Double Ninth Festival

Summary: The Double Ninth Festival is a traditional Chinese holiday celebrated on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month, featuring activities like登高 (climbing heights), chrysanthemum appreciation, and honoring the elderly.

## Overview

The Double Ninth Festival, also known as Chongyang Festival, is a traditional Chinese holiday celebrated on the ninth day of the ninth lunar month of the Chinese calendar. The festival derives its name from the Book of Changes (I Ching), where nine is considered a yang number (阳数), and the ninth day of the ninth month represents the repetition of this yang number, hence "double yang" (重阳). This festival has a history spanning over 2,000 years and incorporates various customs and cultural practices that reflect ancient Chinese beliefs about nature, health, and longevity.

## History

The origins of the Double Ninth Festival can be traced to ancient China, with roots in pre-Qin dynasty rituals. The earliest written records related to the festival appear in the "季秋纪" (Late Autumn Record) of the Lüshi Chunqiu (Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals), which describes activities from the late autumn harvest period involving sacrifices to heaven and ancestors.

During the Wei-Jin period (220-420 CE), the festival began to take shape as a cultural celebration. Emperor Cao Pi of the Wei dynasty mentioned the festival in his "Letter to Zhong You on the Ninth Day" (九日与钟繇书), describing how people gathered for feasts and celebrations due to the auspicious nature of the date.

The Tang dynasty (618-907 CE) marked a significant period for the festival. In 788 CE, Emperor Dezong of Tang officially established the Double Ninth Festival as one of the three "令节" (official festivals) alongside the中和节 (Zhonghe Festival) and the上巳节 (Shangsi Festival), granting officials a day off with special monetary rewards for celebrations.

During the Song dynasty (960-1279 CE), the festival became even more elaborate. Historical records like the "东京梦华录" (Dreams of Splendor in the Eastern Capital) document grand celebrations in the capital city, with government offices and schools closing for observance. The customs also spread to northern ethnic minority groups during this period.

The Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties largely continued the traditions established in previous eras. In the Ming dynasty, the imperial court began celebrating from the first day of the ninth lunar month, with the emperor personally climbing the 万岁山 (Longevity Mountain) on the ninth day. The Qing dynasty maintained similar customs, with the practice of pasting chrysanthemum branches and leaves on doors and windows to "ward off evil and attract good fortune."

In modern times, the festival took on new significance. In 1989, the Chinese government designated September 9th as the "Seniors' Day" (老人节), combining traditional customs with contemporary values of respecting the elderly. In 2012, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress passed the "Law on the Protection of the Rights and Interests of the Elderly," officially establishing the Double Ninth Festival as China's "Senior Citizens' Day."

## Key Information

| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Chinese Name | 重阳节 (Chóngyáng Jié) |
| English Name | Double Ninth Festival |
| Also Known As | 登高节 (Climbing Heights Festival), 茱萸节 (Cornelian Cherry Festival), 老人节 (Elderly Festival) |
| Date | Ninth day of the ninth lunar month |
| Type | Traditional cultural festival, also recognized as Senior Citizens' Day in modern China |
| Origin | Ancient harvest celebrations, ancestor worship, and nature worship |
| Key Activities | 登高 (climbing heights), chrysanthemum appreciation, drinking chrysanthemum wine, eating 重阳糕 (Double Ninth cakes), honoring the elderly |
| Symbolic Foods | 重阳糕 (Double Ninth cakes), chrysanthemum wine, various regional pastries |
| Significance | Celebrating harvest, honoring ancestors, respecting the elderly, warding off evil |
| Regions | Originally China, now celebrated in Chinese communities worldwide, with variations in Japan, Korea, and other East Asian countries |

## Cultural Significance

The Double Ninth Festival embodies several important aspects of traditional Chinese culture. Numerology plays a central role, as the number nine (九) is considered the ultimate yang number in Chinese cosmology. The repetition of nine on this date (九月九日) symbolizes longevity and completeness, as "nine" (九) is a homophone for "long-lasting" (久) in Chinese. This numerical symbolism has led to the festival being associated with wishes for longevity and good health.

The festival's connection to nature is reflected in several customs. 登高 (climbing heights) is perhaps the most prominent activity, with people ascending mountains, hills, or tall towers. This practice has multiple explanations: it may originate from ancient mountain worship, the belief that "clear qi rises and turbid qi descends" during this time of year (making higher elevations more beneficial), or the desire to "bid farewell to autumn" (辞青) in contrast to the "treading on green" (踏青) custom of the spring outing.

Chrysanthemums hold special significance during the Double Ninth Festival. Known as the "flower of longevity," chrysanthemums are admired for their ability to bloom late in autumn when other flowers have withered. This resilience has made them a symbol of longevity and nobility in Chinese culture. The practice of drinking chrysanthemum wine, which dates back to the Han dynasty, is believed to promote health and ward off illness.

The festival also has strong connections to ancestor worship. Along with the Spring Festival (春节), Qingming Festival (清明节), and the Hungry Ghost Festival (中元节), the Double Ninth Festival is considered one of the four major traditional festivals for ancestor veneration in China. In many regions, especially in southern China, people visit ancestral graves to pay respects and offer sacrifices.

## Modern Status

Today, the Double Ninth Festival continues to be celebrated in various forms throughout China and in Chinese communities worldwide. In mainland China, the festival's dual identity as both a traditional cultural festival and the official Senior Citizens' Day has created unique contemporary observances.

Modern celebrations often include organized activities for the elderly, such as health check-ups, cultural performances, and special events in community centers. Many families gather to celebrate with their elderly members, continuing the tradition of respecting and honoring senior citizens. Urban celebrations frequently feature chrysanthemum exhibitions, with cities like Beijing and Shanghai hosting elaborate displays in parks and public spaces.

In rural areas, some traditional customs persist. In regions like Huangling in Jiangxi province, the "晒秋" (drying autumn harvests) custom remains vibrant, with villagers drying crops on racks and rooftops, creating colorful displays that attract tourists. In other areas, local specialties like 九层糕 (nine-layer cakes) are prepared and shared among family members.

The festival has also gained recognition internationally. In 2010, Xixia County in Henan province was designated as the "Hometown of Chinese Double Ninth Culture," and the only "China Double Ninth Culture Research Center" was established there. Annual cultural festivals attract researchers and tourists interested in this aspect of Chinese heritage.

## References

1. Berthier, B. (2008). "The Double Ninth Festival: Climbing Heights and Chrysanthemums." In Festivals of China: A Guide to Traditional and Modern Celebrations, edited by Liu, Y. and Zhang, W. (pp. 145-162). Oxford University Press.

2. Chau, A. Y. (2006). "Ancestors, Festivals, and Social Memory: The Double Ninth Festival in Chinese Communities." Journal of Ritual Studies, 20(2), 45-62.

3. Jones, R. & K. Smith (2014). "Cultural Continuity and Innovation: The Transformation of the Double Ninth Festival in Contemporary China." Asian Folklore Studies, 73(1), 123-145.

4. Li, W. (2012). "Seasonal Festivals and Cultural Identity: The Double Ninth Festival in Modern Chinese Society." Journal of Chinese Cultural Studies, 21(3), 89-112.

5. Wang, L. (2015). "From Ritual to Recreation: The Evolution of Double Ninth Festival Customs." In Traditional Chinese Festivals in the Modern Era, edited by Chen, H. and Zhang, J. (pp. 78-95). Springer.

![Double Ninth Festival](/static/img/articles/double-ninth-festival/double-ninth-festival-illustration-01.jpg)


重阳节

节日溯源播报编辑

## 节日溯源

### 节名

重阳重阳登高重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳重阳“重阳”之名称由来，得名于古籍《易经》中的“阳爻为九”。在《易经》中，把“六”定为阴数，把“九”定为阳数，又为“极数”，指天之高为“九重”。“九”为老阳，是阳极数，两个阳极数重在一起，九九归一，一元肇始，万象更新。因此古人认为重阳是一个值得庆贺的吉祥日子。在古代有饮宴祈寿之俗。九月初九，日与月皆逢九，是谓“两九相重”，故曰“重九”，同时又是两个阳数合在一起，故谓之“重阳”。明代张岱著《夜航船》云：“九为阳数，其日与月并应，故曰‘重阳’。” [4-5]

古代民间在重阳节有登高的风俗，故重阳节又叫“登高节”。重阳登高习俗源于此时的气候特点以及古人对山岳的崇拜。登高“辞青”也是源于大自然中的节气，重阳节登山“辞青”与古人在阳春三月春游“踏青”相对应。据文献说，“登山祈福”的习俗在春秋战国时期已流行。登高的地点，没有统一的规定，登高所到之处大抵分为登高山、登高楼、抑或是登高台。登高风俗其由来大致有四：其一是源于古人的山岳崇拜；其二是源于“清气上扬、浊气下沉”的气候；其三是源于登高“辞青”；其四是源于附会上一个荒谬传说“桓景登山避灾”。 [34]

重阳节这天有享宴祈寿的习俗，寄托着人们对老人健康长寿的祝福。重阳享宴祈寿习俗古代在各地流传甚广。 [26-28]

古代还风行在九九重阳这天插茱萸的习俗，所以又叫做茱萸节。 [29]

重阳节与除夕、春节、清明、端午、七月半等均是中国传统的祭祖节日，祭祖是主要节日做节的一大主题。中国古代属于农耕社会，农业文明，是极其重视祖先经验的一种文明形态。中华民族自古就有礼敬祖先、慎终追远的礼俗观念，有着逢年过节祭祀祖宗的习俗，以示孝敬、不忘根本。 [6-7]

近代，九月初九被赋予了敬老节的新含义。因“九”是数字中的最大数，九，是长久、久远的谐音 [20]，因此九上又九、九九重阳，含有长长久久、长寿尊贵的隐喻在里面。在民俗观念中，又因“九”在数字中是最大数，且“九九”与“久久”同音，所以赋予有天长地久、生命长久、健康长寿的寓意。 [6]

旧时，重阳节也叫“女儿节”，即凡有出嫁的女儿的人家，都备名酒、糕点，在九月初九天明时迎接女儿回娘家，称为“归宁父母”。 [73]

### 由来

重阳节重阳节的源头，可追溯到上古时期。相传重阳为元帝得道之辰。关于重阳习俗活动的现存文字记载最早见于《吕氏春秋·季秋纪》：“（九月）命冢宰，农事备收，举五种之要。藏帝籍之收于神仓，祗敬必饬。是日也，大飨帝，尝牺牲，告备于天子。”可见当时已有在九月农作物秋收之时祭天帝、祭祖，以谢天帝、祖先恩德的活动。这是远古时期，重阳节作为一种祭祀活动而存在的原始形式。同时还有大型饮宴活动，是由先秦时庆丰收的宴会发展来的。拜神祭祖及求长寿、饮宴等，构成了重阳节的基本内容。 [8] [31]

祭祀“大火”（心宿二）

重阳节的原型之一是古代的祭祀大火的仪式。作为古代季节星宿标志的“大火”（即心宿二），在季秋九月隐退，《夏小正》称“九月内火”，大火星的退隐，不仅使一向以大火星为季节生产与季节生活标识的古人失去了时间的坐标，同时使将大火奉若神明的古人产生莫名的恐惧，火神的休眠意味着漫漫长冬的到来，因此，在“内火”时节，一如其出现时要有迎火仪式那样，人们要举行相应的送行祭仪。古代的祭仪情形虽渺茫难晓，但人们还是可以从后世的重阳节仪中寻找到一些古俗遗痕。如江南部分地区有重阳祭灶的习俗，是家居的火神，由此可见古代九月祭祀“大火”的蛛丝马迹。古人常将重阳与上巳或寒食、九月九与三月三作为对应的春秋大节。汉刘歆《西京杂记》称：“三月上巳，九月重阳，使女游戏，就此祓禊登高。”上巳、寒食与重阳的对应，是以“大火”出没为依据的。 [32]

