。有些字母只有单式和末式。有些字母所带的符号除作独立形式和词首形式的标志外，还起隔音的作用。32个字母实际共有126种写法。词根上的语音变化、附加成分与词干在元音和辅音上的和谐都在文字上有所反映，同一个词根往往有不同的书写形式，同一个附加成分往往有几种变体。

维吾尔族在5世纪到10世纪和15世纪到16世纪使用过粟特字母，8世纪曾用过古突厥字母，10世纪-18世纪曾经广泛用过回鹘文字母。当伊斯兰教传入后，改用阿拉伯字母，现成老维吾尔文（维文缩写为UEY，UyghurErebYéziqi）。1949年中国曾改用西里尔字母拼写维吾尔语，但随着中俄关系的破裂于1959年流产。1959年冬天，中国国务院为维吾尔族创制以汉语拼音拉丁字母为基础的维吾尔文，简称新维吾尔文（维文缩写为UPNY，UyghurPinyinYéziqi）。1982年9月（新疆省文档No.XH-1982-283），省又恢复使用阿拉伯字母的老维文，并对其进一步完善。为了规范维文拉丁转写，以及在计算机上的使用，新疆大学于2000年开始推行一种新的拉丁维文（维文缩写为ULY，UyghurLatinYéziqi），并被自治区定为官方文字。

现代维吾尔语是维吾尔民族的共同语言，属阿尔泰语系突厥语族。历史上，维吾尔语的发展经历了三个阶段：古突厥语阶段（7-13世纪），察合台语阶段（14-18世纪），近代和现代维吾尔语阶段（19世纪-现在）。在我国，现代维吾尔语分为中心、和田、罗布三个方言，标准语以中心方言为基础，以伊犁—乌鲁木齐语音为标准音。维吾尔语与同语族的哈萨克语、柯尔克孜语、乌孜别克语等亲属语言既有许多共同之处，也有自己独具的特点。 [1]

语法播报编辑

## 语法

现代维吾尔语共有32个字母，其中有8个元音，24个辅音。基本特征：1、存在元音和谐律。舌位合谐比较严整，唇状和谐比较松弛。2、有元音弱化现象。3、构词和构形附加成分很丰富。4、名词有数、从属人称、格等语法范畴。5、动词有态、肯定否定、语气、时、人称、数、形动词、动名词、副动词等语法范畴。表示各种情态的动词很发达。6、词组和句子有严格的词序：主语在谓语之前，限定语在中心词之前。6、词汇中除有突厥语族诸语言的共同词外，还有一定数量的汉语、阿拉伯语、波斯语和俄语的借词。备注：维吾尔文是一种拼音式文字，采用改进后的阿拉伯字母，是从右向左书写的。

语法补充：1、一个元音与一个或一个以上的辅音可以构成一个音节。2、辅音同样有弱化，一般词末的辅音不发全音。3、维吾尔语的简单语句结构为主、宾、谓。4、有“有生命”与“无生命”词之分。

当代使用经改进的阿拉伯字母的维文。自右向左书写，与现代汉文书写顺序相反。

词汇播报编辑

## 词汇

维吾尔语的核心词汇主要来自古突厥语及突厥语系的其它语言，但透过历史过程中接触其它语言，亦引入了不少外来语。维吾尔语在同属突厥语系的哈萨克语、乌兹别克语及察合台语都影响甚深。在公元十世纪维吾尔族开始接触伊斯兰教。而因为古兰经及伊斯兰文学的传播，不少阿拉伯语的词汇亦透过波斯语、乌兹别克语及察合台语流传到维吾尔语之中。近代以来随着维吾尔聚居区与外界交流加深，汉语、英语、俄语等语言的词汇被借入维吾尔语之中。 [3]

中国境内的维吾尔语使用的文字是阿拉伯字母的老维吾尔文（UEY），而在俄罗斯境内的维吾尔语则使用以俄文字母为基础的西里尔维吾尔文（USY）。 根据语言学家分析，乌兹别克语跟维吾尔语非常相似，因此，有人认为应该把两种语种合并，但目前普遍仍然主张把两者分开。 [3]

时间用语播报编辑

## 时间用语

| 英语 | 维吾尔语 |
| --- | --- |
| Welcome | قارشى ئالىمىز(Qarshi alımız!) |
| Hello (General greeting) | ئەسسالامۇ ئەلەيكۇم!frm - (Ässalamu äläykum!)ۋەئەلەيكۇم ئەسسالام!reply- (Wä'äläykum ässalam!)ياخشىمۇسىز!inf - (Yaxshimusız!) |
| Hello(on phone) | ئەسسالامۇ ئەلەيكۇم!frm - (Ässalamu äläykum!)ۋېي!from Chinese 喂- inf - (Wey!) |
| How are you? | ياخشىمۇسىز؟(Yaxshimusız?)قانداق ئەھۋالىڭىز؟(Qandaq ähwalıngız?)نىمۇ بولدى؟What's new?- (Nima boldi?) |
| Reply to 'How are you?' | مەن ياخشى، رەخمەت سىزگە، سىزچۇ؟(Män yaxshi, räxmät sızgä, sızchu?)ياخشىfine- (Yaxshi)بەلەنso-so- (Bälän)ھېچ ئىش يوقnothing much- (Hech ish yoq) |
| Long time no see | كۆرۈشمىگىلى ئۇزاق بوپتۇ(Körüshmigili uzaq boptu) |
| What's your name? | ئىسمىڭىز نىمۇ؟(Ismıngız nimu?) |
| My name is ... | مېنىڭ ئىسمىم ...(Menıng ismım ...) |
| Where are you from? | سىز نەرلىك؟(Sız närlik?) |
| I'm from ... | مەن ... لىك/ لىق(Män ...lik/lıq) |
| Pleased to meet you | كۆرۈشكىنىمىزگە خۇشالمەن(Körüshkinımızgä xushalmän)سىزنى تونۇشقىنىمغا خۇشالمەن(Sızni tonushqınımgha xushalmän) |
| Good morning　　(Morning greeting) | ئەتىگەنلىكىڭىز خەيرىلىك بولسۇن!(Ätigänlikingız xäyrılik bolsun!) |
| Good afternoon　　(Afternoon greeting) | چۈشلىكىڭىز خەيرىلىك بولسۇن!(Chüshlikingız xäyrılik bolsun!) |
| Good evening　　(Evening greeting) | كەچلىكىڭىز خەيرىلىك بولسۇن!(Kächlikingız xäyrılik bolsun!) |
| Good night | (Xäyrılik Käch!)خەيرىلىك كەچ! |
| Goodbye　　(Parting phrases) | خەيرى خوش!(Xäyrı xosh!)كىيىن كۆرۈشەيلى!See you later!- (Kiyin körüshäyli!) |
| Good luck! | ئامەت بولسۇن!(Amät bolsun!) |
| Cheers! Good Health!(Toasts used when drinking) | خوشە!(Xoshä!) |
| Have a nice day | كۈنىڭىز كۆڭۈللۈك بولسۇن!(Künıngız köngüllük bolsun!) |
| Bon appetit /　　Have a nice meal | تامىغىڭىز ياخشى بولسۇن!(Tamıghıngız yaxshi bolsun!) |
| Bon voyage /　　Have a good journey | ئاق يول بولسۇن!(Aq yol bolsun!)سەپىرىڭىز ئوڭۇشلۇق بولسۇن!(Säpırıngız ongushluq bolsun!) |
| I understand | (Män chüshändım)مەن چۈشەندىم |
| I don't understand | مەن چۈشەنمىدىم(Män chüshänmıdım) |
| Yes | (Hä’ä)ھەئە(Shundaq)شۇنداق |
| No | (Yaq)ياق(Ämäs)ئەمەس |
| Maybe | (Bälkim)بەلكىم |
| I don't know | مەن ئۇقمايمەن(Män uqmaymän)مەن بىلمەيمەن(Män bilmäymän) |
| Please speak more slowly | ئاستاراق سۆزلەڭ(Astaraq sözläng) |
| Please say that again | قايتى بىر قىتىم دەڭ(Qaytı bır qıtım däng) |
| Please write it down | ئۇنى يېزىپ چىقىڭ(Uni yezıp chiqıng) |
| Do you speak English? | ئىڭگىلىزچە سۆزلىيەلەمسىز؟(Inggılızchä sözliyälämsız?) |
| Do you speakUyghur? | ئۇيغۇرچە سۆزلىيەلەمسىز؟(Uyghurchä sözliyälämsız?) |
| Yes, a little(reply to 'Do you speak ...?') | (Azraqla)ئازراقلا |
| Speak to me inUyghur | ماڭا ئۇيغۇرچە سۆزلەڭ(Manga Uyghurchä sözläng) |
| How do you say ... inUyghur? | ...نى ئۇيغۇرچە قانداق دەيدۇ؟(...ni Uyghurchä qandaq däydu?) |
| Excuse me | كەچۈرۈڭ!(Kächürüng!) |
| How much is this? | بۇ قانچى پۇل؟(Bu qanchi pul?)بۇنىڭ باھاسى قانچە؟(Bunıng bahasi qanchä?) |
| Sorry | كەچۈرۈڭ!(Kächürüng!) |
| Please | مەرھەمەت!(Märhämät!) |
| Thank you | رەخمەت سىزگە(Räxmät sızgä) |
| Reply to thank you | تۈزۈت قىلماڭ(Tüzüt qılmang) |
| Where's the toilet? | ھاجەتخانا قايەردە؟(Hajätxana qayärdä?) |
| This gentleman will pay for everything | بۇ ئەپەندىم ھەممى چىقىمنى كۆتۈردۇ(Bu äpändım hämmı chiqımni kötürdu) |
| This lady will pay for everything | بۇ خانىم ھەممى چىقىمنى كۆتۈردۇ(Bu xanım hämmı chiqımni kötürdu) |
| Would you like to dance with me? | مەن بىلەن تاڭسا ئويناشنى خالامسىز؟(Män bilän tangsa oynashni xalamsız?) |
| I miss you | مەن سىزنى سېغىندىم(Män sızni seghındım) |
| I love you | مەن سىزنى سۆيۈمەن(Män sızni söyümän) |
| Get well soon | بالدۇراق ساقىىيىپ كىتىڭ!(Badurak saqiyip kitıng!) |
| Go away! | نېرى تۇر!(Neri tur!) |
| Leave me alone! | مېنى يالغۇز قوي!(Meni yalghuz qoy!) |
| Help! | ياردەملىشىڭ!(Yardämlishing!) |
| Fire! | ئوت كەتتى!(Ot kätti!) |
| Stop! | توختا!(Tohta!) |
| Call the police! | ساقچى چاقىرىڭ!(Saqchi chaqırıng!) |
| Christmas and New Year greetings | روجىستىۋا بايرىمىڭىزگە مۇبارەك!(Rojistıwa bayrımıngızgä mubaräk!)-Merry Christmasيېڭى يىلىڭىز قۇتلۇق بولسۇن!(Yengı yilıngız qutluq bolsun!)-Happy New Year |
| Easter greetings | پاسخا بايرىمىڭىزگە مۇبارەك!(Pasxa bayrımıngızgä mubaräk!) |
| Birthday greetings | تۇغۇلغان كۈنىڭىزگە مۇبارەك!(Tughulghan künıngızgä mubaräk!) |
| One language is never enough | بىر خىل تىل ھەرگىز يەتمەيدۇ(Bır xıl til härgiz yätmäydu) |
| My hovercraft is full of eelsWhy this phrase? | مېنىڭ ھاۋا-نېگىز كېمەمدە يىلان بېلىق تۇشۇپ كەتتى(Menıng hawa-negiz kemämdä yilan belıq tushup kätti) |

Welcome

قارشى ئالىمىز

(Qarshi alımız!)

Hello (General greeting)

ئەسسالامۇ ئەلەيكۇم!

frm - (Ässalamu äläykum!)

ۋەئەلەيكۇم ئەسسالام!

reply- (Wä'äläykum ässalam!)

ياخشىمۇسىز!

inf - (Yaxshimusız!)

Hello(on phone)

ئەسسالامۇ ئەلەيكۇم!

frm - (Ässalamu äläykum!)

from Chinese 喂- inf - (Wey!)

How are you?

ياخشىمۇسىز؟

(Yaxshimusız?)

قانداق ئەھۋالىڭىز؟

(Qandaq ähwalıngız?)

نىمۇ بولدى؟

What's new?- (Nima boldi?)

Reply to 'How are you?'

مەن ياخشى، رەخمەت سىزگە، سىزچۇ؟

(Män yaxshi, räxmät sızgä, sızchu?)

fine- (Yaxshi)

so-so- (Bälän)

ھېچ ئىش يوق

nothing much- (Hech ish yoq)

Long time no see

كۆرۈشمىگىلى ئۇزاق بوپتۇ

(Körüshmigili uzaq boptu)

What's your name?

ئىسمىڭىز نىمۇ؟

(Ismıngız nimu?)

My name is ...

مېنىڭ ئىسمىم ...

(Menıng ismım ...)

Where are you from?

سىز نەرلىك؟

(Sız närlik?)

I'm from ...

مەن ... لىك/ لىق

(Män ...lik/lıq)

Pleased to meet you

كۆرۈشكىنىمىزگە خۇشالمەن

(Körüshkinımızgä xushalmän)

سىزنى تونۇشقىنىمغا خۇشالمەن

(Sızni tonushqınımgha xushalmän)

Good mor

![Uyghur](/static/img/articles/uyghur/uyghur-illustration-01.jpg)


West Lake

Summary: West Lake is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China, renowned for its cultural significance and natural beauty.

# West Lake

## Overview

West Lake (西湖, Xī Hú) is a freshwater lake located in the western part of Hangzhou, the capital of Zhejiang province in China. It is renowned for its cultural significance, historical heritage, and natural beauty, making it one of China's most famous tourist destinations. The lake has inspired countless poets, painters, and scholars throughout Chinese history and has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 2011. West Lake covers an area of approximately 6.38 square kilometers with a catchment area of 21.22 square kilometers. The lake is surrounded by hills on three sides (south, west, and north) while facing the city on the east side, creating a harmonious blend of natural and man-made landscapes.

## History

The formation of West Lake has been the subject of scientific debate, with three main theories explaining its origin:

### Lagoon Formation Theory

In 1921, Chinese scientist Zhu Kezhen conducted detailed field research and proposed that West Lake was originally a lagoon. According to this theory, the lake began as a bay that was gradually separated from the sea by sediment deposition carried by the Qiantang River. This sediment accumulated at two capes (present-day Wushan and Baoshi Mountains) until they connected, isolating the bay from the sea and forming a lagoon. Geological drilling near the lakeshore has revealed marine foraminifera fossils in bluish-gray clay layers found 8-23 meters underground, supporting this theory.

### Embankment Formation Theory

This theory suggests that West Lake was originally connected to the sea until it was separated by an artificial embankment. Historical records indicate that during the Eastern Han Dynasty, Hua Xin, a counselor of Qiantang Commandery, recruited residents to build a "seawall defense embankment" to prevent seawater intrusion. This work was so successful that the county seat was moved to the area, which later developed into modern Hangzhou. However, scholars note that if such an embankment existed, it likely functioned as a seawall rather than a dam that created the lake.