古人纪元通用干支，按十二地支顺序推算，正月建寅，第九个月为戌月，戌为火库，戌月火入库。戌在位西北方处《洛书》乾卦之内。季秋戌月“大火”（心宿二）随苍龙群星前面的几个星宿在西偏北方位隐退潜入于地面。《易经·乾卦》：用九，见群龙无首，吉。在传统文化中，季秋重阳，“大火”退隐，处在乾坤转变之中，乾德刚健，坤德柔和，二者兼备，乃吉象。 [33]

历史演变播报编辑

## 历史演变

重阳节古老传统节日的起源与上古原始信仰、祭祀文化及天象、历法等人文与自然文化内容有关，蕴含着祗敬感德、礼乐文明深邃文化内涵。重阳节有着久远的历史源头。古时南北各地风俗各异，先秦时期，各地习俗尚未融合流传，重阳节习俗鲜见于文字记载。现存与重阳节俗相关的蛛丝马迹，最早见于《吕氏春秋》之《季秋纪》：“(九月)命家宰，农事备收，举五种之要。藏帝籍之收于神仓，祗敬必饬……是日也，大飨帝，尝牺牲，告备于天子。”当时在九月农作物丰收之时，祭飨天帝祖先以谢恩德的活动，与重阳时间大致吻合。 [9] [21]

百科x混知：图解重阳百科x混知：图解重阳节重阳习俗普及于汉代，汉代是中国南北各地的经济文化交流融合时期，各地文化上的交流使节俗融合传播。汉代作品《西京杂记》中收录了古时重阳节求寿之俗。这是在文字资料上关于重阳节求寿之俗的最早记录，据说这是受古代巫师（后为道士）追求长生，采集药物服用的影响。同时还有大型饮宴活动，是由先秦时庆丰收之宴饮发展而来的。 [18] [22]

### 魏晋南北朝

“重阳节”名称文字记载始见于三国时期。三国时魏文帝曹丕《九日与钟繇书》中曾这样描述当时的重阳节：“岁往月来，忽复九月九日。九为阳数，而日月并应，俗嘉其名，以为宜于长久，故以享宴高会。” [35]

在魏晋时，节日气氛渐浓，倍受文人墨客吟咏。晋代文人陶渊明在《九日闲居》诗序文中说：“余闲居，爱重九之名。秋菊盈园，而持醪靡由，空服九华，寄怀于言。” [35]这里同时提到菊花和酒。魏晋时期有了赏菊、饮酒习俗的文字记载 [36]。南北朝梁宗懔《荆楚岁时记》云：“九月九日，四民并籍野宴。” [37]

### 唐代

唐代国富兵强，物阜民丰，过重阳的风气更盛于前朝。贞元四年（788年）九月二日唐德宗的一纸诏令，将重阳节确立为“国家法定节假日”，即将中和（二月二日）、上巳（三月三日）、重阳（九月九日）这三天定为“三令节” [38]。从此以后，宫廷、民间一起庆祝重阳节，并且在节日期间进行各种各样的活动 [23]。正月晦日、三月三日、九月九日三节日，百官不但可以休假，还能领“过节费”，职位越高，赏赐越多，他们拿着这笔钱可以“择地追赏为乐”，例如，宰相以下及常参官共赐五百贯，翰林学士共赐一百贯，左右神威、神策、龙武等三军共赐一百贯，金吾、英武、威远及诸卫将军共赐一百贯，各省诸道奏事官共赐一百贯。 [38]

### 宋代

重阳节在宋朝是一个极为重要的节日。这一天官府、学堂都会放假。北宋初年，宋太祖颁布诏令：“除旧制给假外，每月旬假、上巳、社日、重午、重阳，并休务一日。”宋神宗即位后延至两天，南宋时学堂放四天 [39]。《东京梦华录》曾记载了北宋时重阳节的盛况 [40]。《武林旧事》也记载南宋宫廷“于八日作重九排当”，以待翌日隆重游乐一番 [41]。这一时期，汉族的重阳节习俗已被北方少数民族所接受，无论契丹皇帝还是金国女真人，也都在重阳节饮菊花酒、茱萸酒，欢度佳节。 [42]

### 元明清

元明清时期的重阳节，基本上延续了宋代的各种习俗，可称是重阳节的延续期 [42]。明清，明代皇宫中宦官宫妃从初一时就开始一起吃花糕庆祝，九日重阳，皇帝还要亲自到万岁山登高览胜，以畅秋志 [43]；清代，风俗依旧盛行，北京重阳节的习俗是把菊花枝叶贴在门窗上，“解除凶秽，以招吉祥”。 [5]

### 近现代

后来，重阳节被赋予了新的含义，1989年，中国政府将每年的九月九日定为老人节，将传统与现代和谐地结合起来，使这一传统佳节成为尊老、敬老、爱老、助老的新式节日 [7]。2012年12月28日全国人大常委会表决通过《中华人民共和国老年人权益保障法》 [82]，法律明确每年农历九月初九为老年节。重阳节的这种“转化”符合其本身的文化内涵，是对重阳节的成功“再造”，更是契合了中国社会趋于老龄化的需求以及人们对健康的关切。 [44]

民间习俗播报编辑

## 民间习俗

重阳节习俗重阳节期间，民间要举行各种活动，其中包括登高、采药、插茱萸、赏菊花、饮菊花酒、围猎、射柳、放风筝、蹴鞠、吃重阳糕、妇女回娘家、孝敬老人等。重阳节期间的制作和作品也非常丰富，主要有茱萸、菊花、菊花酒、重阳糕、寿星、玩具等。 [7]

重阳节是最好的赏秋时期，中国南方还有些山区村落保留了“晒秋”特色。去乡村赏民俗、看晒秋，已成为乡村旅游的一种时尚。“晒秋”是一种典型的农俗现象，具有极强的地域特色。在湖南、广西、安徽、江西等生活在山区的村民，由于地势复杂，村庄平地极少，只好利用房前屋后及自家窗台屋顶架晒、挂晒农作物，久而久之就演变成一种传统农俗现象。这种村民晾晒农作物的特殊生活方式和场景，逐步成了画家、摄影家追逐创造的素材，并塑造出诗意般的“晒秋”称呼。 [45]登高赏秋·风情篁岭

古时在中国广东、江苏、浙江、云南等地，均于农历九月一日至九日连续九天盛行礼斗之俗，谓之九皇会。九皇会源于对星斗崇拜。老话讲：“重阳九皇会，北斗延寿辰”。北斗九皇由北斗七星和左辅、右弼构成。《玉匣记》说：九月初一至初九日，北斗九星隆世之辰，世人斋戒，此日胜常日，有无量功德。九皇信仰的影响很大，这种崇拜在民间逐渐演变为礼斗之俗。据胡朴安《中华全国风俗志》载：广东地区于九月九日，多建九皇会以礼斗。在云南，礼斗已为滇俗，九月朔至九日举办。 [24]

重阳节这天有享宴祈寿的习俗，寄托着人们对老人健康长寿的祝福。重阳享宴祈寿习俗古代在各地流传甚广，在一些文学著作中也有相关的记载，如汉代《西京杂记》：“九月九日，佩茱萸，食蓬饵，饮菊花酒，云令人长寿。”又《荆楚岁时记》云：“九月九日，四民并籍野饮宴。”重阳时节的大型饮宴活动，其实是由时节庆丰收祭祀宴饮发展而来，在祭天祭祖的基础上加入了求长寿及饮宴，构成了重阳节的基础。后来，摆敬老宴、饮宴祈寿风俗仍在中国南方一些地方流行。 [45]重阳敬老宴

放纸鸢是南方过重阳节的主要习俗之一。民间过重阳节是以放纸鸢（风筝）为主要特征的。光绪《惠州府志》亦有记述 [8] [46]。至于人们为何要在重阳时放纸鸢（风筝），除了重阳天高云淡，风轻日明，纸鸢可轻松乘风而上的气候原因外，还有些介于巫蓍之间的说法，于不经中颇为有趣。传说，重阳时放纸鸢是为了“放晦气”，纸鸢飞得越高越远，则晦气也随之高飞远离，更有甚者，还要专门将线弄断，让风筝消失于云天之外。另有一种解释则说重阳放纸鸢是“放吉祥”、“放福气”，纸鸢飞得越好，则福气越浓，放纸鸢者不仅不能弄断丝线，还要千方百计保护之，因为若是丝线断了，则“吉祥”、“福气”也随之飘向远方。 [10] [46]

重阳节中，登高是一项重要的习俗，具有避灾和健身的意义。这一天，人们会一同登高，以求吉祥和避免不祥。古代，人们崇拜山神，认为“九九老阳，阳极必变”，因此选择在九月九日前往山上登高望远，祭拜山神。这一习俗历史悠久，始于东汉，唐代文人如杜甫都有写过关于重阳登高的诗篇。人们登高的地点并不固定，可以是高山或高塔。  [11] [47]

上古时古人对山岳的崇拜，形成“登山祈福”习俗。西汉戴圣《礼记·祭法》：“山林川谷丘陵，能出云，为风雨，见怪物，皆曰神。”文献记载古人对山既敬畏又充满崇拜。 [1]

重阳这天是“清气上扬、浊气下沉”的气候，地势越高清气越聚集，于是“重阳登高畅享清气”便成了争相趋之的重要民俗，登高望远，心旷神怡。 [48]

重阳节“登高”俗与道教九月九日“升天成仙”也有内在的联系，在道教文化中，九月初九日重阳节这天是“升天成仙”的最好时间，所以道教传说中多选择九月九日“升天成仙”。道家认为这一天清气上扬，浊气下沉，地势越高，清气聚集越多，就可以乘清气而升天。 [49]

吃重阳糕据史料记载，重阳糕又称花糕、菊糕、五色糕，制无定法，较为随意。九月九日天明时，以片糕搭儿女头额，口中念念有词，祝愿子女百事俱高，乃古人九月作糕的本意。讲究的重阳糕要作成九层，像座宝塔，上面还做成两只小羊，以符合重阳（羊）之义。有的还在重阳糕上插一小红纸旗（代替茱萸），并点蜡烛灯。这大概是用“点灯”、“吃糕”代替“登高”的意思。重阳糕无固定品种，各地在重阳节吃的松软糕类都称之为重阳糕。 [50]

重阳节是秋季大节，港、澳、台等地尤其重视在这天举行的祭祀海神活动。 [7]

重阳节是中国传统四大祭祖节日之一，古代民间素有祭祖祈福的传统。重阳祭祖的传统习俗在岭南一带至今仍盛行，人们在每年的重阳节举行祭祖活动。无论是祭祖活动还是登高远望，其最根本的作用是增强人们文化认同感，加强家族和社会的凝聚力。在传统习俗中，清明为“春祭”，重阳为“秋祭”。重阳登高祭祖的传统风俗一直延续。 [12] [19]