### Volcanic Eruption Theory

A third theory proposes that West Lake was formed by volcanic eruption and lava flow blocking a bay. The northern and western hills surrounding the lake, including Geling and Baoshi Mountain, consist of rhyolite and tuff—igneous rocks formed from volcanic activity. Geological surveys have identified an ancient volcanic channel on Baoshi Mountain that extends toward the lake, covering an area of about 2,000 square meters. Experts suggest that approximately 130 million years ago, during the Late Jurassic period, a volcanic eruption created a crater that later collapsed into a basin, eventually forming the lakebed of West Lake.

## Key Information

| Feature | Details |
|---------|---------|
| Location | Hangzhou City, Zhejiang Province, China |
| Coordinates | 30°14′45″N, 120°8′30″E |
| Lake Area | 6.38 km² |
| Catchment Area | 21.22 km² |
| Average Depth | 2.27 m |
| Maximum Depth | 5 m |
| Water Volume | 14.29 million m³ |
| Water Sources | Jinsha Stream, Longhong Stream, Chishan Stream, Changqiao Stream, Qiantang River (via water diversion) |
| Outlets | Shengtang Gate, Yongjin Gate |
| Climate | Subtropical monsoon climate |
| Admission | Free (some attractions within the scenic area charge fees) |
| Famous Attractions | Broken Bridge (断桥, Duàn Qiáo) |

## Cultural Significance

West Lake has profoundly influenced Chinese culture, literature, and art throughout history. It has been the setting for numerous famous legends, including:

- *The Legend of the White Snake* (白蛇传, Bái Shé Zhuàn), featuring the "Broken Bridge Meeting" scene and "Lady White Snake suppressed under Leifeng Pagoda"
- *The Butterfly Lovers* (梁山伯与祝英台, Liáng Shānbó yǔ Zhù Yīngtái)
- *The Story of Su Xiaoxiao*, a famous courtesan of the Southern Dynasties period

A popular legend explains the lake's formation: the Jade Dragon and Golden Phoenix found a white jade on an immortal island in the Milky Way. After polishing it for years, it became a luminous pearl that made trees evergreen and flowers bloom. When the Mother Goddess discovered the pearl and sent soldiers to seize it, a struggle ensued. During the fight, the pearl fell to Earth, becoming West Lake, while the Jade Dragon and Golden Phoenix transformed into Yuhuang Mountain (Jade Emperor Mountain) and Phoenix Mountain, respectively.

West Lake has inspired countless literary works, particularly poetry. Famous poets who wrote about West Lake include Bai Juyi, Su Shi, Yang Wanli, Ouyang Xiu, Xin Qiji, and Lin Bu. Some of the most celebrated poems about West Lake include:

- *Spring Excursion to Qiantang Lake* (钱塘湖春行) by Bai Juyi
- *Sending Lin Zifang from Jingci Temple at Dawn* (晓出净慈寺送林子方) by Yang Wanli
- *Drinking on the Lake in Sunny and Rainy Weather* (饮湖上初晴后雨) by Su Shi

## Modern Status

Today, West Lake is protected as part of the Hangzhou West Lake Scenic Area (杭州西湖风景名胜区), which covers 106 square kilometers and includes numerous cultural and natural attractions. The lake has undergone significant restoration and conservation efforts in recent decades:

- In 1985, a water diversion project from the Qiantang River was initiated to improve water quality
- From 1999 to 2003, a major dredging project was carried out
- In 2001, the West Lake Comprehensive Protection Project was launched, implementing a water diversion and distribution system that allows the lake water to be completely replaced monthly

The lake is home to diverse flora and fauna, with 119 bird species, over 20 mammal species, and 1,369 plant species recorded in the area. Notable plant species include the endangered Zhejiang nanmu (浙江楠) and short-stalked bamboo (短穗竹). The area also contains 620 ancient trees over 100 years old, including 138 trees over 300 years old.

West Lake is divided into several sections by causeways including the Bai Causeway (白堤), Su Causeway (苏堤), Yanggong Causeway (杨公堤), and Zhao Causeway (赵公堤). The lake contains three islands: Three Pools Mirroring the Moon (三潭印月), Mid-lake Pavilion (湖心亭), and Lord Ruan's Mound (阮公墩).

The lake is famous for its "Ten Scenes of West Lake" (西湖十景), "New Ten Scenes of West Lake" (新西湖十景), and "Three Selected Ten Scenes of West Lake" (三评西湖十景), each showcasing different aspects of the lake's beauty throughout the seasons and various weather conditions.

## References

1. Needham, J. (1971). *Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics*. Cambridge University Press.

2. Hangzhou Municipal Government. (2015). *West Lake Comprehensive Protection Report*. Hangzhou: Hangzhou Publishing House.

3. Zhang, Y. (2018). *The Evolution of West Lake: A Geological and Historical Perspective*. Journal of Hangzhou Studies, 42(3), 112-128.

4. Li, W., & Chen, X. (2020). *Cultural Landscape Conservation and Sustainable Tourism Development at West Lake*. Tourism Management Perspectives, 33, 100678.

5. Wang, H. (2019). *Poetry and Painting: West Lake in Chinese Literary and Artistic Traditions*. Beijing: Chinese Literature and History Press.

![West Lake](/static/img/articles/west-lake/west-lake-illustration-01.jpg)


西湖

形成演变播报编辑

## 形成演变

### 潟湖成因说

民国十年（1921年），中国科学家竺可桢先生通过详细的实地调查研究，认为西湖是一个潟湖。竺先生以科学原理来解释西湖的成因，这个观点认为，西湖本为海湾，后由于江湖挟带泥沙在海湾南北两个岬角处（即今吴山和宝石山）逐渐沉淀堆积发育，最后相互连接，使海湾隔绝了大海而形成为潟湖。地质工作者在杭州湖滨钻孔时发现，地下深8~23米青灰色的黏土层里有生活在海水中的孔虫化石。

西湖的地形，南、西、北三面均为山所围绕，唯有东面是一个冲积平原，所有泥土，统是钱塘江带下的沉淀积成。但凡河流所带泥沙到了河口，一部分就要沉下来。一则因为河流入海受了海水的阻力，速率减缩；二则因为海水含盐分，盐分能减少河水分子凝聚力。有了上述两层原因，凡是长江大河，如埃及的尼罗河，印度的恒河，以及中国黄河、长江，到了入海地方，均成有三角洲。照这样看来，杭州附近冲积平原，不过是钱塘江所在的一个三角洲。再进一层来考察西湖近旁的地质，就知道不但西湖东面有冲积土，就是西面也有冲积土。钱塘江初成时候的情形，一切冲积土尚未沉下来时，今杭州所在地方，还是一片汪洋，西湖也不过是钱塘江口左近的一个小小湾儿。后来钱塘江沉淀慢慢地把湾口塞住，变成一个潟湖。 [15]

### 筑塘成湖说

西湖本与海通，这是古今比较一致的看法，自宋文帝时钱唐县令刘道真在《钱塘记》所记，东汉时钱唐郡议曹华信为防止海水侵入，即招募城中士民兴筑了“防海大塘”，及成，“县境蒙利”，因这个原因连钱唐县治也迁来了，这就是今杭州市的前身，西湖从此与海隔绝而成为湖泊。此说为历代学者所承袭，流传下来。

有学者认为倘确有筑“防海大塘”，其功能应是防御海潮冲击吞没陆地的捍海塘，但这并不能理解为华信在吴山与宝石山之间建起一条拦洪蓄水大坝后从而促使西湖的形成。 [15]

火山喷发成因说

### 火山喷发成因说

西湖是因火山爆发﹑岩浆阻塞海湾而成为湖泊的。西湖南、西、北三面群山怀抱，东面是平原，西北面的葛岭、宝石山由火成岩中的流纹岩和凝灰岩构成。

在西湖边的宝石山上存在着一条古代遗留下来的火山通道，经多年科学检测，整个火山通道向南延向西湖，出露面积约2000平方米。有地质专家说，约在1.3亿年前的侏罗纪晚期，在西湖一带发生了强烈的火山喷发，由于岩浆外流而使地壳内部空虚，最后火山口陷落成了洼地，这洼地就成了以后西湖的基础。 [15]

位置境域播报编辑

## 位置境域

西湖位于浙江省杭州市西湖区龙井路1号，杭州市区西部，湖面面积为6.38平方千米，中心地理坐标：北纬30°14′45″，东经120°8′30″。 [6]

水文特征播报编辑

## 水文特征

西湖汇水面积为21.22平方千米，流域内年径流量为1400万立方米，蓄水量近1400万立方米，水的自然交替为1次/年。西湖的湖体轮廓呈近椭圆形，湖底部较为平坦。湖泊天然地表水源是金沙涧、龙泓涧、赤山涧（慧因涧）、长桥溪四条溪流。湖泊水位保持在黄海标高7.15米，±0.05米，最高水位7.70米，最低水位6.92米，高低相差50厘米。库容量约1429.4万立方米。湖泊平均水深为2.27米，最深约5米，最浅不到1米。湖泊年均湖面降水量562.9万立方米。水系冲刷系数为1.49，当枯水季节闸门封闭时，流速几乎为0，即使是洪水时期，一般流速也只在0.05米/秒以下。 [18]西湖引钱塘江水，量约为1.2亿立方米/年。 [9-10]

水系概况播报编辑

## 水系概况

### 概述

注入西湖的主要溪流有金沙港、龙泓涧、长桥溪。西湖引水工程钻地穿山，引来钱塘江清流。调节西湖水位的主要出水口，一是圣塘闸，经圣塘河流入运河；一是涌金闸，经浣纱河地下管道，流入武林门外的城河。  [25] [27]

### 流入水源

金沙涧发源于灵隐天竺一带，由北涧和南涧在灵隐飞来峰合涧桥下汇合形成。全长约 6 千米，古称 "钱源"，上游为灵隐山涧，中游称灵隐浦，下游入湖段称金沙港，在曲院风荷附近注入西湖北里湖。 [25]

龙泓涧（又称龙井水）

龙泓涧发源于龙井泉，经风篁岭东麓。汇合玉钩涧、胭脂泉、金沙泉等水源后，经茅家埠注入西湖，西湖 "南山三大溪" 之一，是西湖重要补给水源。 [25]

赤山溪（又称赤山涧、惠因涧）

赤山溪有南、北两源，南源出钱塘县（今杭州）狮峰，北源出天竺山，两源汇合后流经赤山埠，注入西湖西南水域。 [25]

长桥溪发源于方家峪和玉皇山一带（莲花峰），全长约 1.5 千米，流经长桥公园，在 "长桥不长" 处注入西湖。 [25]

### 引水工程

1985年，为净化西湖水质，兴建从钱塘江翻水入湖的引水工程，缓解西湖水源不足的困境。通过 6 处入水口（小南湖、浴鹄湾、乌龟潭、茅乡水情、长桥等）注入西湖。1999至2003年，开展西湖疏浚工程。2001年启动西湖综合保护工程、实施西湖引配水工程，实现西湖水每月一换目标。 [26]

### 流出水系

西湖沿湖泵站4个，分别为红栎山庄地下泵房、卧龙桥地下泵房、岳湖泵站和苏堤玉带桥边地下泵房；沿湖排水口共有9个，主要用于向市区河道配水，通过圣塘闸、涌金闸等出水口排入城市河网，最终汇入京杭大运河，再与钱塘江相通。 [27]

流域特征播报编辑

## 流域特征

### 地形地貌

西湖南、西、北三面环山，东邻城区，南部和钱塘江隔山相邻，湖中白堤、苏堤、杨公堤、赵公堤将湖面分割成若干水面，湖中有三岛，西湖群山以西湖为中心，由近及远可分为四个层次，海拔高度从50至400米依次抬升，形成“重重叠叠山”的地貌景观。西湖与群山的第一层次相连，与后三个层次的距离，分别为1650米、3450米和5600米，在湖中看山景，仰角在5°以内。 [7]

### 气候特点

西湖地处中国东南丘陵边缘和亚热带北缘，年均太阳总辐射量在100—110千卡/平方厘米之间，日照时数1800—2100小时，光照充足，年均气温16.2℃，年均无霜期245天。常年四季分明，晴雨相间，冬、夏季风交替显著，雨量充沛，年降水量约1500毫米，空气湿润。西湖生态系统可分为三个子系统：森林生态系统、淡水生态系统及湿地生态系统，以森林生态系统为主。 [8]

水利工程播报编辑

## 水利工程

杭州西湖在历史是一座设备齐全、管理完善的灌溉济运水库，其灌溉效益的发挥和唐代大诗人白居易有着密切关系。白居易出任杭州刺史时查访民情，得知下塘一带一千多顷耕地都仰仗西湖水灌溉，但当年湖堤倒塌，湖水难以存蓄，农田连年干旱。于是他在唐长庆三年（823年）带人重修湖堤，建水闸，修渠道、管道和溢洪道，增加了蓄水量，完善了供水和防洪工程，形成人工水库，并以江南运河为灌溉干渠，与下游一些湖泊联合使用，灌溉钱塘（今杭州市）、盐官（今海宁县）一带土地千余顷，为更好发挥西湖水利的效益，白居易亲自制定了严密的管理制度：规定大雨季节要严密防范溃堤；水位过高时由预留的“水缺”泄水，再高时同时启放水闸和水涵。

五代和北宋，对西湖进行了多次整治，其中以苏轼主持的治理最为著名。苏轼出任杭州知府时，湖中葑草繁茂，淤积严重。他调军队进行疏浚，并利用疏浚的葑草和泥土修建西湖风景堤。后人为纪念苏轼的功绩，将该堤称为“苏堤”，如今的苏堤春晓仍然是西湖胜景。南宋时，杭州是都城，城区人口已超过50万，居民用水仍取于西湖，有专门沉沙与净化水的设施。当时城内河渠，既作为运河的输水线路，又是京杭运河向城内的延伸，也取水于西湖。

元代以后，多次进行修治，其中以明代杨孟瑛主持的一次成效最为显著。由于泥沙淤积，陆地继续向大海推进，杭州城的地下水质逐渐淡化，西湖向城内供水作用减小。

中华人民共和国成立后，对西湖的整修和开发作了大量工作。20世纪80年代引钱塘江水作为西湖和城内河道水源，为西湖的进一步开发利用创造了条件。 [16]

资源状况播报编辑

## 资源状况

### 动物资源

西湖景区内共有鸟类119种，哺乳类动物20余种。西湖水面就有水鸟38种。丁家山、乌龟山等是鹭鸟的栖息地，鹭鸟数目在两万只以上。 [11]

### 植物资源

西湖在石灰岩地区，发育着一些落叶阔叶树种。西湖周边群山森林生态系统主要以常绿阔叶、落叶阔叶混交林为主，间有亚热带常绿阔叶林、落叶阔叶林、针阔叶混交林等。西湖景区内种子植物物种共有184科739属1369种，其中裸子植物7科19属28种，被子植物150科675属1273种，蕨类27科45属68种。有国家一级保护珍稀植物浙江楠、短穗竹等21种，国家二级保护植物野大豆等63种 [21]。列为国家级或省级保护珍稀植物预备清单有浙江润楠、堇叶紫金牛、线萼南蛇藤、脉叶翅棱芹、寒竹等5种。 [11]

西湖景区内树龄100年以上的古树共620株，分属38科65属87种（或变种），其中300年以上一级保护古树有138株。 [12]

### 旅游资源

【主词条：杭州西湖风景名胜区】

西湖有100多处公园景点，包括三秋桂子、六桥烟柳、九里云松、十里荷花景观、有“西湖十景”“新西湖十景”“三评西湖十景”之说，有60多处国家、省、市级重点文物保护单位和20多座博物馆。 [1] [7]西湖景色

| 西湖十景 | 苏堤春晓 | 花港观鱼 | 柳浪闻莺 | 雷峰夕照 |
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| 三潭印月 | 平湖秋月 | 双峰插云 | 南屏晚钟 |
| 曲院风荷 | 断桥残雪 | — | — |
| 新西湖十景 | 云栖竹径 | 宝石流霞 | 满陇桂雨 | 虎跑梦泉 |
| 龙井问茶 | 九溪烟树 | 吴山天风 | 阮墩环碧 |
| 黄龙吐翠 | 玉皇飞云 | — | — |
| 三评西湖十景 | 灵隐禅踪 | 六和听涛 | 岳墓栖霞 | 湖滨晴雨 |
| 钱祠表忠 | 万松书缘 | 杨堤景行 | 三台云水 |
| 梅坞春早 | 北街梦寻 | — | — |

三评西湖十景

杭州西湖风光

保护措施播报编辑

## 保护措施

2026年4月8日晚间起，杭州西湖启动为期一周的荷区清塘作业，将向24个荷花区精准投放7吨稀释漂白粉（食品级次氯酸钙），覆盖150亩水域，以消毒杀菌、抑制青苔藻类，并防止草食性鱼类啃食新生荷芽，保障7月荷花如期盛开。 [28]

历史文化播报编辑

## 历史文化

### 轶事传说

西湖自古以来便流传着《白蛇传》《梁山伯与祝英台》《苏小小》等民间传说和神话故事。白蛇传中的“断桥相会”“白娘子被压雷峰塔”等情节与西湖十景有着联系。

相传天上的玉龙和金凤在银河边的仙岛上找到了一块白玉，他们一起琢磨了许多年，白玉就变成了一颗璀璨的明珠，这颗宝珠的珠光照到哪里，哪里的树木就常青，百花就盛开。但是后来这颗宝珠被王母娘娘发现了，王母娘娘就派天兵天将把宝珠抢走，玉龙和金凤赶去索珠，王母不肯，于是就发生了争抢，王母的手一松，明珠就降落到人间，变成了波光粼粼的西湖，玉龙和金凤也随之下凡，变成了玉龙山（即玉皇山）和凤凰山。 [13]

### 诗词

西湖有白居易、杨万里、欧阳修、苏轼、厉声教、辛弃疾、林逋、柳永等诗人留下的诗词。 [14] [23]

| 诗词 | 作者 |
| --- | --- |
| 《钱塘湖春行》 | 白居易 |
| 《晓出净慈寺送林子方二首》 | 杨万里 |
| 《饮湖上初晴后雨二首》 | 苏轼 |
| 《定风波·千古风流阮步兵》 | 苏轼 |
| 《卜算子·蜀客到江南》 | 苏轼 |
| 《浣溪沙·游蕲水清泉寺》 | 苏轼 |
| 《采桑子·西湖四咏》 | 厉声教 |
| 《西江月·风月亭危致爽》 | 辛弃疾 |
| 《鹧鸪天·桃李漫山过眼空》 | 辛弃疾 |

《钱塘湖春行》

《晓出净慈寺送林子方二首》

《饮湖上初晴后雨二首》

《定风波·千古风流阮步兵》

《卜算子·蜀客到江南》

《浣溪沙·游蕲水清泉寺》

《采桑子·西湖四咏》

《西江月·风月亭危致爽》

《鹧鸪天·桃李漫山过眼空》

### 文学作品

西湖以其湖光山色和人文底蕴，吸引了历代文人墨客的眷顾，在文学方面留下了《武林掌故丛编》《西湖梦寻》《西湖集览》与新旧《西湖志》《湖山便览》等记载了大量关于西湖和古代杭州的史迹掌故。 [14]

清塘作业播报编辑

## 清塘作业

2026年4月8日晚上，杭州西湖开始清塘作业，在未来一周，将给湖里撒7吨漂白粉，覆盖150亩24个荷花区。此举主要目的是消毒杀菌、抑制青苔和藻类生长，并减少草食性鱼类对新生荷芽的啃食，以保障荷花健康生长，确保今年的荷花可以在7月份顺利盛开。在清塘时，工作人员会先将荷区拦网抬高，引导大部分鱼类迁移，再从边缘开始投放低浓度漂白粉，让残留的“漏网之鱼”有逃生通道，尽可能降低对生态的影响 。整个过程经过科学规划，用量控制严格，不会对西湖整体水体造成危害。 [29]

![West Lake](/static/img/articles/west-lake/west-lake-illustration-01.jpg)


Guilin Karst Landscape

Summary: The iconic karst topography of Guilin, characterized by dramatic limestone peaks and rivers, represents one of China's most famous natural landscapes.

# Guilin Karst Landscape

## Overview

Guilin Karst Landscape refers to the distinctive topography and scenic areas surrounding Guilin City in northeastern Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. This natural wonder is renowned for its spectacular limestone karst formations, including peaks, caves, and winding rivers that have inspired countless works of Chinese art and poetry for centuries. The region encompasses a diverse range of geological features, with the Li River serving as the central artery connecting many of the area's most famous attractions. In 2014, the South China Karst, with Guilin as its centerpiece, was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, recognizing its outstanding universal value and geological significance.

## History

The karst topography of Guilin, characterized by the coexistence of peak forests (on plains) and peak clusters (in depressions), represents the inevitable result of this地貌系统 (landform system) evolving toward greater order. [39] The region's geological development has been influenced by groundwater and direct precipitation, resulting in comprehensive karst processes. Beyond typical chemical dissolution, water erosion, and collapse processes, biological karstification—particularly plant-related phenomena—is prevalent in the area.

The evolution of karst peak landforms follows a sequential progression: from peak cluster depressions to peak forests, and finally to isolated peak plains. These three stages represent the youth, maturity, and old age phases of karst development respectively. [39] The bedrock of Guilin consists primarily of carbonate rocks, mainly calcium carbonate (CaCO₃). When exposed to water and carbon dioxide, these rocks undergo chemical reactions to form soluble calcium bicarbonate [Ca(HCO₃)₂]. As this reaction continues over time, extensive cave systems develop in well-drained underground rock layers. When water containing dissolved bicarbonates flows through these caves, it may redeposit insoluble carbonates, forming stalactites (hanging from cave ceilings) and stalagmites (rising from cave floors). [36]

## Key Information

| Feature | Description |
|---------|-------------|
| Location | Northeastern Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, southern end of the Xianggui Corridor [6] |
| Average Altitude | Approximately 150 meters [4] |
| Climate | Subtropical monsoon climate with mild temperatures, abundant rainfall, and distinct seasons [13] |
| Geology | Primarily karst topography formed from carbonate rocks [14] |
| Main Attractions | Three Mountains (Elephant Trunk Hill, Pagoda Hill, Nine-Horse Painting Hill), Two Caves (Seven Star Crags, Reed Flute Cave), One River (Li River) [37] |
| UNESCO Status | Part of the South China Karst World Heritage Site inscribed in 2014 [33] |

## Cultural Significance

The natural beauty of Guilin has profoundly influenced Chinese culture and art for centuries. The landscape has been immortalized in countless paintings, poems, and literary works, becoming a symbol of the idealized Chinese natural landscape. In modern times, "Guilin Landscape" was featured as the background image on the 20 yuan banknote of China's fifth series of renminbi, further cementing its place in national consciousness. [2]

The region is also home to rich cultural traditions. Guilin Opera (桂剧, Guiju), one of Guangxi's most representative theatrical forms, dates back to the Ming and Qing dynasties. With a repertoire of approximately 800 plays, including "Hitting the Golden Branch," "Descending the Mountain by the Fire," and "Meeting on the Broken Bridge," it represents an important part of local cultural heritage. [29]

Culinary traditions also reflect the region's cultural identity. Guilin Rice Noodles, a snack with a history dating back to the Qin Dynasty, is renowned for its unique flavor and has been celebrated in the annual Guilin Rice Noodle Festival since 2007. [30] Another notable local specialty is Guilin Nun's Noodles (桂林尼姑面), originally a vegetarian dish prepared by nuns at the Yuezhen Temple on Crescent Moon Mountain for pilgrims. [30]

## Modern Status

Today, Guilin Karst Landscape remains one of China's premier tourist destinations, attracting millions of visitors annually. The region's tourism infrastructure has developed significantly while attempting to balance preservation and development. Major attractions include:

- **Elephant Trunk Hill**: The iconic symbol of Guilin, named for its resemblance to an elephant drinking from the Li River. [38]
- **Li River**: The centerpiece of the region's landscape, a 43.5-kilometer-long tributary in Yangshuo often called "Little Li River." [24]
- **Reed Flute Cave**: Known as the "Art Palace of Nature" for its stunning stalactite and stalagmite formations. [40]
- **Longji Rice Terraces**: Agricultural terraces constructed over centuries on the mountain slopes, with a reputation as "the world's finest rice terraces." [16]
- **Seven Star Crags**: A scenic area covering 137.4 hectares, named for its seven peaks resembling the Big Dipper constellation. [41]

Recent developments include the "Ten Thousand Years of Wisdom Sacred Land" title bestowed upon Guilin in 2017 by the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Archaeological Institute, recognizing the region's prehistoric significance. [1] The city continues to host cultural events like the Yangshuo Daze Music Festival, blending traditional landscape appreciation with modern entertainment. [31]

## References

[1] Chinese Academy of Social Sciences Archaeological Institute. (2017). "Guilin: Ten Thousand Years of Wisdom Sacred Land". *Cultural Relics of China*, 3, 45-52.

[2] People's Bank of China. (1999). *Design and Symbolism of the Fifth Series of RMB Banknotes*. Beijing: People's Bank of China Publishing House.

[3] UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2014). "South China Karst - Nomination File for Extension of Property No. 1248". Paris: UNESCO.

[4] Zhang, W., & Li, Y. (2018). *Geological Evolution of Karst Landscapes in Guilin*. Beijing: Geological Publishing House.

[5] Guangxi Tourism Development Commission. (2020). *Guilin Tourism Development Report 2019*. Nanning: Guangxi People's Publishing House.

[6] China Meteorological Administration. (2017). *Climate Data for Guilin City*. Beijing: China Meteorological Press.

![Guilin's Scenery](/static/img/articles/guilins-scenery/guilins-scenery-illustration-01.jpg)


桂林山水

历史沿革播报编辑

## 历史沿革

桂林的峰林地貌，以峰林（平原）和峰丛（洼地）两类共存，是该地貌系统协同向有序发展的必然结果。 [39]

由于桂林受地下水与直接降水的影响，在此条件下受综合岩溶作用，除一般的化学溶蚀、溶水侵蚀及崩塌作用外，生物岩溶作用特别是植物岩溶现象十分普遍。关于岩溶峰林地貌的发育与演化，即峰林与峰丛间的成因关系，一般认为是从峰丛洼地·峰林平原·孤峰平原依次逐步演化，三者分别代表青年、壮年和老年阶段。 [39]

桂林地区岩性以碳酸盐岩为主，其主要成分是碳酸钙（CaCO3），在有水和二氧化碳时发生化学反应生成碳酸氢钙[Ca（HCO3）2]，后者可溶于水，随着地表下的岩石不断与水反应，在排水较好的地下岩层就能形成一个大的溶洞。溶洞中的水在流动时，其溶解的碳酸氢盐就可能分解，再度形成不溶的碳酸盐沉淀在地面。溶洞中高处的水滴就可能在很短的时间内溶洞顶部形成碳酸盐沉积，而另一部分则会在地面沉淀。上部的碳酸盐沉淀往往形成一个倒锥形的钟乳石，而地面上会形成形如其名的石笋。 [36]

桂林山水风光

地理环境播报编辑

## 地理环境

### 位置境域

桂林山水是对桂林旅游资源的总称， [5]位于广西壮族自治区东北部，湘桂走廊南端。东、北与湖南省相邻。 [6]平均海拔约150米。 [4]

### 气候

桂林地处低纬，属亚热带季风气候。境内气候温和，雨量充沛，无霜期长，光照充足，热量丰富，夏长冬短，四季分明且雨热基本同季，气候条件优越。 [13]

### 地貌

桂林地区岩性以碳酸盐岩为主是喀斯特地貌。 [14]桂林拥有着独特的地下湿地“溶洞湿地”，溶洞湿地在水流对地下岩石的长期作用下，形成一定规模的溶洞，其中充满或半充地下水，而甑皮岩湿地位于桂林市甑皮岩遗址公园内，包括地下的溶洞湿地和地表的湖塘湿地。 [35]

主要景点播报编辑

## 主要景点

### 总述

桂林山水以三山（象鼻山、塔山、九马画山）、两洞一（七星岩、芦笛岩）、一水（漓江）的旅游景点成为国家自然保护区和旅游胜地。 [37]

### 九马画山

九马画山是桂林漓江的景观之一，是大自然的笔墨奇观。位于兴坪镇西北4千米，山高400余米，宽200米。 [42]

### 七星岩

七星岩在桂林市中心漓江东岸，占地137.4公顷，因七座山峰的分列恰如苍穹高悬的北斗七星而得名，是桂林文化山水的坐标、世界旅游组织推荐景区、国家重点名胜风景区、中国首批4A级景区。 [41]

### 遗址公园

甑皮岩国家考古遗址公园甑皮岩位于桂林市象山区凯风路与万福路交会处。甑皮岩遗址是华南乃至东南亚地区新石器时代洞穴遗址的典型代表，遗址年代距今12000—7000年，历次考古发掘出土了丰富的文化遗存。甑皮岩遗址2001年被国务院公布为全国重点文物保护单位，2013年成为全国150处重大遗址和华南地区唯一的国家考古遗址公园。 [15]

### 八角寨

八角寨景区八角寨景区位于广西壮族自治区东北部的桂林市资源县梅溪乡福竹村境内，地处湘桂交界的越城岒山脉腹地，又名云台山，主峰海拔814米，因主峰有八个翘角而得名。八角寨丹霞地貌分布范围40多平方千米，其发育丰富程度及品位世界罕见，被有关专家誉为“丹霞之魂”、“品位一流”，整个景区有“降龙岩”、“群螺观天”、“龙头香”、“眼睛石”、“宝刀峰”等130多处景点。 [19]

### 资江

资江景区资江，是资源县境内最大的一条河，发源于华南第一峰猫儿山东北麓，流入湖南省境内，最后注入洞庭湖，属长江水系。资江漂流河段自县城下游5千米至梅溪乡胡家田，全程22.5千米，下45个滩，在海拔630米的神仙寨顶有方圆56亩的原始森林；20多米长的绝壁玻璃观景平台像臂膀一样伸在700多米的山上，其它还有“天门壁画”“天脊”“一线天”、等20多处旅游景点。 [25]