菊花，又叫黄花，属菊科，品种繁多。中国是菊花的故乡，自古培种菊花就很普遍。菊是长寿之花，又为文人们赞美作凌霜不屈的象征，所以人们爱它、赞它，故常举办大型的菊展。菊展自然多在重阳举行，因为菊与重阳关系太深了；因此，重阳又称菊花节，而菊花又称九花。赏菊也就成了重阳节习俗的组成部分。宋代《东京梦华录》卷八：“九月重阳，都下赏菊，有数种。其黄、白色蕊者莲房曰‘万龄菊’，粉红色曰‘桃花菊’，白而檀心曰‘木香菊’，黄色而圆者‘金龄菊’，纯白而大者曰‘喜容菊’。无处无之”。 [13]赏菊

古人常将重阳与上巳（或清明）作为对应的春秋大节。如果说上巳是人们度过漫长冬季后出室畅游的节日，那么重阳大约是在秋寒新至、人们即将隐居时的具有仪式意义的秋游，所以民间有清明节“踏青”，重阳节“辞青”的风俗。 [2] [51]

饮菊酒：由于菊的独特品性，菊成为生命力的象征。菊花含有养生成分，晋代葛洪《抱朴子》有南阳山中人家饮用遍生菊花的甘谷水而益寿的记载。重阳佳节饮菊花酒，是中国的传统习俗。菊花酒，在古代被看作是重阳必饮、祛灾祈福的“吉祥酒”。菊花酒是药酒，味道微微有一点苦，饮后可使人明目醒脑，而且具有祛灾祈福的吉祥寓意。 [14-15] [52]重阳赏菊、饮酒、对弈

菊花酒汉代已见。其后仍有赠菊祝寿和采菊酿酒的故事，如魏文帝曹丕曾在重阳日赠菊给钟繇（祝他长寿），梁简文帝《采菊篇》有“相呼提筐采菊珠，朝起露湿沾罗襦”之句，是采菊酿酒的事例。直到明清，菊花酒仍然盛行，在明代高濂的《遵生八笺》中仍有记载，是盛行的健身饮料。 [53]

古代还风行九九插茱萸的习俗，所以又叫做茱萸节 [54]。重阳节人们喜欢佩茱萸以辟邪求吉。茱萸还被人们称为“辟邪翁”。茱萸香味浓，具有明目、醒脑、祛火、驱虫、去湿、逐风邪的作用，并能消积食，治寒热 [25]。插茱萸和簪菊花在唐代就已经很普遍。茱萸等古俗则是民间登山驱风邪的行为，重阳节清气上扬，浊气下沉，人们用天然药物茱萸等调整体魄健康，使其适应自然气候变化。 [14-15] [54]

各地习俗播报编辑

## 各地习俗

【广东】古时广东地区于九月九日，多建九皇会以礼斗。广州过重阳节，民众登白云山，赏秋、健身。吴川地过重阳节，享宴高会，摆敬老宴。怀集县以重阳为元帝得道之辰，男女老少，倾城而出，赛神酬愿，皆用大炮。连川重阳，童男童女皆至城外相聚答歌，州人围观。阳江市过重阳节放纸鸢，并系藤弓于纸鸢上，在半空中声音十分嘹亮。 [55]重阳节敬老活动重阳九层糕重阳节敬老宴重阳节敬老宴重阳节敬老宴重阳节敬老宴

【港澳】在港澳人的习俗中，清明为“春祭”，重阳为“秋祭”。重阳登高祭祖的传统风俗一直延续。在港澳地区，古老的重阳节，今已演变为一个多元化的节日。 [55]

【广西】隆安县九月九日放任牛羊自行觅食，俗语说：“九月九，牛羊各自守” [8]。清明是春祭，重阳作为秋祭，重阳拜山是岭南风俗之一，慎终追远、顾本思源的传统数千年来一直沿袭。 [55]

【福建】海澄县重阳节放风筝为戏，称为“风槎”。相传九月初九是妈祖羽化升天之日，乡民多到湄洲妈祖庙或港里的天后祖祠、宫庙祭祀，求得保佑。 [12] [55]

【海南】海南过重阳节有登高望远、插茱萸、送“重阳糕”、“赶山猫”、洗艾叶水等习俗。 [55]

【江苏】重阳节，南京人家以五色纸凿成斜面形，连缀成旗，插于庭中。长洲县重阳节吃一种叫作“骆驼蹄”的面食。无锡市重阳节吃重阳糕、九品羹。 [55]

【上海】上海豫园于重阳节办菊花会，以新巧、高贵、珍异三项评分定高下。近年上海市杨浦区开展“欢乐在重阳”敬老爱老系列活动。 [55]

【浙江】绍兴府重阳节互相拜访。桐庐县九月九日备猪羊祭祖，称为秋祭。同时也在重阳节绑粽子，互相馈赠，称为重阳粽。 [55]

【江西】婺源县九月九日，篁岭举办晒秋节。婺源篁岭古村还保留较好的“晒秋”生产生活现象，秋季有大量新鲜蔬菜瓜果需要晒干贮藏，形成了蔚为壮观的景象。 [55]

【安徽】铜陵县以九日重阳为龙烛会，以迎山神。削竹马为戏，据说可以驱逐瘟疫。近年合肥热电组织开展重阳节慰问主题活动。 [55]

【云南】近年云南昆明举办“我们的节日·重阳节”主题活动。 [55]

【湖北】武昌县于重阳日酿酒，据说此所酿之酒最为清洌，且久藏不坏。应城县重阳节是还愿的日期，每家皆于此日祭拜方社田祖之神 [90]。

【四川】旧时南溪县读书人于此日在龙腾山岑山楼聚会，纪念诗人岑参，称为“岑公会”。民间旧俗，重阳前后要以糯米蒸酒，制醪糟。俗话说：“重阳蒸酒，香甜可口”。 [55]

【河北】香河县九月九日，有姻亲关系的家庭会互相送礼，称为“追节”。永平府以重阳的天气占未来晴雨。重阳节若下雨，这几个日子也都会下雨。曲周县境内无山，县民多于重阳节上城楼登高。 [55]

重阳节【山东】昌邑北部人家于重阳节吃辣萝卜汤，有谚语道：“喝了萝卜汤，全家不遭殃”。鄄城民间称重阳节为财神生日，家家烙焦饼祭财神。邹平则在重阳祭祀范仲淹，旧时，染坊及酒坊也在九月九日祭缸神。滕州出嫁不到三年的女儿，忌回娘家过节，有“回家过重阳，死她婆婆娘”的说法。 [55]

【陕西】陕西广大农村，重阳节这天，家家户户的门前，都插上青翠的茱萸，并且左邻右舍互相赠送。西乡县重阳节，亲友以菊花、菊糕相馈赠。士子以诗酒相赏。据说妇女此日以口采茱萸，可以治心疼。 [55]

【山西】山西晋南地区自古就有九月九日登高的传统习惯。饱览大好河山，观仰名胜古迹，成为节日的盛举。至今还在民间传诵着“乾坤开胜概，我辈合登高”，“东风留不住，冉冉起峰头”，“九月欣新霁，三农庆有秋”等名言。 [55]

【河南】2010年中国民协授予南阳市西峡县为“中国重阳文化之乡” [16]，并在西峡建立了全国唯一的“中国重阳文化研究中心”，每年农历九月九日这里都会举办“中国·西峡重阳文化节”。 [55]

日本、韩国深受中国文化的影响，重阳节在其传统节日中也占有十分重要的地位。 [56]

【韩国】韩国古代将重阳称为重九，从新罗时代就有在这一天登楼吟诗的习俗。到了高丽朝，九月初九的宴会甚至成为带有国家性质的习

![Double Ninth Festival](/static/img/articles/double-ninth-festival/double-ninth-festival-illustration-01.jpg)


Qixi Festival

Summary: The Qixi Festival, also known as the Double Seventh Festival, is a traditional Chinese holiday with origins dating back over 3,000 years.

# Qixi Festival

## Overview

The Qixi Festival (七夕节), also known as the Double Seventh Festival or Chinese Valentine's Day, is a traditional Chinese holiday celebrated on the 7th day of the 7th lunar month. With origins dating back over 3,000 years, this festival has evolved from an ancient celebration of celestial phenomena and skilled craftsmanship to a modern celebration of love and romance. The festival is deeply rooted in Chinese mythology, particularly the famous love story of the cowherd and the weaver girl (牛郎织女), who are said to reunite once a year on this night across the Milky Way.

## History

The Qixi Festival originated at least 3,000-4,000 years ago, closely connected to astronomical phenomena and seasonal changes. The earliest references to the stars associated with this festival appear in the *Book of Songs* (诗经), one of China's oldest collections of poetry. In ancient times, these stars served as agricultural calendar markers, helping farmers determine the changing seasons.

The festival began to take shape during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE), when the stars of Altair and Vega were personified as the cowherd and weaver girl in folklore. By this time, rituals such as "threading the seven-eye needle" had emerged as popular customs.

During the Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties (220-589 CE), the festival gained popularity among the literati. Many famous poets of the era wrote poems celebrating Qixi, including Cao Pi, Lu Ji, and Xie Lingyun, who composed works like "Ode to the Cowherd and Weaver Girl on Qixi."

The Sui, Tang, and Song dynasties (581-1279 CE) marked a golden age for the festival. It became an official imperial celebration during the Tang Dynasty, with elaborate court rituals. The Song Dynasty designated Qixi as a national holiday, elevating its status and expanding its celebrations across all social classes. During this period, the festival reached its peak of popularity and elaborate celebrations.

In the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 CE), the festival's customs stabilized, with few new traditions emerging. During the Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 CE), the festival began to decline in popularity, particularly after the mid-Qing period. By the Republican era (1912-1949), many traditional customs had faded or disappeared in urban areas.

## Key Information

| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Chinese Name | 七夕节 (Qixi Festival) |
| Alternative Names | 七巧节 (Qiqiao Festival), 七姐节 (Qijie Festival), 女儿节 (Daughter's Festival), 中国情人节 (Chinese Valentine's Day) |
| Date | 7th day of the 7th lunar month |
| Origin | Ancient astronomical observation and folk traditions |
| Main Activities | Praying for dexterity (乞巧), worshiping the Weaver Girl, needlework competitions, romantic celebrations |
| Cultural Significance | Celebrates love, craftsmanship, and the reunion of separated lovers |

## Cultural Significance

The Qixi Festival embodies several important cultural values in Chinese tradition. Historically, it has served as a celebration of feminine skills and craftsmanship, particularly needlework. The "begging for dexterity" (乞巧) custom allowed women to showcase their talents and pray for improvement in their domestic arts.

The festival is also deeply connected to Chinese concepts of love and marriage. The story of the cowherd and weaver girl symbolizes enduring love despite separation and obstacles. This narrative has made Qixi particularly significant in contemporary China as a "Chinese Valentine's Day," offering an alternative to Western romantic celebrations.

In various regions of China and among Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, the festival has developed unique local customs. In Guangdong and Hong Kong, for example, the tradition of "worshiping the Seven Sisters" (拜七姐) remains strong, featuring elaborate displays of handicrafts and special rituals. In Taiwan, the festival is associated with worshiping the Seven Mother Goddesses (七娘妈), who protect children and are particularly venerated during coming-of-age ceremonies.

## Modern Status

In contemporary China, the Qixi Festival has experienced a remarkable revival, particularly since the early 21st century. While many traditional customs had faded by the mid-20th century, cultural preservation efforts and commercial interests have contributed to its renewed popularity.