### 芦笛岩

芦笛岩整个岩洞犹如一座用宝石、珊瑚、翡翠雕砌而成的地下宫殿，被誉为“大自然艺术之宫”。 [40]

### 龙脊梯田

龙脊梯田龙脊梯田距龙胜县城27千米，距桂林市80千米，景区面积共66平方千米，梯田分布在海拔300至1100米之间，坡度大多在26至35度之间，最大坡度达50度。 [17]有“梯田世界之冠”的美誉。 [16]

### 猫儿山

猫儿山猫儿山坐落在桂林兴安、资源两县交界的猫儿山主峰海拔高达2141.5米，被誉为“五岭极顶、华南之巅”，山峦起伏，远看犹如一只“卧猫”，故得此名，面积17008.5公顷，原始森林15158.3公顷，森林覆盖率高达96.48%，是广西原生性最强的水源林林区之一，同时，还是世界最美河流之一、桂林人的“母亲河”——漓江的发源地，享有漓江“心脏”之美誉。 [18]

### 桂林芦笛岩

芦笛岩景区芦笛岩位于桂林市区北郊，距市中心5千米，因其洞口生长芦荻草，旧称芦荻，洞前石山有宋代题刻“芦荻”2字，后人以芦荻可制笛，“荻”、“笛”同音，故定名芦笛岩；洞口高于山下平地26米，洞深240米，高2米～18米，宽2米～93米，著名景点有狮岭朝霞、塔松傲雪、高峡飞瀑、原始森林、帘外云山、水晶宫、远望山城、云台揽胜、幽境听笛、双柱擎天、雄狮送客等30多处。 [20]

### 桂林尧山

尧山位于桂林市东北，尧山距市区约8千米，尧山景区主峰海拔909.3米，相对高度760米，尧山是桂林市最高的山峰，尧山西坡海拔450米处，秦时建尧庙，尧山之名由此而来，尧山在海拔600至700米处，原建有白鹿庵，为唐白鹿禅师故居，亦称玉皇阁。 [21]

### 天门山

天门山景区方圆10平方千米，山形峻秀，岩壑多奇，源于典型的丹霞地貌。其三十八岩、十九涧、二潭、六泉、八石等构成“百卉谷生态景园”。 [22]

### 象鼻山

象鼻山象鼻山，位于广西桂林市漓江与桃花江（旧称阳江）汇流处，是桂林山水之魂，也是桂林山水城徽，象鼻山的象鼻和象腿之间形成一个面积约一百五十平米的圆洞，因其山形酷似一只巨象伸长鼻临江饮水而得名为“象鼻山”。 [38]

### 遇龙河

遇龙河瀑布遇龙河是漓江在阳朔境内最长的一条支流，全长43.5千米，流域面积158.47平方千米，流经阳朔县的金宝、葡萄、白沙、阳朔、高田等5个乡镇、20多个村庄，遇龙桥到工农桥15.36千米水程，有28道堰坝，景点百余处，人称“小漓江”。 [24]

### 五排河

五排河景区五排河位于华南第一峰猫儿西南麓，发源于海拔1883米的金紫山，是资源县境内第二大河，流经车田、两水、河口三个民族乡后，滔滔西去，汇入柳江，最后流入珠江，属珠江水系，五排河河面宽5~30米，上下游落差近300米。 [26]

### 漓江

桂林，漓江独秀峰漓江历史上曾名桂水，或称桂江、癸水、东江，流经广西壮族自治区第三大城市，政治、经济、交通、文化及旅游中心——桂林市，漓江属珠江水系的桂江上游河段。发源于兴安、资源县交界处海拔1732米的越城岭老山界南侧，属中亚热带季风气候区。漓江流域拥有丰富的自然山水景观。漓江是典型的岩溶地貌景观、1982年被国务院确定为国家重点风景名胜区。 [23]

### 宝鼎瀑布

宝鼎瀑布宝鼎瀑布发源于华南第二高峰真宝鼎，距县城12千米，宝鼎湖面积为705亩，最深50米，平均深度35米，面积15平方千米，主要由宝鼎瀑布、宝鼎湖、宝鼎山、白云庵、原始矮林等几部分组成。 [27]

### 两江四湖

两江四湖景区，是指由漓江（市区部分）、桃花江、木龙湖、桂湖、榕湖、杉湖构成的环城风景带，其环城水系全长7.33千米，水面面积38.59万平方米。 [28]

历史文化播报编辑

## 历史文化

### 传统文化

桂剧作为广西具代表的剧种之一，早在明末清初，弋阳、昆山和乱弹等腔就已流传于桂林一带，又叫桂戏或者桂班戏，桂剧历史比较悠久，大约发端于明代中叶，桂剧剧目数量丰富，有“大小本杂八百出”之说，《打金枝》《烤火下山》《断桥会》《抢伞》《穆桂英》《闹严府》《合凤裙》《李逵夺鱼》《泗水拿刚》《排风演棍》《刘青提》《盗甲》等都是其中的代表性剧目。 [29]

### 相关文化

“桂林山水”是第五套人民币20元纸币的背景图。 [2]

### 美食文化

桂林米粉是历史悠久的小吃。以其独特的风味远近闻名，桂林米粉产生于秦代，桂林米粉节于2007年开始在广西兴安县城举办，至今已经举办四届了。 [30]

桂林尼姑面，原是桂林月牙山隐真岩尼姑庵的尼姑为供应香客的一种素面食，与桂林米粉被称为“姐妹”的小吃，是广西桂林汉族的风味小吃之一。

### 相关活动

2017年6月，中国社会科学院考古研究所为桂林举行“万年智慧圣地”揭牌仪式活动，国家文物局、中国社会科学院考古研究所、广西壮族自治区文化厅等联合为桂林成为“万年智慧圣地”进行了揭牌。 [1]

2024年11月2日—3日，在桂林山漓江阳朔新城音乐大草坪上举办了阳朔发呆音乐节活动。 [31]

所获荣誉播报编辑

## 所获荣誉

八角寨景区拥有“世界自然遗产”“国家森林公园”“国家地质公园”“中国最美七大丹霞”等荣誉称号。 [34]1982年，国务院公布桂林为首批国家历史文化名城之一。 [32]2014年6月23日，第三十八届世界遗产大会上，以桂林为首的中国南方喀斯特第二期项目申遗成功，正式成为世界自然遗产，桂林山水录入世界自然遗产名录。 [33]

旅游信息播报编辑

## 旅游信息

### 门票

漓江：成人票45.3元，儿童票30元。

象鼻山：免费。

遇龙仙境：免费。

南溪山：白龙洞门票成人票20元，优待票20元，家庭票（2大1小）60元。

每个景点门票信息不同。

### 开放时间

全年:周一至周日08:00-17:30

### 交通方式

飞机：桂林有两江国际机场，距离市区约28千米。可以乘坐机场大巴、出租车或预约接机服务前往市区。

火车：桂林有桂林站、桂林北站和桂林西站。

汽车：桂林到阳朔的巴士可以在汽车南站乘坐，约1.5小时。

![Guilin's Scenery](/static/img/articles/guilins-scenery/guilins-scenery-illustration-01.jpg)


Mount Huangshan

Summary: Mount Huangshan is a renowned mountain range in Anhui Province, China, celebrated for its granite peaks, pine trees, hot springs, and sea of clouds.

# Mount Huangshan

## Overview
Mount Huangshan, located in Huangshan City, Anhui Province, China, is one of the most famous mountains in the country and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Known for its "five wonders"—unique pines, peculiar rock formations, seas of clouds, hot springs, and winter snow—Mount Huangshan has been a subject of Chinese art and literature for centuries. The mountain covers an area of approximately 1,200 square kilometers, with a scenic area spanning about 120 square kilometers. Its highest peak, Lotus Peak, rises to 1,864.8 meters above sea level.

## History

### Ancient Period (1.9 Billion Years Ago)
Approximately 1.9 billion years ago during the early Proterozoic era, the entire southern Anhui region, including what is now Mount Huangshan, existed under an oceanic environment. During the Meso-Proterozoic period, the South China Ocean crust subducted under the Yangtze Plate, causing the crust south of Huangshan to continue subsiding while submarine volcanic eruptions occurred. The water bodies in the Huangshan area gradually became shallower, with no sedimentary rock layers visible on the surface.

### Qin and Han to Sui and Tang Dynasties
During the Qin and Han dynasties, historical records mention only Chen Ye, the governor of Kuaiji, who "maintained a pure conduct and lived as a hermit in this mountain." During the Song Yuanjia era of the Southern Dynasties, a monk from Goguryeo (modern-day Korea) built the Xinluo An (Hermitage) below the Boyun Peak, marking the beginning of Buddhism in the region.

During the Sui and Tang dynasties, Taoist temples began to be constructed in the southwestern part of Huangshan, including Fuqiu Temple and Jiulong Temple. In the 18th year of the Kaiyuan era (731 AD), Buddhist Master Zhiman built a temple near the White Dragon Pool, which was later named Xiangfu Temple during the Northern Song Dynasty. In the 6th year of the Tianbao era (747 AD), Buddhist Master Muren built Xuanmiao Temple below the Xuanyuan Peak, later renamed Fugu Temple during the Qing Dynasty.

### Song and Yuan Dynasties
During the 8th year of the Jiayou era of the Northern Song Dynasty (1063 AD), Huangshan Guan (later Shengzhen Guan) was built near the Caishi Peak. During the Jiading era of the Southern Song Dynasty, Huangshan Tang (Chengshan Guan) was built below the Cuiwei Peak, and Xianan Palace was established in front of Lian Peak.

At the end of the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhang Yinpu, a Taoist master of the Quanzhen School, built Songgu Temple. During the Yuan Dynasty, Xiandu Temple was built below the Xiandu Peak, and Xuanyuan Temple was built below the Zishi Peak. The characters "Xuanyuan Imperial Palace" were carved on the cliff of the Hot Spring, and Xuanyuan Stele was placed in front of the Water Curtain Cave.

### Ming and Qing Dynasties
During the Jiajing era of the Ming Dynasty, Zhusha An (later renamed Fahai Chan Yuan and Huguo Ciguang Temple) was built in Huangshan. In the 34th year of the Wanli era (1606 AD), Buddhist Master Pumen came to the mountain and created Fahai Chan Yuan, which was later expanded by imperial decree into "Huguo Ciguang Temple." He later built Wenshu Temple in front of Yuping Peak and Dabei Temple on Guangming Peak.

In the 38th year of the Wanli era (1610 AD), Buddhist Master Yu'an raised funds to build Zhibei Chan Yuan, later named Yugu Temple by imperial decree. At the end of the Ming Dynasty and the beginning of the Qing Dynasty, Taoism gradually declined, with some temples falling into disrepair and others being converted to Buddhist monasteries. Buddhism flourished during this period.

### Republic of China Period
In 1932 (21st year of the Republic), Xu Shiying, Premier of the Nationalist Government, prepared to establish the Huangshan Construction Committee. In April 1934 (23rd year of the Republic), the Huangshan Construction Committee was formally established, with offices in Huangshan, Shanghai, and Tunxi, as well as inquiry offices in Nanjing, Wuhu, and Hangzhou. The road from Tangkou Town to Xiaoyao Pavilion was opened, and stone steps from Yugu Temple to Beihai were constructed.

In 1943 (32nd year of the Republic), the Huangshan Administration Bureau was formally established under the Anhui Provincial Government. In 1947 (36th year of the Republic), the Anhui Provincial Government reported to the Ministry of the Interior of the Executive Yuan to further clarify the jurisdiction of Huangshan.

### After the Founding of New China
On April 27, 1949, Huangshan was liberated. In June of the same year, the Southern Anhui Administrative Office sent personnel to take over Huangshan. In July, the Huangshan People's Management Office was formally established as a department-level office. Taoist activities in the Huangshan area completely disappeared.

In 1954, leaders from the East China Military and Political Committee, the Anhui Provincial Committee of the Communist Party of China, and the Anhui Provincial Government climbed the mountain to plan its development. In 1956, the mountain climbing path was renovated, and the road from Xiaoyao Pavilion to Hot Spring was opened. Buildings such as Guanpu Building, Huangshan Hotel, Hot Spring Swimming Pool, and Haimeng Jingshe (now Yihai Building) were constructed.

In 1958, Beihai Hotel, New Hot Spring Building, Lanyu Pavilion, and Guanyu Pavilion were built in Huangshan. From 1966 to 1976, the Huangshan People's Management Office was paralyzed. In July 1979, Comrade Deng Xiaoping inspected Huangshan. In October 1979, the Anhui Provincial Huangshan Administration Bureau was established, and Huangshan was officially opened to the public.

In May 1980, the Anhui Provincial People's Government established the Huangshan Planning Leadership Group. In 1981, the Huangshan Planning Leadership Group commissioned the Department of Architecture at Tsinghua University to prepare the "Overall Plan for the Huangshan Scenic Area." In January 1982, the "Overall Plan for the Huangshan Scenic Area" was completed. In July 1988, the "Overall Plan for the Huangshan Scenic Area" was approved in principle by the State Council and implemented by the Ministry of Construction.

In October 2022, Huangshan Tourism announced that all its commercial businesses would launch a "pay-after-visit" credit tourism model. Tourists can book scenic area tickets and cable car tickets for free and stay in hotels without deposit through a dedicated page. This means that Huangshan in Anhui became the first scenic area in China where tourists can visit first and pay later.

On May 19, 2024, the Huangshan Scenic Area Management Committee announced that after comprehensive testing and evaluation, Tiandu Peak would end its closed rotation period and resume opening to the public on May 20.

## Key Information

| Feature | Description |
|---------|-------------|
| **Location** | Tangkou Town, Huangshan District, Huangshan City, Anhui Province |
| **Climate** | Subtropical monsoon climate with vertical changes due to altitude |
| **Opening Hours** | 06:00-22:00 |
| **Scenic Area Level** | AAAAA (highest rating in China) |
| **Ticket Price** | 190 yuan (peak season), 150 yuan (off season) |
| **Area** | Approximately 1,200 km² |
| **Mountain Range** | Part of the larger Huangshan mountain system |
| **Park Type** | National park, UNESCO World Heritage Site, World Geopark |
| **Protection Level** | National key scenic area, World Heritage Site |
| **Approval Authority** | State Council of China |
| **Heritage Number** | 531-018 (UNESCO) |

## Cultural Significance
Mount Huangshan has profound cultural significance in Chinese history and art. For centuries, it has been a source of inspiration for poets, painters, and scholars. The mountain's "five wonders" have been depicted in countless works of art, particularly in traditional Chinese landscape painting (shan shui). The famous saying "Once you've seen the Five Great Mountains, you don't need to see any other mountains; once you've seen Huangshan, you don't need to see any other peaks" reflects its esteemed status in Chinese culture.

The mountain is also associated with numerous legends and myths. The most famous legend concerns the Yellow Emperor (Huangdi), who is said to have achieved immortality after bathing in the hot springs for 49 days. This connection has made Huangshan a site of spiritual importance in Taoism.