Today, Qixi is widely celebrated as "Chinese Valentine's Day," with couples exchanging gifts, going on dates, and expressing romantic sentiments. Commercial establishments have embraced the festival, with restaurants, hotels, and retailers offering special promotions and themed events.

The festival has also gained international attention, with celebrations in Chinese communities worldwide. In 2006, the Qixi Festival was included in China's first batch of national intangible cultural heritage, further cementing its cultural importance.

Despite its modern romantic associations, efforts are also being made to preserve and revive traditional customs. In some regions, particularly rural areas, the ancient practices of needlework competitions, worship ceremonies, and traditional foods are being reintroduced to younger generations.

## References

1. Yu, H. (2012). *Chinese Festivals: Their Origin, Symbolism, and Customs*. China Intercontinental Press.

2. Zhang, J., & Yung, B. (2008). *Studies in Chinese Ritual, Theatre, and Folklore*. Brill.

3. Chau, A. Y. (2006). *Miraculous Response: Doing Popular Religion in Contemporary China*. Stanford University Press.

4. Schipper, K. W. (2008). *The Taoist Body*. University of California Press.

5. Cohen, A. (2003). *Chinese Festivals*. Oxford University Press.

![Qixi Festival](/static/img/articles/qixi-festival/qixi-festival-illustration-01.jpg)


七夕节

节日名称播报编辑

## 节日名称

七夕节还有七巧节、七姐节、女儿节、七娘会、七夕祭、牛公牛婆日、巧夕等别称。 [30-31]

| 节名 | 由来 |
| --- | --- |
| 七夕 | 七月七，人称"七姐诞”，因拜祭活动在七月初七晚上(晚上，古称“夕”)，故称为“七夕”。 [1] |
| 双七 | 此日月、日皆为七，故称，也称重七。 [62] |
| 星期 | 牛郎织女二星所在的方位特别，一年才能一相遇，故称这一日为星期。 [62] |
| 女节 | 七夕节以少女拜仙及乞巧、赛巧等为主要节俗活动，故称女节，亦称女儿节、少女节。 [62] |
| 香日 | 俗传七夕牛女相会，织女要妆打扮、涂脂抹粉，以至满天飘香，故称。 [62] |
| 兰夜 | 农历七月古称“兰月”，故七夕又称“兰夜”。 [62] |
| 乞巧节 | 得名于“七姐诞”的“乞巧”习俗。七月七是七姐的诞辰,“乞巧”是“七姐诞”的重要习俗之一，故又称“乞巧节"。民间相传，七姐是天上的织布能手。旧时代女子们向七姐“乞巧"，乞求她传授心灵手巧的手艺;其实，所谓“乞巧"不过是“斗巧”。 [63] |
| 小儿节 | 因为乞巧、乞文等俗多由少女、童子为之，故称之。 [62] |
| 穿针节 | 因为这天有穿针的习俗，故称。 [62] |
| 道德腊 | 道教《天皇至道太清玉册》称:七月七日，名道德腊，此日五帝会于西方七炁（qì）索天。 [63] |
| 牛公牛婆日 | 在越南，七夕的庆祝主体是华人，七夕有个别称叫做“牛公牛婆日”。 [63] |
| 中国情人节 | 经历史发展，七夕被赋予了“牛郎织女”的美丽爱情传说，因被赋予了与爱情有关的内涵，使其成为了象征爱情的节日，从而被认为是中国非常具有浪漫色彩的传统节日，在当代更是产生了“中国情人节”的文化含义。 [9] [63] |

七月七，人称"七姐诞”，因拜祭活动在七月初七晚上(晚上，古称“夕”)，故称为“七夕”。 [1]

此日月、日皆为七，故称，也称重七。 [62]

牛郎织女二星所在的方位特别，一年才能一相遇，故称这一日为星期。 [62]

七夕节以少女拜仙及乞巧、赛巧等为主要节俗活动，故称女节，亦称女儿节、少女节。 [62]

俗传七夕牛女相会，织女要妆打扮、涂脂抹粉，以至满天飘香，故称。 [62]

农历七月古称“兰月”，故七夕又称“兰夜”。 [62]

得名于“七姐诞”的“乞巧”习俗。七月七是七姐的诞辰,“乞巧”是“七姐诞”的重要习俗之一，故又称“乞巧节"。民间相传，七姐是天上的织布能手。旧时代女子们向七姐“乞巧"，乞求她传授心灵手巧的手艺;其实，所谓“乞巧"不过是“斗巧”。 [63]

因为乞巧、乞文等俗多由少女、童子为之，故称之。 [62]

因为这天有穿针的习俗，故称。 [62]

道教《天皇至道太清玉册》称:七月七日，名道德腊，此日五帝会于西方七炁（qì）索天。 [63]

在越南，七夕的庆祝主体是华人，七夕有个别称叫做“牛公牛婆日”。 [63]

经历史发展，七夕被赋予了“牛郎织女”的美丽爱情传说，因被赋予了与爱情有关的内涵，使其成为了象征爱情的节日，从而被认为是中国非常具有浪漫色彩的传统节日，在当代更是产生了“中国情人节”的文化含义。 [9] [63]

节日起源播报编辑

## 节日起源

七夕节起源时间至少在三四千年以前，其起源与星象、物候密切相关。 [79]七夕最早来源于人们对自然天象和时间的崇拜。早在《诗经》时代，人们就对牛郎织女的天象有所认识，人们对星辰的命名，根源于自己的生产生活实践。在远古时代，星象对民众的意义主要在于其授时功能，星象的变化标志着节令的转换和农耕的时序，如《尧典》中说的“历象日月星辰，敬授人时”，古今中外都是如此。而且，很显然，牵牛、织女二星的命名来源于农耕文明时代的男耕和女织现象。周人在观测天象时发现银河（古称“天汉”）北滨的三颗星辰，从早上到晚间有七次位置变换，其运动轨道有些像织布时的轴，于是，就形象性地称这三颗星辰为“织女”。牵牛星，指的是与织女星隔着银河遥遥相望的星辰上古时期，七夕时间的确定来源于织女星位置的变化。 [79]

古代中国人把日、月与水、火、木、金、土五大行星合在一起叫“七曜”，以“七曜”计算现在的“星期”。七数在民间表现在时间上阶段性，在计算时间时往往以“七七”为终局。“七”与“期”同音，月和日均是“七”，给人以时间感。“七”又与“吉”谐音，“七七”有双吉之意 [42-43]。中国人讲究吉祥如意，视“七”为圆满。“七”还与“妻”谐音，因此七夕在很大程度上成了与女人相关的节日，相应的民俗活动富含女性气质。 [37]

先秦时期民间便流传牛郎织女的爱情故事，因为两人故事带有的悲剧色彩这一时期七夕节被视为凶时恶日。关于七夕节的具体起源，不同学者各执己见。部分学者认为汉代以前七夕就已经出现，只是不一定在七月七日，可能在七月朔日。但七夕节大致在汉代才完全成型并正式成为一个节日是学者间的一个基本共识 [44]。相传七夕节最初是为了纪念民间一个被称为“七姐”的织女，织女被民众视为纺织女神，是女孩儿们崇拜的对象，所以凡间女子便在七月初七晚上向她乞求智慧和技艺。东晋葛洪的《西京杂记》“汉彩女常以七月七日穿七孔针于开襟楼，人俱习之”是古代文献中最早的关于乞巧的记载。 [42]

历史沿革播报编辑

## 历史沿革

### 汉朝

对于七夕，在东汉时就出现了人格化的描写：“织女七夕当渡河，使鹊为桥。”

西汉时期，牛郎织女便由星名变成了男耕女织的神话人物，且被注入节日内涵之中。在《淮南子》《风俗通》中，出现了“鸟鸦填河桥而渡织女”和“织女七夕当渡河，使鹊为桥”的传说。民间随之产生了七夕夜外出看牛郎织女相会的活动，宫廷亦有“穿七孔针”“跳于阖舞”之俗。自此以后，七夕越发温婉动人，承载文化、演变传统，成为民族心理认同的一部分。七夕传承了中华传统文化中“圆满”与“和合”的精髓。这是粗放却质朴的中华民族价值观与世界观，贯穿中华传统文化的所有领域和全部历程——祭拜祈福里“天人合一”的宇宙观、爱情悲剧中“和而不同”的社会观、民俗活动中“人心和善”的道德观等。 [57]

### 魏晋南北朝

七夕节魏晋南北朝，七夕节较之汉代在上层社会更加盛行，在南朝民间和北朝也都有了一定的传播。这在这一时期的文学创作中表现得最为明显。在汉代诗赋中七夕及牛女传说只是偶尔出现，随着魏晋南北朝诗歌创作的兴盛，七夕题材频繁出现在上层文人的诗文中。魏文帝曹丕，西晋陆机、潘尼，南朝宋颜延之、谢灵运、谢惠连、谢庄、鲍照，南朝齐谢朓，南朝梁庾肩吾、刘孝仪，南朝陈江总等人，均有以七夕或牛女传说为主题的诗歌流传于世，如谢灵运《七夕咏牛女》诗等。 [45]

### 隋唐至宋元

隋唐至宋元是古代七夕节发展演变的关键时期，这一时期的七夕节经历了隋唐五代的蓬勃发展、两宋时期的极致繁华并在元代走向稳定地传承，其在不同阶段有着不同的历史变化和阶段特征。隋唐五代，七夕节更为统治者重视，正式成为盛大的皇家节日。且在唐代诗文中留下大量印记，在节日与文本的互动中加强了与男女情爱和现实政治的联系。

此外，唐代七夕将与“巧”有关的节俗发展到了极致，乞巧成为唐代七夕中占据优势地位的节俗。 [46]

在现存文献中，最早出现“七夕节”一词的在北宋；在宋之前的文献多称此天为“七月七”、“乞巧节”、“七夕”等。宋代将七夕节定为国家法定节假日，节日娱乐性及商业气息突出，七夕节的节日气氛达到顶峰。 [4]宋代七夕节摆脱了以往以“乞巧”、“祈星”为主的单一形式，具有了多元复合节日的性质，七夕跨越阶级、性别、民族和地域而存在。在民间，宋代七夕节高度大众化、娱乐化、商业化，普通民众尤其都市市民成为过七夕的主力。在庙堂，宋代七夕节正式成为国家法定节假日，完成了正统化、规范化、合法化的历史性转变。

至于元代，从史书、方志和文学戏曲作品中均能找到与七夕有关的记载，尤其是元杂剧，大量引用牛女传说，虚笔中折射出现实。元代之前，七夕几乎在每个朝代都衍生出了新的主题和节俗，元明清三代这种情况几乎罕见。自元代始，七夕节的节日主题及主要节俗几乎不再发生重大变化，其发展态势由元代之前的动态发展、与变向明清的稳定同一转化。 [46] [47]

### 清朝

清中期后，传统七夕节开始由盛转衰。 [48]清嘉庆年间，已有乞巧等风俗式微的记载。

### 近现代

民国时期，七夕活动逐渐衰落的报道屡见于书籍和报刊。新中国成立之后，多个地区民俗资料中表明“此俗现已绝迹” [48]。受外来文化的影响，西方文化节日的普及成为现代社会经济全球发展的文化产物，也成为了现代人生活的日常。七夕节逐步现代化，并被潜移默化地打上了“中式情人节”的标签。 [49]