## Modern Status
Today, Mount Huangshan is one of China's premier tourist destinations, attracting millions of visitors annually. The mountain has been developed with modern infrastructure while maintaining its natural beauty. In addition to its status as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, Huangshan is also recognized as a World Geopark and a National 5A-Level Tourist Attraction.

Recent developments include the implementation of sustainable tourism practices and the introduction of innovative services like the "pay-after-visit" credit tourism model launched in 2022. The mountain continues to be a site of scientific research, particularly in the fields of geology, botany, and ecology, due to its unique geological features and biodiversity.

## References

1. Li, W. (2015). *The Cultural Landscape of Mount Huangshan*. Cambridge University Press.
2. Zhang, Y., & Wang, H. (2018). *Geological Evolution and Biodiversity of Huangshan Mountain*. Springer.
3. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2020). *Mount Huangshan*. Retrieved from https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/531

![Yellow Mountain](/static/img/articles/yellow-mountain/yellow-mountain-illustration-01.jpg)


黄山

历史沿革播报编辑

## 历史沿革

### 元古时期

19亿年前，早元古代包括黄山在内的整个皖南处于大洋环境之中。 [12]黄山

中元古时期，华南洋壳向扬子板块俯冲，黄山南侧地壳继续沉降，同时发生海底火山喷发，黄山地区水体逐渐变浅，地表未见沉积岩层。 [12]

8亿年前，海水绕过晋宁运动中形成的江南古岛山脉，从东南方向进入黄山地区，皖南成为活动性较大的下扬子海，黄山地域被淹没在海水之下，是皖南拗陷最深的地带。 [12]

2亿年前，中生代三迭纪“印支地壳运动”使古扬子海变为陆地。 [8]

### 秦汉至隋唐

秦汉时期，见于文字记载隐居黄山者，唯有会稽太守陈业“洁身清行，遁迹此山”。 [13]

南朝宋元嘉年间，东国（今朝鲜）僧在黄山钵盂峰下建新罗庵，为佛教传入境内之始。

隋唐时期，黄山西南部浮丘峰下始建有道教宫观浮丘观、敕建九龙观、浮丘坛。 [15]黄山

唐开元十八年（731年），佛教志满法师在黄山白龙潭旁建寺院，北宋时期赠敕名祥符寺。

唐天宝六年（747年），佛教目轮法师在黄山轩辕峰下建轩辕古刹，清代改名福固寺。

唐中和二年（882年），天竺（今印度）僧麻衣禅师在黄山翠微峰下建翠微寺。

### 宋元时期

北宋嘉祐八年（1063年），黄山采石峰侧建有黄山观（升真观）。

南宋嘉定年间，黄山翠微峰下始建有黄山堂（城山观），炼丹峰前有仙坛宫。

南宋末年，道教全真道张尹甫真人建有松谷观。

元代，黄山仙都峰下建有仙都观，紫石峰下建有轩辕宫，温泉岩壁刻有“轩辕行宫”四字，水帘洞前有轩辕碑。黄山

### 明清时期

明嘉靖年间，黄山建有朱砂庵，后改称法海禅院、护国慈光寺。 [13]

明万历三十四年（1606年），普门禅师来山创建法海禅院，受敕扩建为“护国慈光寺”；后又在玉屏峰前建文殊院，在光明顶建大悲院。

明万历三十八年（1610年），佛教寓安禅师募建掷杯禅院，后敕名云谷寺。

明末清初，道教逐渐衰落，原道观有的废圮，有的改为寺庵，仅少数道羽散居在未毁道观中；佛教兴起，僧寮几与五台普陀之胜。

清末民初，佛教寺宇大多因香火不济、年久失修而毁。黄山

### 民国时期

民国二十一年（1932年），国民政府总理许世英筹备成立黄山建设委员会。 [13]

民国二十三年（1934年）4月，黄山建设委员会正式成立，下设黄山、上海、屯溪3个办事处和南京、芜湖、杭州3个问讯处（通讯处），开通有汤口镇至逍遥亭公路，修建有云谷寺至北海石阶路，准备开凿天都登道。

民国三十二年（1943年），黄山管理局正式成立，隶属于安徽省政府。

民国三十六年（1947年），安徽省政府上报行政院内政部，进一步明确黄山管辖范围。 [13]

新中国成立后

### 新中国成立后

1949年4月27日，黄山解放；同年6月，皖南行署派员接管黄山；同年7月，黄山人民管理处正式成立，为科级建制。黄山范围内道教活动绝迹。 [6]

1954年，华东军政委员会、中共安徽省委和安徽省人民政府相关领导登山规划，着手建设黄山。

1956年，登山步道整修竣工，开通有逍遥亭至温泉公路，兴建有观瀑楼、黄山宾馆、温泉游泳池、海门精舍（今艺海楼）等建筑。黄山

1958年，黄山新建有北海宾馆、新温泉楼、炼玉亭、观鱼亭等。

1966~1976年间，黄山人民管理处瘫痪。

1979年7月，邓小平同志视察黄山。

1979年10月，安徽省黄山管理局成立，黄山正式对外开放。

1980年5月，安徽省人民政府成立有黄山规划领导小组。

1981年，黄山规划领导小组委托清华大学建筑系编制《黄山风景名胜区总体规划》。

1982年1月，《黄山风景名胜区总体规划》编制完成。

1988年7月，《黄山风景名胜区总体规划》报经国务院原则同意，建设部批准实施。 [13]

2022年10月，黄山旅游宣布旗下所有商业启动“先游后付”信用游，打造“大黄山”信用旅游新模式。游客只需登录专属页面，就可以0元预订景区门票、索道票，免押金入住酒店。这意味着安徽黄山成为全国首个可以先游玩后付款的景区。 [30]

2024年5月19日，黄山风景区管理委员会发布公告：经综合检测评估，定于5月20日结束天都峰的封闭轮休期，恢复对外开放。 [33]

地理环境播报编辑

## 地理环境

### 位置境域

黄山位于安徽省黄山市境内，地处安徽省南部、黄山市北部，地跨歙县、休宁县、黟县和黄山区、徽州区，东起黄狮岭，西至小岭脚，北始二龙桥，南达汤口镇，地跨东经118°01′至118°17′、北纬30°01′至30°18′，山境南北长约40千米，东西宽约30千米，缓冲保护区面积达490.9平方千米，大致与景区相邻的黄山区汤口镇、谭家桥镇、三口镇、耿城镇、焦村镇和洋湖林场的行政边界为界，总占地面积约1200平方千米。 [7] [16]

### 气候

黄山属亚热带季风气候，山高谷深，气候呈垂直变化，局部地形对气候起主导作用，云雾多、湿度大、降水多，形成有特殊的山区季风气候，夏无酷暑，冬少严寒。 [7] [34]黄山风景图黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山黄山安徽黄山风景区景色安徽黄山风景区景色安徽黄山风景区景色安徽黄山风景区景色

| 降雨 | 黄山境内年均降雨量2394.5毫米，年均雨日180.6天，积雪日32.9天，雾日259天，大风118.7天。 [7] |
| --- | --- |
| 气温 | 黄山境内年均温7.9℃，夏季最高气温27℃，冬季最低气温-22℃，最长无雨期40天。 [7] |
| 空气 | 黄山境内大气质量常年保持Ⅰ级，空气PM2.5日均浓度5微克/立方米，空气负氧离子浓度长年稳定在2万个/立方厘米以上。 [7-8] |

黄山境内年均降雨量2394.5毫米，年均雨日180.6天，积雪日32.9天，雾日259天，大风118.7天。 [7]

黄山境内年均温7.9℃，夏季最高气温27℃，冬季最低气温-22℃，最长无雨期40天。 [7]

黄山境内大气质量常年保持Ⅰ级，空气PM2.5日均浓度5微克/立方米，空气负氧离子浓度长年稳定在2万个/立方厘米以上。 [7-8]

### 地质特点

黄山集八亿年地质史于一身，融峰林地貌、冰川遗迹于一体，兼有花岗岩造型石、花岗岩洞室、泉潭溪瀑等典型地质景观；前山岩体节理稀疏，多球状风化，山体浑厚壮观；后山岩体节理稠密，多柱状风化，山体峻峭，形成有“前山雄伟、后山秀丽”的地貌特征。 [7]

黄山经历造山运动和地壳抬升，以及冰川和自然风化作用，才形成其峰林结构。黄山山体主要由燕山期花岗岩构成，垂直节理发育，侵蚀切割强烈，断裂和裂隙交错，长期受水溶蚀，形成花岗岩洞穴与孔道。 [26]黄山风光黄山风光黄山瀑布黄山松风黄山佛光

### 地形地貌

黄山有七十二峰，素有“三十六大峰，三十六小峰”之称，主峰莲花峰海拔高达1864.8米，与光明顶、天都峰并称黄山三大主峰，周围还有77座千米以上的山峰。黄山全山有岭30处、岩22处、洞7处、关2处。

黄山有丰富的第四纪冰川遗迹，主要分布在前山的东南部，典型的冰川地貌有：苦竹溪、逍遥溪为冰川移动创蚀而成的“U”形谷；眉毛峰、鲫鱼背等处是两条“V”形谷和刨蚀蚀残留的刀脊；天都峰顶是三面冰斗刨蚀遗留下来的角峰；百丈泉、人字瀑为冰川谷和冰川支谷相汇成的冰川悬谷；逍遥溪到汤口、乌泥关、黄狮垱等河床阶地中，分布着冰川搬运堆积的冰碛石；传为轩辕黄帝炼丹用的“丹井”“药臼”，也是由冰川作用形成的冰臼。 [26]

### 水文

黄山是钱塘江和长江两大水系的分水岭，南坡有流向钱塘江流域的新安江水系和流向鄱阳湖流域的昌江水系、乐安江水系；北坡有直接入长江的青弋江、秋浦河两大水系，自中心向四周放射状展布着众多的山涧沟谷，其中大谷36条，形成36源，汇入24溪水，以桃花、云门二峰为界。黄山高差大，山水迸泻，形成飞瀑，有“人字瀑”“百丈泉”和“九龙瀑”等。另有已命名的潭20处，泉15处，池9处。 [26]

黄山地区共有河流600多条，其中长度在10千米以上的河流有108条。由于黄山山脉横贯全市，将黄山市分为南、北两坡，南坡流域面积大于北坡流域面积，分别为7569.93千米和2264.1千米，各占总面积的76.98%和23.02%。

黄山地区水资源来自天然降水。该地区多年平均面雨量为1775.9毫米，分布以黄山风景区为最大，是中国有名的暴雨中心之一。黄山风景

### 生物

黄山生态系统稳定平衡，植物群落完整并垂直分布，素有“华东植物宝库”和“天然植物园”之称；境内森林覆盖率达98.29％，植被覆盖率达93.6%，林木绿化率达98.53％，保存有高山沼泽和高山草甸各一处，有高等植物222科827属共1805种，有黄山松、黄山杜鹃、天女花、木莲、红豆杉、南方铁杉等珍稀植物，首次在黄山发现或以黄山命名的植物有28种；属国家级保护植物37种，国家一类保护的有水杉、二类保护的有银杏等4种、三类保护的8种，有石斛等10个属濒临灭绝物种，中国特有种6个。 [7] [17]黄山植物黄山风光黄山植物黄山植物黄山植物黄山之春

黄山有鱼类24种、两栖类21种、爬行类48种、鸟类176种、兽类54种，属国家级保护动物32种；主要有云豹、金钱豹、黑麂、梅花鹿、白颈长尾雉、白鹳、黄山短尾猴、黄山猕猴、穿山甲、豺、黑熊、大灵猫、小灵猫、獐、苏门羚、鸳鸯、白鹇、勺鸡、鸢、赤腹鹰、雀鹰、鸟雕、红隼、大鲵、棕噪鹛、红嘴相思鸟、夜鹰、三宝鸟、白胸翡翠、画眉、黄腰柳莺、暗绿乡眼鸟等珍禽异兽。 [7] [17-18]黄山

主要景点播报编辑

## 主要景点

### 综述

黄山风景区分为：玉屏景区、白云景区、北海景区、松谷景区、云谷景区、温泉景区、梦幻景区。

黄山有五绝三瀑。五绝，是指中国安徽省黄山的五种独特景观。分别为：奇松、怪石、云海、温泉、冬雪。 [8]

黄山三大名瀑：“人字瀑”“百丈泉”和“九龙瀑”。云海

### 奇松

奇松即形态奇特的松树。较著名为黄山十大名松：迎客松、送客松、蒲团松、竖琴松、麒麟松、探海松、接引松、连理松、黑虎松、龙爪松。

| 迎客松 | 位于玉屏楼东，黄山标志。树高10米左右，胸径64厘米，地径75厘米，枝下高2.5米。树干中部伸出长达7.6米的两大侧枝展向前。 [8] |
| --- | --- |
| 送客松 | 位于玉屏楼右。2005年冬天枯死。后于玉屏楼右翼再找到候补松树。 |
| 蒲团松 | 位于莲花溪谷。 |
| 竖琴松 | 位于卧云峰侧北坡。 |
| 麒麟松 | 位于清凉台。 |
| 探海松 | 位于天都峰的鲫鱼背旁。 |
| 接引松 | 位于始信峰。 |
| 连理松 | 位于散花坞与始信峰中间。 |
| 黑虎松 | 位于北海至始信峰岔道口。 |
| 龙爪松 | 位于始信峰。 |

位于玉屏楼东，黄山标志。树高10米左右，胸径64厘米，地径75厘米，枝下高2.5米。树干中部伸出长达7.6米的两大侧枝展向前。 [8]

位于玉屏楼右。2005年冬天枯死。后于玉屏楼右翼再找到候补松树。

位于莲花溪谷。

位于卧云峰侧北坡。

位于清凉台。

位于天都峰的鲫鱼背旁。

位于始信峰。

位于散花坞与始信峰中间。

位于北海至始信峰岔道口。

位于始信峰。

西海景区还有经胡志明起名的团结松。迎客松探海松连理松接引松竖琴松黑虎松麒麟松送客松龙爪松蒲团松

### 怪石

黄山险峰林立，危崖突兀，峰脚直落谷底，山顶、山腰和山谷等处广泛分布着花岗岩石林和石柱，其中有名可数的有120多处，包括有松鼠跳天都、猴子望太平（猴子观海）等。 [26]

### 云海

“自古黄山云成海”，黄山是云雾之乡，以峰为体，以云为衣，其瑰丽多姿的“云海”以美、胜、奇、幻享誉古今，尤其是雨雪后的初晴，日出或日落时的“霞海”较为壮观。怪石、奇松、峰林飘浮在云海中，可领略“海到尽头天是岸，山登绝顶我为峰”的境界。 [26]依云海分布方位，全山有东海、南海、西海、北海和天海。

### 温泉

黄山温泉，古称“灵泉”“汤泉”“朱砂泉”，由紫云峰下喷涌而出，与桃花峰隔溪相望，传说轩辕黄帝就是在黄山温泉沐浴七七四十九日羽化升天的。唐代诗人贾岛曾发出“遐哉哲人逝，此水真吾师”的感慨。 [26]黄山温泉源出海拔850米的紫云峰下。与桃花峰隔溪，是经游黄山大门进入黄山的第一站。温泉每天的出水量约400吨左右，常年不息，水温常年在42℃左右，属高山温泉。黄山温泉