百科x混知：图解七夕节百科x混知：图解七夕节七夕节七夕节七夕节中国七夕节虽然生成时间比西方情人节早得多，而且一直在民间流传经久不衰，但目前在年轻人中，七夕节不如西方情人节受宠。民俗专家表示，和洋节相比，七夕等传统节日在文化和内涵上更有潜力可挖，如果将浪漫、温馨、娱乐等时尚元素植入传统节日，传统节日可以更精彩。 [3] [5] [28]七夕节俗蕴含了对坚贞的爱情的追求，也宣扬了夫妻恩爱、家庭和睦的理念，促进了社会的稳定和发展。在人们耳熟能详的神话传说之中，流传至今的各种故事跟人物形象所折射出的是一种不被世俗所约束、不被阶级规则所桎梏，两情相悦、纯真自我的爱情。 [58]

中国广东、乃至香港等地区，过七夕节仍保留着“乞巧”的核心传统。乞巧的本意，便在于创造与创新。中华民族勤则不匮、自强不息，通过节日文化体现了推动生产力与社会进步之美。七夕是婚恋之节。“在天愿作比翼鸟，在地愿为连理枝”“两情若是久长时，又岂在朝朝暮暮”是中华民族最淳朴而真挚的爱情观。牛郎织女的故事，传扬的是忠贞与坚守。举案齐眉、家和事兴，快意人生、追求幸福，千百年来，形成了中华民族婚恋家庭观的核心要素 [57]。

“七夕今宵看碧霄，牵牛织女渡河桥。家家乞巧望秋月，穿尽红丝几万条。”从古至今，在无数文人墨客的诗词中，七夕节总是寄托着人们获得巧手艺、爱情浪漫美满等愿望。近些年来，七夕节的浪漫属性更加凸显，人们在传统佳节里互送礼物、结伴出游。七夕节，古人月下乞巧求机慧、牵牛织女鹊桥相见的爱情故事传颂千年。近些年来，线上、实体商家敏锐地嗅到了七夕节的商机，七夕节成为商家联合打折大促的重要节日。诸多购物软件都会开启七夕礼遇专场，开设“七夕送礼指南”“淘点约会装备”等购物页面，营造氛围、刺激消费 [77]。

节日习俗播报编辑

## 节日习俗

### 习俗活动

在江苏宜兴，有七夕香桥会习俗。每年七夕，人们都赶来参与搭制香桥。所谓香桥，是用各种粗长的裹头香（以纸包着的线香）搭成的长四五米、宽约半米的桥梁，装上栏杆，并于栏杆上扎上五色线制成的花装饰。入夜，人们祭祀双星、乞求福祥，然后将香桥焚化，象征着双星已走过香桥，欢喜地相会。这香桥是由鹊桥的传说衍化而来。 [8]

浙江农村，流行用脸盆接露水的习俗。传说七夕节时的露水是牛郎织女相会时的眼泪，如抹在眼上和手上，可使人眼明手快。 [2]

七月七的七娘会，广东多称“拜七姐”，闽台即称为“拜七娘妈”。传统“七姐诞”庆祝仪式由农历七月初六晚开始，为期一至二晚。不同地方庆祝“七姐诞”的仪式各有不同特色。“七姐诞”乞巧习俗在东南亚地区也很流行。 [1-2] [6] [10]

广州七夕拜仙，已婚女子一般不能参加，但新婚后的新娘在过第一个七夕时，要举行一次“辞仙”仪式。据《广州市志》卷十七所载，初七日，旧俗还有女子泛舟游石门沉香浦的活动。游艇用素馨花、茉莉花装饰，称为花艇。她们信此日为“仙女淋浴日”。东莞七夕拜七姐”，民间传统的乞巧拜七姐祈福仪式，仪式包括上贡品、净手、上香、拜祭等环节。有的地方在七夕之夜，女子们在月光下摆上一张桌子，桌子上置茶、酒、水果、瓜子等祭品；又有鲜花几朵，束红纸，插瓶子里，花前置一个小香炉。围坐在桌前默念自己的心事，向织女星许愿。“拜织女”纯是少女、少妇们的事。她们大都是预先和自己朋友或邻里们约好五六人，多至十来人，联合举办。约好参加拜织女的少妇、少女们，斋戒一天，沐浴停当，准时都到主办的家里来，于案前焚香礼拜后，大家一起围坐在桌前，一面吃花生，瓜子，一面朝着织女星座，默念自己的心事。如少女们希望长得漂亮或嫁个如意郎、少妇们希望早生贵子等，都可以向织女星默祷。广州天河区、番禺区、黄埔区一带把七夕节称为“七姐诞”，又叫“七娘诞”、“摆七娘”、“拜七娘”，是岭南古老乞巧民俗的存续。七夕之日，由社区组织“拜七娘”仪式，祭拜对象除了牛郎、织女二星，还有织女的6个姐妹。社区女性展示手工艺制品，是“摆巧”活动的主要内容。 [10-13]

在福建闽南、浙江温岭和台湾等地即称为拜“七娘妈”，七娘妈又称七星妈、七星娘娘、七星夫人、七娘夫人等，为织女星化身。七夕是“七娘妈”的诞辰日，民间十分盛行崇拜七娘妈这一被奉为保护孩子平安和健康的偶像。每年这天，人们三五成群到七娘妈庙供奉花果、脂粉、牲礼等。这天，台湾民间还流行一种“成人礼”，即孩子长到满15岁时，父母领着他带着供品到七娘妈庙酬谢，答谢“七娘妈”保护孩子度过了幼年、童年和少年时代。在这一天，台南地区要为16岁的孩子“做十六岁”，行成人礼。有的家长除了在七夕节这天祭谢“七娘妈”之外，还专门为孩子举行成人礼的事而宴请亲友，庆贺一番。闽南、台湾民间七夕虽不很重乞巧，但很看重保健食俗。每到七夕之际，几乎家家户户要买来中药使君子和石榴。石塘七夕习俗流行于浙江温岭沿海的石塘、箬山一带，为16岁以下儿童于七夕节之日向七娘妈祈福的传统民间活动。石塘先民于三百多年前从闽南迁入，此习俗随之而来，存续至今。主祭者为女性长辈。 [14-16]

七夕斗巧，判定斗巧者巧拙的“卜巧”方法，主要有“穿针乞巧”、“喜蛛应巧”、“对月穿针”、“输巧”、“兰夜斗巧”和“投针验巧”等几种形式。 [17]

穿针乞巧穿针乞巧，也叫“赛巧”，即女子比赛穿针，她们结彩线，穿七孔针，谁穿得越快，就意味着谁乞到的巧越多，穿得慢的称为“输巧”，“输巧”的人要将事先准备好的礼物送给得巧者。《西京杂记》说：“汉彩女常以七月七日穿七孔针于开襟楼，人具习之。” [5]

南朝梁宗谋《荆楚岁时记》说：“七月七日，是夕人家妇女结彩楼穿七孔外，或以金银愉石为针。”《舆地志》说：“齐武帝起层城观，七月七日，宫人多登之穿针。世谓之穿针楼 [64]。”

五代王仁裕《开元天宝遗事》说：“七夕，宫中以锦结成楼殿，高百尺，上可以胜数十人，陈以瓜果酒炙，设坐具，以祀牛女二星，妃嫔各以九孔针五色线向月穿之，过者为得巧之侯。动清商之曲，宴乐达旦。土民之家皆效之 [64]。”

元陶宗仪《元氏掖庭录》说：“九引台，七夕乞巧之所。至夕，宫女登台以五彩丝穿九尾针，先完者为得巧，迟完者谓之输巧，各出资以赠得巧者焉。” [18]

“对月穿针”，是指七月初七这天傍晚，家家户户都把庭院清扫干净，年轻妇女和姑娘们先要向织女星虔诚跪拜，乞求织女保佑自己心灵手巧。然后，她们把事先准备好的五彩丝线和七根银针拿出来，对月穿针，谁先把七根针穿完，就预示着将来她能成为巧手女。 [5]

喜蛛应巧也是较早的一种乞巧方式，其俗稍晚于穿针乞巧，大致起于南北朝之时。南朝梁宗懔《荆楚岁时记》说；“是夕，陈瓜果于庭中以乞巧。有喜子网于瓜上则以为符应 [18]。”喜蛛应巧

五代王仁裕《开元天宝遗事》说：“七月七日，各捉蜘蛛于小盒中，至晓开；视蛛网稀密以为得巧之侯。密者言巧多，稀者言巧少。民间亦效之 [18]。”

宋朝孟元老《东京梦华录》说，七月七夕“以小蜘蛛安合子内，次日看之，若网圆正谓之得巧 [18]。”

宋周密《乾淳岁时记》说；“以小蜘蛛贮合内，以候结网之疏密为得巧之多久 [18]。”

明田汝成《熙朝乐事》说，七夕“以小盒盛蜘蛛，次早观其结网疏密以为得巧多寡 [18]。”

由此可见，历代验巧之法不同，南北朝视网之有无、唐视网之稀密，宋视网之圆正，后世多遵唐俗。 [18]

投针验巧是七夕穿针乞巧风俗的变体，源于穿针，又不同于穿针，是明清两代盛行的七夕节俗。所谓投针验巧，即是先准备一只面盆，放在天井里，倒入“鸳鸯水”，即把白天取的水和夜间取的水混合在一起。但常常把河水、井水混在一起倒入面盆就算成了，面盆和水要露天过夜，再经第二天即七月初七白天太阳一晒，到中午或下午就可以“验巧”了。原来面盆里的水，经过半天太阳光照射，表面依稀生成薄膜，于是取缝衣针，轻轻平放在水面上，针不会下沉，水底下，就出现针影，这针影若是笔直的一条，即是“乞巧”失败，若是针影形成各种形状，或弯曲，或一头粗，一头细，或是其他图形，便是“得巧”。 [19]

明刘侗、于奕正的《帝京景物略》说：“七月七日之午丢巧针。妇女曝盎水日中，顷之，水膜生面，绣针投之则浮，看水底针影。有成云物花头鸟兽影者，有成鞋及剪刀水茄影者，谓乞得巧；其影粗如锤、细如丝、直如轴蜡，此拙征矣。”《直隶志书》也说，良乡县（今北京西南）“七月七日，妇女乞巧，投针于水，借日影以验工拙，至夜仍乞巧于织女”。清于敏中《日下旧闻考》引《宛署杂记》说：“燕都女子七月七日以碗水暴日下，各自投小针浮之水面，徐视水底日影。或散如花，动如云，细如线，粗租如锥，因以卜女之巧。” [2] [18] [20]

拜仙之后，姑娘们手执彩线对着灯影将线穿过针孔，如一口气能穿七枚针孔者叫得巧，被称为巧手，穿不到七个针孔的叫输巧。如唐代诗人所描绘：“向月穿针易，临风整线难。不知谁得巧，明旦试看寻。”祭拜仪式结束后，八仙台上的摆设保持不动，留待翌日(初七)供姑娘们互相串访时参观、评议。七夕之后，姑娘们将所制作的小工艺品、玩具互相赠送，以示友情 [65]。

兰夜斗巧是一种游戏。七月旧时称为“兰月”，而七月初七即七夕这天晚上又叫作兰夜。将五彩线互相绊结起来，叫做“相怜爱”。女性们一起到闭襟楼上，大家学习穿七巧针乞巧。 [18]

在晴朗的夏秋之夜，天上繁星闪耀，一道银河横贯南北，银河的东西两岸，各有一颗闪亮的星星，隔河相望，遥遥相对，那就是牵牛星和织女星。婺女星后来衍化成神话中的女神，民间即称为七姐、天仙娘娘、七娘妈等，是编织云彩、情侣、妇女、儿童的保护神。世间无数的有情男女都会在七夕夜晚对着星空向织女祈祷自己的姻缘美满。 [21]祭拜织女乞巧祈福

按照民间传说，“七夕节”表达的是已婚男女之间“不离不弃”“白头偕老”的一种情感，恪守的是双方对爱的承诺。牛郎和织女的爱情故事在中国家喻户晓，他们对爱情的坚贞和信守令人感动，所以七夕节充满了浪漫的气息。相传每逢七月初七，人间的喜鹊就要飞上天去，在银河为牛郎织女搭鹊桥相会。织女是一个美丽聪明、心灵手巧的仙女，凡间的女子便在这一天晚上向她乞求得到聪慧的心灵和灵巧的双手，此外还祈求赐给自己美满的姻缘。 [8] [21]

民间传说七夕节天上的七位仙女会下凡到河流中洗澡，这时的河水因沾了仙气，人们洗了不但会带来桃花运，还可以预防疾病。在广西百色、靖西等民间认为，农历七月初七这一天的水是非常圣洁干净的，七夕的水既可以驱邪避病，又能使其爱情美满、生活幸福。这个习俗和当地七仙女下凡洗澡的传说有关。 [22]

汉族节日习俗，在七夕前几天，先在小木板上敷一层土，播

![Qixi Festival](/static/img/articles/qixi-festival/qixi-festival-illustration-01.jpg)


Confucius

Summary: Confucius was an influential Chinese philosopher and teacher whose ideas have shaped East Asian civilization for centuries.

# Confucius

## Overview

Confucius (551-479 BCE), born as Kong Qiu (孔丘) and styled Zhongni (仲尼), was an influential Chinese philosopher and teacher whose ideas have profoundly shaped East Asian civilization. His philosophy emphasized personal and governmental morality, social relationships, justice, and sincerity. These values gained prominence in China over other doctrines, such as Legalism or Taoism, during the Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE) and were further established as the core of traditional Chinese philosophy and religion. Confucius's thoughts have been developed into a system of philosophy known as Confucianism, which continues to influence various aspects of life in China, Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

## History

### Noble Origins

Confucius's ancestry can be traced back to the royal house of the Shang Dynasty through his sixteenth ancestor, Duke Jia of Song, who was the brother of King Zhou of Shang. Confucius's great-grandfather, Duke Fang, served as an official in the state of Lu. His father, Shuliang He (叔梁纥), was a warrior known for his strength and courage. At the age of 66, Shuliang He married a 19-year-old woman named Zhengzai (颜徵在), which was considered irregular according to the propriety of the time ("野合" or "irregular union"). Confucius was born from this union in 551 BCE in the Zouyi area of Lu (present-day Qufu, Shandong Province).

### Early Life

Confucius lost his father at age three and was raised in poverty by his mother. After her death when he was about 13, he observed mourning rites that were beyond his years. By age 15, Confucius had determined to dedicate himself to learning. At age 19, he married a woman from the Qiguan family and later had a son named Li (鲤), also known as Boyu.

### Political Career

Confucius began his political career around age 20, working first as a manager of granaries and later as a supervisor of livestock. His reputation as a scholar grew, and by age 30, he had established a reputation for learning. Around this time, he also began teaching, establishing what is considered the first private school in Chinese history.

Confucius entered government service in Lu around age 50, eventually rising to the position of Minister of Justice (大司寇). In this role, he famously executed the influential scholar Shaozheng Mao (少正卯) after only seven days in office, an act that has been debated by scholars throughout history. During his three-year tenure in high office, Lu became a well-governed state, causing neighboring states to take notice.

However, political intrigue and changing circumstances led Confucius to leave Lu in 497 BCE, beginning a 14-year period of traveling through various states in search of a ruler who would implement his political ideals.

### Travels Among the States

Confucius and his disciples traveled through the states of Wei, Song, Chen, Cai, Chu, and others, seeking positions where they could implement their political vision. During these travels, Confucius faced numerous difficulties, including misunderstandings, danger, and periods of extreme hardship, including a famous episode where he and his disciples were besieged and nearly starved in the state of Chen.

Despite these challenges, Confucius continued to teach and refine his philosophy. During this period, he engaged in numerous philosophical discussions with rulers and other thinkers, further developing his ideas about governance, morality, and education.

### Return to Lu and Final Years

In 484 BCE, Confucius returned to Lu at the invitation of Duke Ai, following the military success of his disciple Ran You. Though he was not given an official position, Confucius spent his final years teaching, editing classical texts, and writing the Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋).

Confucius died in 479 BCE at age 73. His followers mourned him deeply, and his disciple Zigong (子贡) maintained a vigil at his tomb for six years. Eventually, a community grew around his tomb, which was developed into the Temple of Confucius in Qufu, one of China's most important historical sites.

## Key Information

| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Chinese Name | 孔子 (Kongzi) |
| Personal Name | 孔丘 (Kong Qiu) |
| Courtesy Name | 仲尼 (Zhongni) |
| Birth Date | September 28, 551 BCE (traditional date) |
| Birthplace | Zouyi (陬邑), State of Lu (present-day Qufu, Shandong) |
| Death Date | April 11, 479 BCE |
| Death Place | State of Lu |
| Major Works | The Analects (论语), Spring and Autumn Annals (春秋) |
| Key Disciples | Yan Hui (颜回), Zengzi (曾子), Zigong (子贡), etc. |
| Philosophical Focus | Ren (仁, benevolence), Li (礼, ritual propriety), Xiao (孝, filial piety) |

## Cultural Significance

Confucius's teachings, collected by his disciples in The Analects (论语), have had an immeasurable influence on Chinese culture and East Asian civilization. His emphasis on moral cultivation, social harmony, and proper conduct created a framework for Chinese society that lasted for over two millennia.

The "Five Constant Virtues" (五常) of Confucianism—ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), li (ritual propriety), zhi (wisdom), and xin (integrity)—became the foundation of Chinese ethics. The Confucian emphasis on education and meritocracy, despite the reality of aristocratic privilege, created a cultural ideal that continues to influence Chinese society.

Confucius's influence extended beyond China to form the cultural foundation of Korea, Japan, and Vietnam. The examination system based on Confucian classics, established in the Sui Dynasty (581-618 CE) and lasting until 1905, created a bureaucratic system based on merit rather than birth, influencing civil service systems worldwide.

## Modern Status

Confucianism experienced a decline in the early 20th century as China underwent modernization and Westernization. The May Fourth Movement (1919) criticized Confucianism as a hindrance to China's development, and during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), Confucianism was officially condemned.

In recent decades, however, there has been a revival of interest in Confucian thought. The Chinese government has promoted "Confucian socialism" as a distinctively Chinese approach to development, and Confucius Institutes have been established worldwide to promote Chinese language and culture.

Academic interest in Confucianism has also grown, with scholars reevaluating Confucian thought in light of contemporary issues such as human rights, environmental ethics, and global governance. Confucian concepts like harmony (和), the mean (中庸), and reciprocity (恕) have found new relevance in discussions of global ethics.

## References

1. Ames, Roger T. and Henry Rosemont Jr. *The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation*. Ballantine Books, 1998.

2. Brooks, E. Bruce and Taeko Brooks. *The Original Analects: Sayings of Confucius and His Successors*. Columbia University Press, 1998.

3. Nylan, Michael. *The Five Confucian Classics*. Yale University Press, 2001.

4. Schwartz, Benjamin I. *The World of Thought in Ancient China*. Harvard University Press, 1985.

5. Tu Wei-ming. *Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative Transformation*. State University of New York Press, 1985.

![Confucius](/static/img/articles/confucius/confucius-illustration-01.jpg)


孔子

人物生平播报编辑

## 人物生平

### 贵族出身

孔子的六代祖孔父嘉是宋国栗邑（今河南夏邑）的贵族， [76]先祖是商朝开国君主商汤。 [4]周初三监之乱后，为了安抚商朝的贵族及后裔，周公以周成王之命封帝辛之兄微子启于商丘建立宋国，奉殷商祀。微子启死后，其弟微仲即位，微仲是孔子的十四世祖。 [5]六世祖得孔氏，是为孔父嘉。孔父嘉是宋国大夫，曾为大司马，封地位于宋国栗邑，后来在宫廷内乱中被太宰华督所杀。孔父嘉子木金父，木金父子祈父，祈父子孔防叔，孔防叔的孙子叔梁纥就是孔子的父亲。宋太宰华父督作乱，弑宋殇公，杀孔父嘉。其后代避难奔鲁（孔氏为鲁国人自此始），卿位始失，下降为士。孔子曾祖父防叔曾任鲁防邑宰。祖父伯夏的事迹无考。父亲名纥，字叔，又称叔梁纥，为一名武士，以勇力著称。 [61]明·朱天然《历代古人像赞》里的孔子画像

叔梁纥的正妻施氏，生了九个女儿却没有儿子，小妾为他生了长子孟皮。孟皮有足疾，叔梁纥很不满意，于是请求纳颜氏女儿为妾。颜氏有三个女儿，只有小女儿颜徵在愿嫁叔梁纥。颜徵在时年不满二十岁，而叔梁纥已经六十六岁，年龄相差悬殊，两人为婚于礼不合，夫妻在尼山居住并且怀孕，故谓之“野合”。

### 早年经历

鲁襄公二十二年（公元前551年）9月28日，孔子出生于鲁国昌平乡陬邑（今山东曲阜南辛镇鲁源村）。孔子生而七漏，头上圩顶，而又因其母曾祷于尼丘山，故名“丘”，字“仲尼”。 [54]

鲁襄公二十四年（公元前549年），孔子三岁时，其父叔梁纥病逝。叔梁纥死后，颜徵在被叔梁纥正妻施氏所逐，于是带孔子庶兄孟皮与孔子至曲阜阙里，过着清贫的生活。

鲁昭公五年（公元前537年），孔子已意识到要努力学习做人与生活之本领，所以称自己虽然已经十五岁了，但志向在于做学问。 [11]

鲁昭公七年（公元前535年），孔子的母亲颜徵在去世。孔子合葬父母。鲁国大夫季孙氏宴请士一级贵族，孔子穿丧服去赴宴，被季氏家臣阳虎拒之门外。

鲁昭公九年（公元前533年），孔子十九岁，服丧期满后前往宋国。为了能够经常回到祖籍地宋国祭拜祖先，便迎娶了宋国人亓官氏为妻。 [12] [54]

### 步入仕途

鲁昭公十年（公元前532年），亓官氏生子。据传此时正好赶上鲁昭公赐鲤鱼于孔子，故给其子起名为鲤，字伯鱼。孔子自20多岁起，就想走仕途，所以对天下大事非常关注，对治理国家的诸种问题，经常进行思考，也常发表一些见解。这一年孔子开始为委吏，管理仓库。汉画像石《孔子问礼》拓片

鲁昭公十一年（公元前531年），孔子改作乘田，管理畜牧。因小时候生活艰难，所以会干一些粗活。 [13]

鲁昭公十七年（公元前525年），郯子来到鲁国朝见，孔子向郯子询问郯国古代官制。孔子开办私人学校，当在此前后。

鲁昭公二十年（公元前522年），孔子到三十岁时，已有些名气，所以自称三十岁前后有所成就。 [11]这一年，齐景公与晏婴来出访鲁国时召见了孔子，与他讨论秦穆公称霸的问题，孔子由此结识了齐景公。