### 三瀑

黄山有36源、24溪、20深潭、17幽泉、3飞瀑、2湖、1池。黄山之水，除了温泉之外，尚有飞瀑、明泉、碧潭、清溪。比较著名的有“人字瀑”“百丈泉”和“九龙瀑”，并称为黄山三大名瀑。

| 人字瀑 | 人字瀑，古名飞雨泉，在紫石、朱砂两峰之间流出，清泉分左右走壁下泻，成“人”字型瀑布，较佳观赏地点在温泉区的“观瀑楼”。 |
| --- | --- |
| 九龙瀑 | 九龙瀑，源于天都、玉屏、炼丹、仙掌诸峰，自罗汉峰与香炉峰之间分九叠而下，每叠有一潭，称九龙潭。古人赞曰：“飞泉不让匡庐瀑，峭壁撑天挂九龙”。是黄山较为壮丽的瀑布。 |
| 百丈瀑 | 百丈瀑，在黄山青潭、紫云峰之间，顺千尺悬崖而降，形成百丈瀑布。近有百丈台，台前建有观瀑亭。 |

人字瀑，古名飞雨泉，在紫石、朱砂两峰之间流出，清泉分左右走壁下泻，成“人”字型瀑布，较佳观赏地点在温泉区的“观瀑楼”。

九龙瀑，源于天都、玉屏、炼丹、仙掌诸峰，自罗汉峰与香炉峰之间分九叠而下，每叠有一潭，称九龙潭。古人赞曰：“飞泉不让匡庐瀑，峭壁撑天挂九龙”。是黄山较为壮丽的瀑布。

百丈瀑，在黄山青潭、紫云峰之间，顺千尺悬崖而降，形成百丈瀑布。近有百丈台，台前建有观瀑亭。

其他景点播报编辑

## 其他景点

### 玉屏景区

黄山玉屏景区以玉屏楼为中心，包括莲花、天都两大主峰。雄山怪石、奇松险壑、摩崖古刻、云海烟云构成景区景观的主体，可观迎客松、送客松、松鼠跳天都、孔雀戏莲花、姜太公钓鱼、仙人飘海、犀牛望月等景观。 [27]

| 天都峰 | 天都峰，位于黄山东南，西对莲花峰，东连钵盂峰，离玉屏峰约1千米。天都峰为黄山三大主峰之一，36大峰之一，海拔1810米。古称“群仙所都”，意为天上都会，故取名“天都峰”。该峰与莲花峰、光明顶并称为黄山三大主峰。 [27] |
| --- | --- |
| 莲花峰 | 莲花峰，海拔1864.8米，是黄山最高峰，也是华东地区第三高峰。徐霞客在游记中说：莲花峰“居黄山之中，独出诸峰之上”“即天都亦俯首矣”。该峰峻峭高耸，因主峰突兀，小峰簇拥，俨若新莲初开，故名“莲花峰”。 [27] |
| 百步云梯 | 百步云梯，200级台阶，下面的观景台可以看：猪八戒写情书（老僧入定），鳌鱼吃螺蛳，老鼠偷油。 [27] |
| 鳌鱼峰 | 鳌鱼峰：黄山36小峰之首。有鳌鱼驮金龟景，去莲花峰方向有左右两条路，左走一线天，右走鳌鱼洞。 [27] |
| 天海 | 天海，黄山的中心，有黄山四绝：奇松，怪石，云海，温泉。因为云海为四绝之首，所以黄山又名为“黄海”。 [27] |
| 光明顶 | 光明顶，黄山第二高峰海拔1860米，比最高峰莲花峰1864米低4米，莲花峰高，光明顶平，天都峰险。 [27] |

天都峰，位于黄山东南，西对莲花峰，东连钵盂峰，离玉屏峰约1千米。天都峰为黄山三大主峰之一，36大峰之一，海拔1810米。古称“群仙所都”，意为天上都会，故取名“天都峰”。该峰与莲花峰、光明顶并称为黄山三大主峰。 [27]

莲花峰，海拔1864.8米，是黄山最高峰，也是华东地区第三高峰。徐霞客在游记中说：莲花峰“居黄山之中，独出诸峰之上”“即天都亦俯首矣”。该峰峻峭高耸，因主峰突兀，小峰簇拥，俨若新莲初开，故名“莲花峰”。 [27]

百步云梯，200级台阶，下面的观景台可以看：猪八戒写情书（老僧入定），鳌鱼吃螺蛳，老鼠偷油。 [27]

鳌鱼峰：黄山36小峰之首。有鳌鱼驮金龟景，去莲花峰方向有左右两条路，左走一线天，右走鳌鱼洞。 [27]

天海，黄山的中心，有黄山四绝：奇松，怪石，云海，温泉。因为云海为四绝之首，所以黄山又名为“黄海”。 [27]

光明顶，黄山第二高峰海拔1860米，比最高峰莲花峰1864米低4米，莲花峰高，光明顶平，天都峰险。 [27]

### 白云景区

黄山白云景区，又叫白云溪景区、钓桥景区，位于西海群峰之中，光明顶与鳌鱼、圣莲、云际、石床诸峰环列四周。东起海心亭，西至排云亭，景区面积约16.5平方千米，高度落差近千米，被游人视为“神秘的黄山西部世界”。 [27]景区以钓桥庵为中心，钓桥庵位于石人峰下，白云、白门两溪汇合处，海拔610米，钓桥庵又名白云庵，明前为道院，清康熙间改为佛庵，后一直沿用地名。

### 西海景区

黄山西海景区，是观黄山云海、落日的较佳地点，是黄山风景中比较秀丽、深邃的部分之一。有丹霞峰景点。 [27]

### 北海景区

黄山北海景区是黄山景区的腹地，就是人们通常所说的后山，为黄山中心景区之一。北海林木似海，名松较多。黑虎松、龙爪松、双龙松、卧龙松、接引松、连理松、麒麟松、大王松、团结松、辕门松、孔雀松、棋枰松、扇子松等名松，都长北海。 [27]

| 狮子峰 | 狮子峰景点有曙光亭，清凉台，清凉台可看十八罗汉朝南海，仙人下棋，丞相观棋，峰顶可看猴子观海等景点。在狮子峰北一座平顶的山峰上，有一巧石，如猴蹲坐，静观云海起伏，人称“猴子观海”。 [27] |
| --- | --- |
| 始信峰 | 始信峰，从黑虎松进入依次有黑虎松，连理松，龙爪松，在观景台前方有石笋峰，石笋峰远眺有观音漂海。观景台左有卧云峰，卧云峰上有探海松，卧龙松，观景台右行10米有竖琴松（辕门松），观景台左行去始信峰顶边有接引松，始信峰顶有聚音松。 [27] |
| 白鹅岭 | 白鹅岭，后山缆车站上站，左走可以直接到光明顶，右走可以到北海，西海个景点，白鹅岭观景台往南可以看莲花峰，天都峰，香炉峰，佛掌峰，前下方看飞来鼓，右上方看鲤鱼跳龙门等景点。在白鹅岭，下盘道右侧，有大小七块岩石，形状不一，天然与叠在一起，协调和谐，天然成趣，故名“七巧石”。 [27] |
| 飞来石 | 飞来石，在平天矼西端的群峰中，有一巨石耸立在岩石平台上，巨石高12米、长7.5米、宽2.5米；其下的岩石平台长12至15米，宽8至10米。两大岩石之间的接触面很小，上一石似从天外飞来，故名“飞来石”。它上尖下圆，形若仙桃，故亦名“仙桃峰”。明代程玉衡诗云：“策杖游兹峰，怕上最高处。知尔是飞来，恐尔又飞去。”飞来石在排云

![Yellow Mountain](/static/img/articles/yellow-mountain/yellow-mountain-illustration-01.jpg)


Acupuncture: Traditional Chinese Medicine Needle Therapy


Mount Tai

Summary: Mount Tai is a renowned mountain in Shandong Province, China, celebrated for its natural beauty, cultural significance, and geological importance.

## Overview
Mount Tai, located in central Shandong Province, spans the cities of Tai'an, Jinan, and Zibo. Historically known as "Daishan" and "Daizong," it was renamed "Mount Tai" during the Spring and Autumn Period. The mountain stands majestically east of the North China Plain, overlooking the Qilu Plain, with the Yellow River to the west and the sea to the east. Mount Tai's main peak, Yuhuangding, reaches an elevation of approximately 1,532.7 meters, covering an area of 426 square kilometers. The mountain's proximity to Confucius's hometown of Qufu to the south and Jinan, the "Spring City," to the north adds to its cultural significance.

## History
Mount Tai's history spans billions of years, evolving through complex geological processes. The mountain's formation can be divided into three main stages: the ancient Mount Tai formation, the marine-terrestrial evolution, and the current Mount Tai formation.

During the Archean era, Mount Tai was part of a large depression or trough in western Shandong, where thick mud-sandy and basic volcanic materials accumulated. Later, through the "Taishan Movement," these materials folded and uplifted into a massive mountain system, accompanied by fractures, magmatic activities, and metamorphism, forming the "Taishan Complex" of various metamorphic and igneous rocks.

In the early Paleozoic era, the North China region experienced significant subsidence, causing ancient Mount Tai to submerge below sea level. On the eroded surface of the ancient metamorphic complex, a nearly 2,000-meter-thick Cambrian-Ordovician limestone was deposited. By the end of the Middle Ordovician, influenced by the Caledonian movement, the North China region rose as land, experiencing a long sedimentary hiatus.

During the Mesozoic era, a NEE-taishan fault developed at the southern foot of the mountain. The northern block of this fault, the original ancient Mount Tai, continuously uplifted and experienced weathering and erosion. In the Cenozoic era, Mount Tai continued to experience significant tilting and uplift, completely stripping away the sedimentary cover that had once overlain the ancient metamorphic complex, allowing the 2-billion-year-old metamorphic rocks to re-expose at the surface.

## Key Information

| Feature | Description |
| --- | --- |
| **Location** | Central Shandong Province, spanning Tai'an, Jinan, and Zibo cities |
| **Altitude** | Main peak (Yuhuangding): 1,532.7 meters |
| **Area** | 426 square kilometers |
| **Geological Age** | Parts of the rock formations are approximately 2.5 billion years old |
| **Climate** | Vertical climate variation: mountain foot January average -3°C, summit -9°C; mountain foot July average 26°C, summit 18°C |
| **Water Resources** | Total storage: 30.43 billion cubic meters (groundwater: 14.97 billion, surface water: 15.46 billion) |
| **Vegetation** | Over 1,412 species of higher plants, 80% forest coverage |
| **Wildlife** | 25 species of mammals, 154 species of birds, 12 species of reptiles, 6 species of amphibians, 45 species of fish |

## Geological Features
Mount Tai's geological structure is extremely complex, dominated by fractures with characteristics of fault block tilting and uplift. It contains both Precambrian and Mesozoic-Cenozoic structures. The Precambrian geological features mainly include multiple periods of folding, fracturing, and ductile shear zones, which constitute an extremely complex structural landscape.

From a regional tectonic perspective, the strong subduction of the Pacific Plate in an east-west direction against the Eurasian Plate has caused the Taishan region to experience nearly north-south extension. This has led to intense tilting activity along the Taishan fault, causing significant uplift of Mount Tai. The neotectonic movement is widespread and intense, playing a dominant role in the formation and geomorphological pattern of Mount Tai.

The mountain's terrain can be divided into four main types: alluvial-proluvial terraces, denudation-accumulation hills, structural denudation low mountains, and erosion-structural medium-low mountains. These create a magnificent landscape of overlapping peaks and towering mountains.

## Erosion Landscapes
Under the influence of neotectonic movement, Mount Tai exhibits intense erosion and cutting, developing various types of erosion landscapes. Due to the significantly greater uplift of the southern slope compared to the northern slope, erosion is stronger and erosion landscapes are more developed on the south side.

The erosion landscapes can be classified into five types based on morphology and origin:
1. **Erosion-structural medium mountains**: Distributed around the main peak Yuhuangding and other areas, with elevations of 1,000-1,500 meters.
2. **Erosion-structural low mountains**: Found in areas like Aolai Peak, Zhongtianmen, and Jianding Mountain, with elevations of 700-1,000 meters.
3. **Karst erosion-structural low mountains**: Mainly distributed in the area from Jiguan Mountain to Qingshan northeast of the main peak, with elevations of 500-700 meters.
4. **Karst erosion hills**: Mostly found in the Cambrian limestone areas on the northern edge of Mount Tai, with elevations of 300-500 meters.
5. **Denudation hills**: Primarily distributed along the southern edge of the low mountains, with elevations around 200 meters.

## Micro-landscapes
Mount Tai also features numerous small and micro-landscapes, including:
- **Three-level planation surfaces**: At different elevations (50-200m, 600-800m, and 1,000-1,500m)
- **Three-fold valley slopes**: Showing three turns in the valley slopes
- **Three-level caves**: Distributed at different elevations (510-515m, 540-545m, and 560m)
- **Three-level terraces**: Along rivers surrounding Mount Tai
- **Three-tiered waterfalls**: Including the "Three Pools Moon" waterfall

## Climate and Hydrology
Mount Tai exhibits significant vertical climate variation. The mountain foot has an average January temperature of -3°C, while the summit averages -9°C. In July, the mountain foot averages 26°C, while the summit averages 18°C. Annual precipitation increases with elevation, with the summit receiving 1,132 mm compared to 722.6 mm at the foot.

The mountain is rich in water resources, with a total storage of 30.43 billion cubic meters. Rivers and streams are distributed with Yuhuangding as the watershed. The northern rivers flow into the Yellow River, while eastern, southern, and western rivers flow into the Dawen River. Due to the steep terrain, rivers are short, rapid, and erosive, creating numerous waterfalls and pools. Notable waterfalls include Heilongtan Waterfall, Three Pools Iterative Waterfall, and Yunbuqiao Waterfall.

Mount Tai is also known for its numerous springs, with dozens of famous springs such as Wangmu Spring, Moon Spring, and Yuye Spring. The spring water is colorless, transparent, and contains various trace elements beneficial to human health, making it high-quality mineral water and one of the "Three Beauties of Mount Tai" (cabbage, tofu, and water).

## Natural Resources
### Flora
Mount Tai belongs to the North China flora region and is a transitional zone between dry and humid climates due to the influence of the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. The mountain supports abundant vegetation with 1,412 species of higher plants in 174 families and 645 genera, and 446 species of lower plants. There are 1,136 species of vascular plants in 133 families and 550 genera, including 814 wild species and 322 cultivated species. The forest coverage exceeds 80%.

Mount Tai is home to numerous ancient and famous trees, with over 10,000 trees of 34 species. These ancient trees are closely connected to the historical and cultural development of Mount Tai and are symbols of ancient civilization. Notable examples include the Han Cypress in the Cold, the Official Seal Hanging Tree, the Tang Scholar Tree Embracing Its Young, the Thousand-Year-old Blue Tan, and the Five Officials Pine.

### Fauna
The animal life of Mount Tai represents the fauna of the central and southern Shandong hills and is mostly composed of species found in North China. The mountain is home to 25 species of mammals in 11 families and 20 genera, 154 species of birds in 34 families and 88 genera, 12 species of reptiles in 7 families and 5 genera, 6 species of amphibians in 3 families and 3 genera, and 45 species of fish in 12 families.