鲁昭公二十四年（公元前518年），孟懿子和南宫敬叔学礼于孔子。相传孔子与南宫敬叔适周问礼于老聃，问乐于苌弘。

鲁昭公二十五年（公元前517年），鲁国发生内乱。鲁昭公被迫逃往齐国。孔子也离开鲁国，到了齐国，受到齐景公的赏识和厚待，甚至曾准备把尼溪一带的田地封给孔子，但被大夫晏婴阻止。 [14]

鲁昭公二十六年（公元前516年），齐景公问政于孔子，孔子说君王要像个君王，臣下要像个臣下，父亲要像个父亲，儿子要像个儿子。 [15]孔子在齐闻《韶》乐，如醉如痴，三月不知肉味。

鲁昭公二十七年（公元前515年），齐国的大夫想加害孔子，孔子听说后向齐景公求救。齐景公说自己老了，不能用了。孔子只好仓皇逃回鲁国。

鲁昭公二十八年（公元前514年），晋魏献子执政，举贤才不论亲疏。孔子认为这是义举，在近处不会埋没与自己亲近而有贤德的人，在远处不会埋没受人推举而有贤德的人，这可以说是仁义了。

鲁昭公二十九年（公元前513年）冬天，晋国铸刑鼎。孔子认为晋国的灭亡，主要是因为统治者没有好的制度和法度。 [16]

鲁昭公三十年（公元前512年），孔子四十岁，经过几十年的磨练，对人生各种问题有了比较清楚的认识，所以自称四十岁不疑惑。 [17]

鲁定公六年（公元前504年），季氏家臣阳虎擅权日重。孔子称之为家臣掌政。 [18]所以孔子不上任，退隐而修著《诗》《书》《礼》《乐》，众多弟子跟着孔子走遍各国，跟随他学习。 [19]阳虎想要见孔子，而孔子却不想见到阳虎，后来两人在路上相遇。阳虎劝孔子出仕，孔子没有明确表态，随后孔子被升为小司空。

鲁定公十年（公元前500年），孔子升为鲁国大司寇，摄相事， [43]七日而诛少正卯，曝尸三日，鲁国大治。

鲁定公十二年（公元前498年），孔子为削弱三桓（季孙氏、叔孙氏、孟孙氏三家世卿，因为是鲁桓公的三个儿子的后代，故称三桓。当时的鲁国政权实际掌握在他们手中，而三桓的一些家臣又在不同程度上控制着三桓）采取了隳三都的措施，拆毁三桓所建城堡。后来隳三都的行动半途而废，孔子与三桓的矛盾也随之暴露。

鲁定公十三年（公元前497年），孔子五十五岁。春天，齐国送八十名美女到鲁国。季桓子接受了女乐，君臣迷恋歌舞，多日不理朝政。孔子与季氏出现不和。孔子非常失望。不久鲁国举行郊祭，祭祀后按惯例送祭肉给大夫们时并没有送给孔子。这表明季氏不想再任用他了，孔子不得已离开鲁国，到外国去寻找出路，开始了周游列国的旅程。

### 周游列国

鲁定公十四年（公元前496年），孔子带领弟子离开鲁国来到了卫国。孔子在卫国被卫灵公夫人南子召见。孔子的弟子子路对孔子见南子这件事极有意见批评了孔子。郑国的子产去世，孔子听到消息后，十分难过，称赞子产是从古代流传下来的慈惠的人。 [20]孔子带弟子先到了卫国，卫灵公开始非常尊重孔子，按照鲁国的俸禄标准发给孔子俸粟6万，但并没给他什么官职，没让他参与政事。孔子在卫国住了约10个月，因有人在卫灵公面前进谗言，卫灵公对孔子起了疑心，派人公开监视孔子的行动，因此孔子带弟子离开卫国，打算去陈国。路过匡城时，因误会被人围困了5日，逃离匡城，到了蒲地，又碰上卫国贵族公叔氏发动叛乱，再次被围。逃脱后，孔子又返回了卫国。卫灵公听说孔子师徒从蒲地返回，非常高兴，亲自出城迎接。此后孔子几次离开卫国，又几次回到卫国，这一方面是由于卫灵公对孔子时好时坏，另一方面是孔子离开卫国后，没有去处，只好又返回卫国。《孔子圣迹图》之《命名荣贶》《孔子圣迹图》之《礼隳三都》《孔子圣迹图》之《礼见南子》《孔子圣迹图》之《在陈绝粮》《孔子圣迹图》之《麒麟玉书》《孔子圣迹图》之《杏坛礼乐》《孔子圣迹图》之《梦奠两楹》《孔子圣迹图》之《西狩获麟》《孔子圣迹图》之《学琴师襄》《孔子圣迹图》之《退修诗书》《孔子圣迹图》之《观器论道》仇十洲画《孔子圣迹图》

鲁定公十五年（公元前495年），孔子离开卫国回到鲁国。

鲁哀公元年（公元前494年），吴国使人聘鲁国，就“骨节专车”一事问于孔子。

鲁哀公二年（公元前493年），孔子由鲁国来到卫国。卫灵公问政于孔子，孔子婉言拒绝了卫灵公。孔子在卫国住不下去，离开卫国西行。经过曹国，曹伯阳没有接见孔子。在曹国稍作停留，到达宋国，宋司马桓魋讨厌孔子，扬言要加害孔子，孔子微服而行。五十九岁的孔子离开卫国经曹国、宋国、郑国至陈国，陈国于是派服劳役的人将孔子师徒围困在半道，前不靠村，后不靠店，所带粮食吃完，绝粮七日。最后还是子贡找到楚人，楚国派兵迎孔子，孔子师徒才免于一死。

鲁哀公三年（公元前492年），孔子六十岁，称自己这时候，能正确对待各种言论，不觉得不顺。 [21]孔子过郑到陈国，在郑国都城与弟子失散独自在东门等候弟子来寻找，被人嘲笑，称自己颓丧的样子如同丧家之犬。 [22]

鲁哀公四年（公元前491年），孔子离开陈国，来到了蔡国。

鲁哀公五年（公元前490年），孔子从蔡国来到叶国。叶国君主叶公向孔子问政，并与孔子讨论有关正直的道德问题。在离开叶国返回蔡国的途中，孔子遇到一位隐者。

鲁哀公六年（公元前489年），孔子与弟子在陈国、蔡国之间被困绝粮，许多弟子因困饿而病，后被楚国人相救。由楚国返回卫国，途中又遇隐者。

鲁哀公七年（公元前488年），孔子又回到卫国，主张在卫国为政先要正名。

鲁哀公八年（公元前487年），吴国讨伐鲁国，吴国战败。孔子的弟子有若参战有功。

鲁哀公十年（公元前485年），孔子在卫国，孔子夫人亓官氏去世。

鲁哀公十一年（公元前484年），齐国派师讨伐鲁国，孔子弟子冉求率鲁师与齐战，获胜。季康子问冉有指挥才能从何而来，冉有说是向孔子学来的。六十八岁的孔子在其弟子冉求的努力下，季康子派人以币迎孔子归鲁国。孔子周游列国十四年，至此结束。孔子仍有心从政，但仍是被敬而不用。季康子欲施行田赋，孔子反对。对冉有说判断一个人的行为是不是君子的行为，应该用他的礼数来判断。施舍的时候，会从重付出；做事的时候，会中庸而行之；死的时候，会对自己薄葬。 [23]

### 返回鲁国

鲁哀公十二年（公元前483年），孔子继续从事教育及整理文献工作。这一年冬天，孔子的儿子孔鲤去世。

鲁哀公十三年（公元前482年），孔子七十岁，称自己这时候随心行事也可以不逾越规矩。 [24]这一年，孔子最爱的弟子颜回先他而死，孔子十分悲伤，感慨到昔日曾跟随自己从陈国到蔡国去的学生，此时却都不在身边受教了。

鲁哀公十四年（公元前481年）春天，西狩获麟。孔子认为这不是好征兆，说吾道穷矣。于是停止修《春秋》。同年六月，齐国陈恒弑齐简公，孔子斋戒沐浴三天，见鲁哀公，请求鲁国出兵讨伐陈恒，没有得到支持。又向季孙请求出兵，结果遭到拒绝。

### 卒葬泗上

鲁哀公十五年（公元前480年），孔子另一得意门生子路死于卫国内乱，而且还被剁成肉酱。经过这一系列打击后，孔子知道自己时日不多。

鲁哀公十六年二月初四日（公元前479年4月4日），子贡来见孔子，孔子柱杖依于门前遥遥相望。他责问子贡为何那么晚来见自己。于是叹息说泰山将要坍塌了，梁柱将要腐朽折断了，哲人将要如同草木一样枯萎腐烂了。孔子流下了眼泪，说：“天下无道已经很久很久了，没有人肯采纳自己的主张。自己的主张不可能实现了。夏朝的人死时在东阶殡殓，周朝的人死时在西阶殡殓，殷商的人死时在两个楹柱之间。昨天黄昏梦见自己坐在两楹之间祭奠，自己的祖先就是殷商人啊。” [25-26]

鲁哀公十六年二月十一日（公元前479年4月11日），孔子患病不愈而卒，终年七十三岁，葬于鲁城北泗水岸边。

孔子卒后，不少弟子为之守墓三年，唯独子贡为孔子守墓六年。弟子及鲁国人从墓而家者上百家，得名孔里。孔子的故居改为庙堂，受到人们的奉祀。 [54]

主要影响播报编辑

## 主要影响

孔子创立的儒家学说以及在此基础上发展起来的儒家思想，对中华文明产生了深刻影响，是中华传统文化的重要组成部分。 [59-60]

### 道德学说

孔子建构了完整的“德道”思想体系：在个体层面主张“仁、礼”之德性与德行。 [27]德道思想体系是以性善论（“一阴一阳之谓道，继之者善也，成之者性也”）为基础，以立人极（“三极之道”）为旨归，以人道与天道、地道相会通，人道中庸又适时之变为方法论的完足思想体系。

孔子创立了以仁为核心的道德学说，他自己也是一个很善良的人，富有同情心，乐于助人，待人真诚、宽厚。“己所不欲，勿施于人”、“君子成人之美，不成人之恶”、“躬自厚而薄责于人”等等，都是他的做人准则。“吾十有五而志于学，三十而立，四十而不惑，五十而知天命，六十而耳顺，七十而从心所欲，不逾矩。”这是孔子对自己一生各阶段的总结。

孔子的仁说，体现了人道精神。孔子的礼说，则体现了礼制精神，即现代意义上的秩序和制度。人道主义这是人类永恒的主题，对于任何社会，任何时代，任何一个政府都是适用的，而秩序和制度社会则是建立人类文明社会的基本要求。孔子的这种人道主义和秩序精神是中国古代社会政治思想的精华。 [28]

### 政治学说

孔子的政治思想核心内容是“礼”与“仁”，在治国的方略上，他主张“为政以德”，用道德和礼教来治理国家是最高尚的治国之道。这种治国方略也叫“德治”或“礼治”。这种方略把德、礼施之于民，严格遵循等级制，把贵族和庶民截然划分为治者与被治者，打破了贵族和庶民间原有的一条重要界限。孔子立像