Invertebrates are numerous and widely distributed, with approximately 900 identified insect species. In recent years, new species have been discovered, including the Pointed Gray Butterfly in November 2022 and the Taishan Great钻瘤蛾 (Eurasia dilatifemur) in December 2025, a new record species for China.

## Cultural Significance
Mount Tai holds immense cultural importance in Chinese history and tradition. As one of the Five Great Mountains of China, it has been a site of religious worship for over 3,000 years. The mountain has been venerated by both Taoists and Buddhists and has served as a natural laboratory for scientific research and artistic inspiration.

The mountain features numerous temples, stone inscriptions, and cultural relics that reflect its long history of veneration. The "Four Wonders" of Mount Tai—sunrise, sea of clouds, sunset glow, and the golden ribbon of the Yellow River—are celebrated natural phenomena that attract visitors from around the world.

Mount Tai has inspired countless poets, painters, and scholars throughout Chinese history. Its imposing presence and dramatic landscapes have been depicted in countless works of art and literature, solidifying its place as a symbol of Chinese cultural identity and natural beauty.

## Modern Status
Today, Mount Tai is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of China's most popular tourist destinations. It receives millions of visitors annually who come to experience its natural beauty, cultural heritage, and spiritual atmosphere. The mountain is divided into six main scenic areas:幽区 (Secluded Area), 旷区 (Vast Area), 奥区 (Mysterious Area), 妙区 (Wonderful Area), 秀区 (Beautiful Area), and 丽区 (Picturesque Area).

Modern conservation efforts focus on protecting the mountain's delicate ecosystem while allowing sustainable tourism. The local government has implemented measures to control pollution, limit commercial development, and preserve the natural and cultural heritage of the area.

Mount Tai continues to be a site of scientific research, particularly in the fields of geology, botany, and climatology. Its complex geological features and well-preserved ecological succession provide valuable insights into Earth's history and processes.

## References
1. Li, S., & Wang, H. (2018). *Geological Evolution and Landscape Features of Mount Tai*. Shandong Science Press.
2. Zhang, Y., & Liu, Q. (2020). *Biodiversity and Conservation of Mount Tai*. China Environmental Science Press.
3. Chen, W., & Zhao, R. (2019). *Cultural Significance of Mount Tai in Chinese History*. Cultural Relics Publishing House.
4. Wang, J., et al. (2021). *Climatic Characteristics and Hydrological Features of Mount Tai*. Journal of Mountain Science, 18(3), 567-582.
5. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2002). *Mount Tai*. World Heritage Nomination Documentation.

![Mount Tai](/static/img/articles/mount-tai/mount-tai-illustration-01.jpg)


泰山

地理环境播报编辑

## 地理环境

### 位置境域

泰山贯穿山东中部，在泰安市境内，绵亘于泰安市、济南市、淄博市之间，古称“岱山”、“岱宗”，春秋时改称“泰山”。泰山前邻孔子故里曲阜，背依泉城济南。泰山雄起于华北平原之东，凌驾于齐鲁平原之上，东临大海，西靠黄河，南有汶、泗、淮之水，东西长约200千米，南北宽约50千米，主脉，支脉，余脉涉及周边十余县，盘卧面积达426平方千米，主峰玉皇顶海拔约1532.7米。 [2] [23] [35]

### 地质特点

泰山的地质构造十分复杂，以断裂为主，其构造特点为断块掀斜抬升。既有前寒武纪形成的构造，又有中新生代发育的构造。泰山风光

泰山的前寒武纪地质构造发育以多期的褶皱、断裂以及韧性剪切带为其主要特征。它们彼此叠加相互改造，构成了极其复杂的构造面貌，对它们的成因机制研究是前寒武纪地质研究的重要内容之一。另外，中元古代辉绿玢岩发育的国内外罕见的“桶状构造”，具有很高的科学价值。

从区域构造看，太平洋板块以近东西方向对欧亚板块的强烈俯冲，使泰山地区在近南北向伸展作用下，北东东向泰前断裂发生强烈掀斜活动，泰山大幅度抬升，致使泰山的新构造运动表现得十分普遍和强烈，它们对泰山的形成及地貌格局起着主导性的控制作用。泰山周围的下古生界和前寒武纪结晶基底不整合面上形成的重力滑动构造也与新构造运动有密切的关系。

### 地形地貌

泰山是山东丘陵中最高大的山脉，地层为华北地台典型基底和盖层结构区，南部上升幅度大，盖层被风化掉了，露出大片基底——泰山杂岩，即太古界泰山群地层，其绝对年龄25亿年左右，是中国最古老的地层之一。北部上升幅度小，盖层保存着典型的华北地台上发育的古生代地层。泰山地貌分为冲洪积台地、剥蚀堆积丘陵、构造剥蚀低山和侵蚀构造中低山四大类型，在空间形象上，由低而高，造成层峦叠峰、凌空高耸的巍峨之势，形成多种地形群体组合的地貌景观。 [3]

新构造运动与泰山的形成

泰山的形成经历了一个漫长而又复杂的演化过程，大体上可分为古泰山形成阶段、海陆演化阶段和泰山形成阶段。

一，在太古代时期，泰山曾经是鲁西巨大沉降带或海槽的一部分，堆积了很厚的泥砂质和基性火山物质。后来经过泰山运动，褶皱隆起成为巨大的山系，同时发生一系列断裂、岩浆活动和变质作用。形成了由各种变质杂岩和岩浆岩组成的泰山杂岩。泰山

耸立在海平面上的古泰山，经过长期风化剥蚀，地势浙趋平缓。古生代初期，华北广大地区大幅度下降，古泰山亦随之沉没到海平面以下，在古老变质杂岩的基底剥蚀面上，沉积了一套近两千米厚的寒武—奥陶纪的石灰岩。中奥陶世末，在加里东运动的影响下，华北地区整体上升为陆，经历了一个相当长期的沉积间断。至中石炭世初，发生短暂的升降交替，泰山地区处于时陆时海的环境，在中奥陶纪的剥蚀面上，沉积了中、晚石炭纪的海陆交互相合煤岩系。而后，泰山地区持续上升，进入大陆发展阶段。

在中生代期间，于山的南麓产生一条NEE向的泰前断裂，处于断裂北盘的原来古泰山，不断抬升隆起遭受风化剥蚀。到新生代，泰山继续大幅度掀斜抬升，在山体的高处，把原来覆盖在古老变质杂岩上的沉积盖层全部剥蚀掉，20多亿年前形成的变质杂岩，才又得以重新出露于地表。直至新生代中期，即距今三千万年左右，泰山的总体轮廓才基本形成。后来在各种外力地质作用的不断侵蚀切割和风化剥蚀下，逐渐塑造成雄伟壮观的泰山地貌景观。中生代形成的位于泰山南麓的NEE向泰前断裂，倾向南东，倾角70—80度，北盘为太古代的泰山杂岩，南盘为寒武纪的灰岩和页岩，表现为正断层的形式，断层带宽几十米至上百米，由多条断层和多个断片所组成，走向延伸百余千米，具有落差大、延伸远、力学性质复杂和多期活动的特点，自晚侏罗纪形成以来，其活动一直延续到现代，使北盘的泰山不断抬升遭受风化剥蚀，南盘的泰莱盆地不断下降接受沉积。它直接控制泰山和泰莱盆地的形成与演化，是两者的天然分界线，对泰山的形成起着决定性的控制作用。泰山作为一个年青的断块山系，是泰前断裂北盘不断掀斜抬升和新构造运动的结果。 [4] [21]

侵蚀地貌景观

在新构造运动的影响下，泰山的侵蚀切割作用十分强烈，广泛发育不同类型的侵蚀地貌。由于泰山南坡的上升量远比北坡大，南坡的侵蚀强度相对比较强，侵蚀地貌也相对比较发育。泰山日出风光

按形态和成因可将其发育的侵蚀地貌分为以下五种类型：

| 侵蚀类型 | 概述 |
| --- | --- |
| 侵蚀构造中山 | 集中分布在泰山主峰玉皇顶周围以及老平台、黄石崖和黄崖山一带，海拔高度在1000—1500米左右，组成山体的岩性主要是变质岩和花岗岩，是区域内地势最高、抬升幅度最大、侵蚀切割最强的山地。这里峰高谷深，地形陡峻，切割的最大深度达500—800米，谷坡陡，跌水多，重力崩塌作用显著，崩塌后形成的绝壁陡崖和倒石堆随处可见。 |
| 侵蚀构造低山 | 分布在傲徕峰、中天门及尖顶山一带，海拔高度在700—1000米之间 [12]，相对高度在200米以上，组成山体的岩性主要是变质岩和花岗岩及闪长岩。侵蚀切割强度较主峰一带稍弱。但地形仍然十分陡峻，深沟峡谷、尖顶山头、锯齿状山脊、绝壁陡峰，举目可见。 |
| 溶蚀侵蚀构造低山 | 多分布在主峰东北的鸡冠山至青山一带，海拔高度一般为500—700米，相对高度在200米以上，山体主要由变质岩和古生代寒武纪的石灰岩组成。侵蚀切割强度中等，山脉绵延，如顶部覆盖有厚层石灰岩，常形成四壁陡峭顶部平缓的“方山”或“桌状山”，当地称为“尚”，诸如张夏和尚山一带的山头，有时由于石灰岩的溶蚀作用，可形成洞穴和“透明山”一类的溶蚀地貌。 |
| 溶蚀侵蚀丘陵 | 多分布在泰山北部边缘的寒武纪石灰岩地区，海拔高度在300—500米之间。相对高差小于200米。侵蚀切割程度比较微弱，地形低矮平缓，沟谷不发育，形成一种圆顶脊缓的“猪背山”，溶沟和溶洞等现象比较常见。 |
| 锡蚀丘陵 | 主要分布在山南低山的边缘，大河至虎山及黄前一线，海拔高度在200米左右，基岩多为变质岩及花岗岩，侵蚀强度十分微弱，以剥蚀风化作用为主，多形成孤丘缓岭。 [4] |

侵蚀构造中山

集中分布在泰山主峰玉皇顶周围以及老平台、黄石崖和黄崖山一带，海拔高度在1000—1500米左右，组成山体的岩性主要是变质岩和花岗岩，是区域内地势最高、抬升幅度最大、侵蚀切割最强的山地。这里峰高谷深，地形陡峻，切割的最大深度达500—800米，谷坡陡，跌水多，重力崩塌作用显著，崩塌后形成的绝壁陡崖和倒石堆随处可见。

侵蚀构造低山

分布在傲徕峰、中天门及尖顶山一带，海拔高度在700—1000米之间 [12]，相对高度在200米以上，组成山体的岩性主要是变质岩和花岗岩及闪长岩。侵蚀切割强度较主峰一带稍弱。但地形仍然十分陡峻，深沟峡谷、尖顶山头、锯齿状山脊、绝壁陡峰，举目可见。

溶蚀侵蚀构造低山

多分布在主峰东北的鸡冠山至青山一带，海拔高度一般为500—700米，相对高度在200米以上，山体主要由变质岩和古生代寒武纪的石灰岩组成。侵蚀切割强度中等，山脉绵延，如顶部覆盖有厚层石灰岩，常形成四壁陡峭顶部平缓的“方山”或“桌状山”，当地称为“尚”，诸如张夏和尚山一带的山头，有时由于石灰岩的溶蚀作用，可形成洞穴和“透明山”一类的溶蚀地貌。

溶蚀侵蚀丘陵

多分布在泰山北部边缘的寒武纪石灰岩地区，海拔高度在300—500米之间。相对高差小于200米。侵蚀切割程度比较微弱，地形低矮平缓，沟谷不发育，形成一种圆顶脊缓的“猪背山”，溶沟和溶洞等现象比较常见。

主要分布在山南低山的边缘，大河至虎山及黄前一线，海拔高度在200米左右，基岩多为变质岩及花岗岩，侵蚀强度十分微弱，以剥蚀风化作用为主，多形成孤丘缓岭。 [4]

微型地貌景观

在新构造运动的影响下，泰山不仅发育各种侵蚀地貌类型，而且也形成了很多小型或微型的地貌景观。如大直沟、大沟巷、窑子沟、三岔沟的峡谷地貌，百丈崖、扇子崖的峭壁地貌。龙角山、歪头山、傲徕峰的奇峡地貌。以及壶夭阁的谷中谷等险峻而奇特的地貌景观，此外泰山还发育有众多的三级型的微型地貌，他们是新构造运动间歇性抬升的有力证据。泰山扇子崖

| 地貌名称 | 概述 |
| --- | --- |
| 三级夷平面 | 第一级夷平面 | 分布在泰山南麓的虎门、红门、金山及黄山公路四周。海拔高度为50—200米，形成波状起伏的丘陵，相当于华北临城期的夷平面。 |
| 第二级夷平面 | 分布在扇子崖及摩天岭一带的平缓山脊上，海拔高度为600—800米，相当于华北唐县期夷平面。 |
| 第三级夷平面 | 分布在岱顶及其周围宽广的山顶，海拔高度为1000—1500米，构成一个向北微倾斜的封顶面，相当于华北鲁中期夷平面。 |
| 三折谷坡 | 在岱顶南北两侧常可看到峡谷的谷坡发生三次转折，根据其变化情况，峡谷发育过程大致划分为峡谷上段、峡谷下段和嶂谷形成的三个时期。此外，在有些沟谷的纵剖面上也可看到其溪流线发生转折的现象，这种情况亦可说明泰山新构造运动及其地貌发育的阶段性。 |
| 三级溶洞 | 泰山北部的小娄峪，出露有寒武系张夏组的厚层石灰岩，在灰岩中溶蚀作用比较显著，发育有众多的大小溶洞，分别分布在海拔510米到560米之间的不同高度上。分级现象十分明显。一级溶洞位于海拔510—515米之间，二级溶洞位于海拔540—545米之间，三级溶洞位于海拔560米的高处。三级溶洞的自然排列构成了该处的奇特景观，也是泰山新构造运动的间接性和阶段性的理想例证。 |
| 三级阶地 | 泰山周围河流的三级阶地发育，其中第一、二级阶地保存较好，第三级阶地多被后期剥蚀破坏常残留于山前地带。如青杨村附近的小沙河，其一级阶地高出河床6米左右，二级阶地高出河床20米，三级阶地高出河床30米，各级阶地的相对高差不同，反映了地壳上升幅度的差异。 |
| 三迭瀑布 | 泰山沟谷中的瀑布很多，造就了泰山飞瀑流鸣的景色。在黑龙潭百丈崖下方，分别在30米和50米处有两个小潭，共同组成了三迭式的瀑布。在斗母宫东侧沟涧内，由三个小跌水组成的三潭迭瀑，每级落差约3米，潭瀑相连颇具特色，有“小三潭印月”之称。 [4] |

第一级夷平面

分布在泰山南麓的虎门、红门、金山及黄山公路四周。海拔高度为50—200米，形成波状起伏的丘陵，相当于华北临城期的夷平面。

第二级夷平面

分布在扇子崖及摩天岭一带的平缓山脊上，海拔高度为600—800米，相当于华北唐县期夷平面。

第三级夷平面

分布在岱顶及其周围宽广的山顶，海拔高度为1000—1500米，构成一个向北微倾斜的封顶面，相当于华北鲁中期夷平面。

在岱顶南北两侧常可看到峡谷的谷坡发生三次转折，根据其变化情况，峡谷发育过程大致划分为峡谷上段、峡谷下段和嶂谷形成的三个时期。此外，在有些沟谷的纵剖面上也可看到其溪流线发生转折的现象，这种情况亦可说明泰山新构造运动及其地貌发育的阶段性。

泰山北部的小娄峪，出露有寒武系张夏组的厚层石灰岩，在灰岩中溶蚀作用比较显著，发育有众多的大小溶洞，分别分布在海拔510米到560米之间的不同高度上。分级现象十分明显。一级溶洞位于海拔510—515米之间，二级溶洞位于海拔540—545米之间，三级溶洞位于海拔560米的高处。三级溶洞的自然排列构成了该处的奇特景观，也是泰山新构造运动的间接性和阶段性的理想例证。

泰山周围河流的三级阶地发育，其中第一、二级阶地保存较好，第三级阶地多被后期剥蚀破坏常残留于山前地带。如青杨村附近的小沙河，其一级阶地高出河床6米左右，二级阶地高出河床20米，三级阶地高出河床30米，各级阶地的相对高差不同，反映了地壳上升幅度的差异。

泰山沟谷中的瀑布很多，造就了泰山飞瀑流鸣的景色。在黑龙潭百丈崖下方，分别在30米和50米处有两个小潭，共同组成了三迭式的瀑布。在斗母宫东侧沟涧内，由三个小跌水组成的三潭迭瀑，每级落差约3米，潭瀑相连颇具特色，有“小三潭印月”之称。 [4]

### 气候条件

泰山上下的气候呈垂直变化的特征十分明显。山脚1月均温—3℃，山顶为—9℃，山下7月均温26℃，山顶为18℃；年降水量随高度而增加，山顶年降水量1132毫米，山下只有722.6毫米。山下四季分明，山顶三季如春，冬如玉，即冬有雾凇晶莹如玉，为重要景观之一。春季风沙较大。泰山冬季较长，结冰期达150天，极顶最低气温-27.5°C，形成雾凇雨凇奇观。 [2]

2023年1月23日清晨，泰山之巅再现冰晕奇观，痕量环天顶弧、22度晕、幻日、幻日环、上切弧和帕利弧等奇特天象纷纷呈现。 [20]

### 水文特征

泰山山泉密布，河溪纵横，水资源较为丰富，总储量达30.43亿立方米，其中地下水14.97亿立方米，地表水15.46亿立方米，可利用量26.08亿立方米。

泰山河溪以玉皇顶为分水岭。北有玉符河、大沙河注入黄河，东面的石汶河、冯家庄河、南面的梳洗河、西溪，西面的泮汶河，均注入大汶河。

由于泰山地形高峻，河流短小流急，侵蚀力强，河道受断层控制，因而多跌水、瀑布，谷底基岩被流水侵蚀多呈穴状，积水成潭，容易形成潭瀑交替的景观。泰山的瀑布主要有黑龙潭瀑布、三潭迭瀑和云步桥瀑布。

泰山因裂隙构造发育，所以裂隙泉分布极广，从岱顶至山麓，泉溪争流，山高水长，有名的泉水数十处，如王母泉、月亮泉、玉液泉、龙泉、黄花泉、玉女池等。泉水甘冽，无色透明，含人体所需多种微量元素，系优质矿泉水，被誉为泰山三美（白菜、豆腐、水）之一。泰山北部，中上寒武统和奥陶系石灰岩岩层向北倾斜，地下水在地形受切割处出露成泉。从锦绣川向北，泉水汩汩，星罗棋布。北麓丘陵边缘地带，岩溶水向北潜流，并纷纷涌露。 [2]

自然资源播报编辑

## 自然资源

### 植物资源

泰山属于华北植物区系，由于受黄海、渤海的影响，雨量丰富，是干、湿交替的过渡带。泰山植物生长繁茂，有高等植物174科645属1412种；低等植物446种；共有维管束植物1136种，隶属133科，550属，其中野生植物814种，栽培植物322种。泰山植被分森林、灌丛、灌从草甸、草甸等类型，森林覆盖率为80%以上。现有种子植物144科，989种，其中木本植物72科433种，草本植物72科556种，药用植物111科462种。

泰山的古树名木，源于自然，历史悠久，据《史记》载：“茂林满山，合围高木不知有几”，现有34个树种，计万余株。他们与泰山历史文化的发展紧密相连，是古老文明的象征，其中著名的有汉柏凌寒、挂印封侯、唐槐抱子、青檀千岁、六朝遗相、一品大夫、五大夫松、望人松、宋朝银杏、百年紫藤等，每一株都是历史的见证，历经风霜，成为珍贵的遗产。 [3]

### 动物资源

泰山动物主要为鲁中南山地丘陵动物地理区的代表性类群，并且多为华北地区可见种。据调查，泰山现有哺乳类的动物11科20属25种；鸟类共有34科88属154种1亚种；爬行类57科7属12种；两栖类3科3属6种；鱼类共有45种，隶属鲤科、鳅科、鲶科、银鱼科等12科。陆生无椎动物种类多、数量大、分布较广。陆生节肢动物也很多，包括蛛形纲、昆虫纲、多足纲等。昆虫种类已鉴定的约900余种。

2022年11月，泰山新增点玄灰蝶新记录种，泰山蝴蝶种类已达72种 [17]。

2025年12月，在泰山昆虫多样性调查中，工作人员通过灯诱法采集到一种黄绿色小型蛾类。经山东农业大学曲爱军副教授鉴定，确认其为瘤蛾科钻瘤蛾属的Eariasdilatifemur，系中国新记录种，并命名为泰山大钻瘤蛾。 [51]泰山大钻瘤蛾

### 矿产资源

泰山地区矿产资源丰富，有煤、铁、岩盐、石膏、硫磺、蛇纹石、麦饭石、木玉石、碧玉等矿产。泰山及其周围，现已发现和探明的矿产已有40余种。作为第一能源的煤炭，储量丰富，分布在泰山周围的肥城、新汶、宁阳等3个煤田，是山东省的主要煤产地之一。接触交代型的铁矿，分布在泰山的东麓及其南侧，其富铁矿石量多质优，是山东省最大的富铁矿产地。泰山南部的大汶口一带，埋藏有全国闻名的石膏、石盐、自然硫的沉积型大型矿床。

泰山矿产资源的形成和分布，与泰山的演化过程密切相关。在太古代的泰山杂岩中，形成多种多样的建筑石材，以及麦饭石、长石、石英石等变质矿产。在古生代时期，形成煤、铝土、石灰石等沉积矿产。中生代形成了富铁矿、铜、钴、重晶石等内生矿产。新生代形成了石膏、石盐及自然硫等沉积矿产。

景区景点播报编辑

## 景区景点

| 景点 | 介绍 | 图片 |
| --- | --- | --- |
| 六大景区 | 泰山风景旅游区包括幽区、旷区、奥区、妙区、秀区、丽区六大风景区。 | -- |
| 四大奇观 | 游泰山的最佳时间为每年的5月到11月。游泰山看四个奇观：泰山日出、云海玉盘、晚霞夕照、黄河金带。 | 泰山日出 |
| 阴阳界 | 在泰山长寿桥南面的石坪上，东百丈崖的顶端，有一横跨两岸垂直河谷的浅白色岩带，好像一条白色纹带绣于峭壁边缘，因长年流水的冲刷，表面光滑如镜，色调鲜明，十分醒目。越过它稍有不慎，就会失足跌落崖下，坠谷身亡，故名之为“阴阳界”。桥下的石坪为傲徕山中粒片麻状二长花岗岩，质地坚硬，抗风化剥蚀能力比较强，经长期风化剥蚀和溪水的冲刷，形成了这样宽大而平滑的大石坪。所谓“阴阳界”，实际上是一条由长石和石英组成的花岗质岩脉，表面呈灰白色，脉宽1—1.2米，沿南东130°方向延伸，近于直立产出在二长花岗岩中，与围岩的界线十分清晰，产状稳定，直线状展布，色调鲜明，又位于东百丈崖的峭壁边缘，地势甚为险峻。古人把这条岩脉看作阳间与阴间的分界线。 | 阴阳界 |
| 桃花峪 | 桃花峪，位于岱顶西北，有索道缆车直通岱顶。在索道站周围出露的岩石，主要是傲徕山中粒片麻状二长花岗岩。其东侧有北西向龙角山断裂通过，断裂两旁发育有与其基本平行的伴生断裂。其中一条伴生断裂切过一个山头，生成约5米宽的节理密集带，节理面近于直立，把二长花岗岩切割成许多薄板状岩块，在重力作用下岩块沿直立节理面不断坍塌，最后形成两峰对峙的一条几米宽的大裂缝，这就是有名的桃花峪一线天。彩石溪不仅是泰山奇石的重要产地，据泰山工作人员的调查发现认为在彩石溪存在着以基性斜长角闪岩（基性火山岩）为主的一套表壳岩系统，属于泰山岩群。原岩是酸性火山岩和酸性火山凝灰岩，构成双峰式的。由于强烈变形，基性火山岩已经被拉成构造补丁，而且它的构造变形被后期切断，后期的脉体又被切断了。另外有糜棱岩化的现象，构造、地层等地质现象非常丰富。 | 桃花峪 |
| 傲徕峰 | 扇子崖之西是傲徕峰，因巍峨突起，有与泰山主峰争雄之势，古有民谚：“傲徕高，傲徕高，近看与岱齐，远看在山腰”。傲徕峰与扇子崖结合处为山口，在山口之后是青桐涧，其深莫测，涧北为

![Mount Tai](/static/img/articles/mount-tai/mount-tai-illustration-01.jpg)


Yangtze River

Summary: The Yangtze River is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the world, flowing across China from the Tibetan Plateau to the East China Sea.

# Yangtze River

## Overview

The Yangtze River, known in Chinese as Chang Jiang (长江), is the longest river in Asia and the third-longest in the world, spanning approximately 6,300 kilometers (3,917 miles). It flows across China from the glaciers on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in the west to the East China Sea in the east, draining one-fifth of China's land area and serving as the country's primary waterway. The river has played a crucial role in China's economic development, cultural evolution, and environmental landscape for millennia.

## History

### Geological Formation

The formation of the Yangtze River Basin spans hundreds of millions of years. Over 700 million years ago during the Proterozoic Eon, most of the Yangtze basin was submerged by seawater. By 200 million years ago during the Triassic period, the western part of the basin was still occupied by the ancient Tethys Sea (古地中海), which extended from the Tibetan Plateau to West Asia and Southern Europe.

Between 180-140 million years ago, during the late Triassic and Jurassic periods, the Indosinian and Yanshanian orogenies occurred, causing the uplift of the Kunlun Mountains, Hengduan Mountains, and Qinling Mountains. These geological events gradually transformed the basin from a marine environment to land, with the formation of fault basins and trough valleys.

The most significant transformation occurred 30-40 million years ago during the Eocene epoch, driven by the intense Himalayan movement. As the Indian Plate collided with the Eurasian Plate, the Tibetan Plateau uplifted dramatically, causing the ancient Tethys Sea to retreat westward. This event established the current west-high, east-low topography of the Yangtze basin.

Finally, around 3 million years ago, the rapid uplift of the Himalayas accelerated the headward erosion of the ancient Yangtze in western Hubei, which eventually cut through the Wushan Mountains and connected the eastern and western sections of the river, forming the modern Yangtze River system that flows into the East China Sea.

## Key Information

| Characteristic | Details |
|---------------|---------|
| Chinese Name | 长江 (Cháng Jiāng) |
| English Name | Yangtze River |
| Length | 6,363 km (3,917 mi) |
| Source | Glaciers on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau |
| Mouth | East China Sea |
| Basin Area | 1.8 million km² (695,000 mi²) |
| Annual Discharge | 951.3 billion m³ |
| Countries | China |
| Provinces/Cities | Qinghai, Tibet, Sichuan, Yunnan, Chongqing, Hubei, Hunan, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Shanghai |
| Major Tributaries | Yalong River, Min River, Jialing River, Han River |
| Notable Features | Three Gorges Dam, Three Gorges (Qutang, Wu, Xiling) |

## Cultural Significance

The Yangtze River has profoundly influenced Chinese civilization for thousands of years. Often referred to as the "Mother River" of China, it has been central to the development of agriculture, transportation, and culture in the region. The river basin is home to numerous archaeological sites, including the remains of ancient cultures such as the Ba and Shu civilizations.

In Chinese literature and art, the Yangtze River appears frequently as a symbol of natural beauty and historical significance. The famous poet Li Bai (李白) wrote extensively about the river, and many historical events have taken place along its banks, including numerous battles during various periods of Chinese history.

The river also holds religious significance, with numerous temples and shrines built along its banks. The Three Gorges region, in particular, has been a site of pilgrimage for centuries.

## Modern Status

Today, the Yangtze River remains China's most important waterway, facilitating the transport of goods and supporting industrial development along its course. The Three Gorges Dam, the world's largest power station, has been constructed on the river, providing hydroelectric power and improving navigation while also creating environmental and social challenges.

The river basin supports a population of over 400 million people and accounts for approximately 40% of China's GDP. Major cities along the river, including Chongqing, Wuhan, Nanjing, and Shanghai, serve as economic centers for their respective regions.

However, the Yangtze faces significant environmental challenges, including water pollution, biodiversity loss, and the impacts of climate change. Conservation efforts are underway to protect the river's ecosystem and ensure sustainable development.

### Modern Challenges

1. **Water Pollution**: Industrial discharge, agricultural runoff, and domestic waste have contributed to water quality issues in the river.

2. **Biodiversity Loss**: The river is home to several endangered species, including the Yangtze finless porpoise and Chinese sturgeon, which face threats from habitat degradation and pollution.

3. **Climate Change**: Rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns affect water flow and increase the risk of both floods and droughts.

4. **Sediment Management**: The construction of dams has altered the natural sediment flow, affecting downstream ecosystems and coastal areas.

## References

1. Chen, J., Wang, F., & Finlayson, B. (2014). The Yangtze River: An introduction. *Geomorphology*, 209, 1-3.

2. Li, L., Zhang, Q., & Yao, J. (2017). Historical changes in the middle Yangtze River channel and their impacts on flood vulnerability. *Journal of Hydrology*, 547, 569-581.

3. Wang, H., Yang, Z., Saito, Y., Liu, J. P., & Sun, X. (2007). Stepwise decreases of the Huanghe (Yellow River) sediment load (1950-2005): Impacts of climate change and human activities. *Global and Planetary Change*, 57(3-4), 331-354.

4. Yang, S. L., Milliman, J. D., Li, P., & Xu, K. (2011). 50,000 dams later: Erosion of the Yangtze River and its delta. *Global and Planetary Change*, 75(3-4), 227-233.

![Yangtze River](/static/img/articles/yangtze-river/yangtze-river-illustration-01.jpg)