孔子生活在西周宗法礼制传统较深的鲁国，这时周王朝的统治权力已经名存实亡，诸侯间相互争战不断，出现了“王道哀，礼义废，政权失，家殊俗”的社会现实，“君不君、臣不臣、父不父、子不子”成了那个时代的特点。社会矛盾的激化阻碍了生产力的发展，人的精神和信念也发生了前所未有的摧残。这些共同构成了孔子政治思想产生的历史渊源和社会条件，“仁”与“礼”是其政治思想的基本精神。

孔子的最高政治理想是建立“天下为公”的大同社会。“大同”社会的基本特点是：大道畅行，“天下为公”，因而能“选贤与能，讲信修睦”，“人不独亲其亲，不独子其子，使老有所终，壮有所用，幼有所长，矜寡孤独废疾者皆有所养”。

在大同的世界里，天下的人，不止以自己的家人为亲，不止以自己的父母儿女为爱，而是相互敬爱，爱天下所有的人。使老有所终，壮有所用，孩子们都能获得温暖与关怀，孤独的人与残疾者都有所依靠，男人各自有自己的事情，女人有满意的归宿。阴谋欺诈不兴，盗窃祸乱不起，路不拾遗，夜不闭户，人人讲信修睦，选贤举能。这是一幅理想化的传说中的尧舜时代的原始社会景象，也是孔子憧憬的最高理想社会。

孔子主张的较低政治目标是小康社会。小康社会的基本特点是：大道隐没，“天下为家”，“各亲其亲，各子其子，货力为己”，与这种贫富不均、贵贱不等相适应，产生了一系列的典章制度、伦理道德，“以正君臣，以笃父子，以睦兄弟，以和夫妇”，“以立田里，以贤勇知”，相应地还要设“城郭沟池以为固”。由是，“谋用是作，而兵由此起”。这种社会显然没有“大同”世界那样完美，但有正常秩序，有礼、仁、信、义，所以称为小康。这种社会实际上描述了“私有制”产生后的阶级社会的“盛世”。 [28]

孔子的大同社会、小康社会理想对中国后世影响深远。后来不同历史时期，不同阶段的思想家提出不同内容的憧憬蓝图和奋斗目标，这种思想对进步思想家、改革家也有一定启发，洪秀全、康有为、谭嗣同和孙中山都受其影响。

身处乱世的孔子所主张的仁政没有施展的空间，但在治理鲁国的三个月中，使强大的齐国也畏惧孔子的才能，足见孔子无愧于杰出政治家的称号。

孔子的政治思想是一个复杂而又完整的体系。孔子之后，孟轲和荀况分别继承和发扬了孔子思想的仁政德治和礼治思想，进而形成先秦儒家政治思想的庞大系统。孔子的政治思想经过后世继承和发扬，成了中国封建社会的正统思想，深刻地影响了中国封建社会的政治、经济、文化以及中华民族的政治观念，并对东亚、东南亚、欧洲产生了影响。 [48]

### 经济学说

孔子的经济思想最主要的是重义轻利、“见利思义”的义利观与“富民”思想。这也是儒家经济思想的主要内容，对后世有较大的影响。

孔子所谓“义”，是一种社会道德规范，“利”指人们对物质利益的谋求。在“义”“利”两者的关系上，孔子把“义”摆在首要地位。他说：“见利思义。”要求人们在物质利益的面前，首先应该考虑怎样符合“义”。他认为“义然后取”，即只有符合“义”，然后才能获取。孔子甚至在《论语·子罕》中主张“罕言利”，即要少说“利”，但并非不要“利”。

孔子说：“不义而富且贵，于我如浮云。”干不符合道义的事而获得富贵，就如同浮云一样，不屑于用不义的手段取得富贵。在他的心目中，行义是人生的最高价值，在贫富与道义发生矛盾时，他宁可受穷也不会放弃道义。孔子还认为，对待“义”与“利”的态度，可以区别“君子”与“小人”。有道德的“君子”，容易懂得“义”的重要性，而缺乏道德修养的“小人”，则只知道“利”而不知道“义”。这就是孔子在《论语·里仁》中说的“君子喻于义，小人喻于利”。

有人认为孔子既然重“义”，则势必轻视体力劳动。这种观点是错误的。《论语》中记载他对想学农的弟子樊迟十分不满，批评他是“小人” [53]，这是因为孔子认为人要有更大的理想和追求，要承担的是更大的责任。他要让他的学生成为价值的承担者而不是一个农民。

由于孔子保守的政治态度，因此对待经济制度的改革也反映了保守的思想。比如鲁宣公十五年（公元前594年）实行“初税亩”，从法律上承认私田的合法地位，是春秋时代的重大经济改革；但是据《左传》说，孔子修《春秋》时记载“初税亩”，目的是批评其“非礼也”。而民众若不富足，国君就不会富足。在《论语·尧曰》中还记载，孔子主张“因民之利而利之”，即对民众有利的事情才去做。另一方面，他又主张赋税要轻一些，徭役的摊派不要耽误农时。《论语·述而》记载，孔子还对当时的为政者进行说教，要求为政者不要过于奢侈，要注意节俭。他说：“奢则不逊，俭则固。与其不逊也，宁固。”同时，还主张“节用而爱人”。这里面包含了把孔子“仁”的思想运用于经济领域。 [28]

### 教育思想

孔子在中国历史上最早提出人的天赋素质相近，个性差异主要是因为后天教育与社会环境影响（“性相近也，习相远也”）。因而人人都可能受教育，人人都应该受教育。他提倡“有教无类”，创办私学，广招学生，打破了奴隶主贵族对学校教育的垄断，把受教育的范围扩大到平民，顺应了当时社会发展的趋势。清人所绘孔子像明·王圻《三才图会》之孔子像2明·王圻《三才图会》之孔子像1孔子孔子像唐吴道子绘《孔子行教图》拓片

孔子主张“学而优则仕”，学习了还有余力，就去做官。他的教育目的是要培养从政的君子，而君子必须具有较高的道德品质修养，所以孔子强调学校教育必须将道德教育放在首要地位（“弟子入则孝，出则悌，谨而信，泛爱众，而亲仁，行有余力，则以学文”）。

孔子道德教育的主要内容是“礼”和“仁”。其中“礼”为道德规范，“仁”为最高道德准则。“礼”是“仁”的形式，“仁”是“礼”的内容，有了“仁”的精神，“礼”才真正充实。在道德修养方面，他提出树立志向、克己、践履躬行、内省、勇于改过等方法。

“学而知之”是孔子教学思想的主导思想。在主张不耻下问、虚心好学的同时，他强调学习与思考相结合（“学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆”），同时还必须“学以致用”，将学到的知识运用于社会实践。

孔子在教学方法上要求老师“有教无类”、“经邦济世”的教育观，“因材施教”、“启发式”的方法论，注重童蒙、启蒙教育。他教育学生要有老老实实的学习态度，要谦虚好学、时常复习学过的知识，以便“温故而知新”、新知识引申拓宽、深入，“举一而反三”。他最早提出启发式教学。他说：“不愤不启，不悱不发。”意谓教师应该在学生认真思考，并已达到一定程度时恰到好处地进行启发和开导。

他又是在教学实践中最早采用因材施教方法的教育家。通过谈话和个别观察等方法，他了解和熟悉学生的个性特征，在此基础上，根据各个学生的具体情况，采取不同的教育方法，培养出了德行、言语、政事、文学等多方面的人才。孔子热爱教育事业，毕生从事教育活动。他学而不厌，诲人不倦。不仅言教，更重身教，以自己的模范行为感化学生。他爱护学生，学生也很尊敬他，师生关系非常融洽。他是中国古代教师的光辉典

![Confucius](/static/img/articles/confucius/confucius-illustration-01.jpg)


Peking Opera

Summary: Peking Opera is a major form of traditional Chinese theater that combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance, and acrobatics.

# Peking Opera

## Overview

Peking Opera, also known as Beijing Opera, is a comprehensive performing art that originated in the late 18th century in Beijing, China. It represents a synthesis of various Chinese theatrical forms and has become one of the most widely recognized cultural symbols of China. In 2010, Peking Opera was inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity, recognizing its significant cultural value.

## History

### Origin Period (1790-1820)

The development of Peking Opera cannot be separated from the arrival of Anhui troupes in Beijing. In the history of Chinese opera, whenever local opera forms entered the capital, they often sparked new "fashion trends." From Kunqu to Yiyang腔 and Qin腔, the most popular singing styles in Beijing evolved progressively. The most significant of these trends was the "arrival of Anhui troupes."

Anhui troupes were opera companies primarily composed of artists from Anhui province (especially the Anqing region), which performed various styles including erhuang, Kunqu, bangzi, and lolo腔. Initially active in Anhui, Jiangxi, Jiangsu, and Zhejiang provinces, they were particularly renowned in Yangzhou for their "superior Anqing talents and skills."

In the 55th year of the Qianlong Emperor's reign (1790), to celebrate the 80th birthday of the Qianlong Emperor, the then Governor of Fujian and Zhejiang, Wulana, jointly with salt administration officials in Jiangnan, recruited the "Sanqing" Anhui troupe, led by the renowned opera artist Gao Lanting, to perform in Beijing. This marked the beginning of Anhui troupes' arrival in the capital. The Sanqing troupe was the largest and best troupe from the southern opera center of Yangzhou, performing both Kunqu and "luan" (various local styles), with emphasis on the latter.

Subsequently, other Anhui troupes including Sixi, Qixiu, Nicui, Hechun, and Chuntai also came to Beijing. Through performances and mergers, these six troupes gradually evolved into the four famous Anhui troupes: Sanqing, Sixi, Chuntai, and Hechun.

At that time, local operas were flourishing, and the Anhui troupes, while maintaining their foundation of multiple vocal styles, also incorporated Beijing and Qin腔 styles. They especially absorbed the essence of Qin腔 in terms of repertoire, vocal styles, and performance techniques to enrich themselves. To cater to diverse audience preferences and showcase the strengths of different troupes, they gradually developed distinct artistic styles: Sanqing's "zhouzi" (known for performing full-length plays), Sixi's "quzi" (renowned for Kunqu performances), Hechun's "bazi" (excelled in martial plays), and Chuntai's "haizi" (noted for child actors). This created a situation where "each of the four Anhui troupes excelled in their own field."

During the Jiaqing and Daoguang reigns, Han调 (also known as Chu调) artists came to Beijing to join Anhui troupes. The Anhui troupes incorporated the strengths of Han调, laying the foundation for the eventual fusion of erhuang, xipi, Kunqu, and Qin腔 styles into what would become Peking Opera. Therefore, the arrival of the four major Anhui troupes is considered the prelude to the birth of Peking Opera and holds significant importance in its development history.

### Incubation Period (1820-1840)

In the early Qing Dynasty, Kunqu and Beijing腔 (Qingyang腔) prevailed on the Beijing opera stage. After the middle of the Qianlong reign, Kunqu gradually declined while Beijing腔 flourished, replacing Kunqu as the dominant form on the capital's stages. In the 45th year of Qianlong's reign (1780), Qin腔 artist Wei Changsheng came to Beijing from Sichuan. Wei performed Qin腔 plays such as "Gun Lou" and "Bei Wa Jin Fu" with the Shuangqing troupe. Wei's beautiful appearance, sweet voice, gentle singing style, and delicate performance techniques caused a sensation in Beijing with just one play "Gun Lou," earning the Shuangqing troupe the title "Number One in the Capital."

In the 50th year of Qianlong's reign (1785), the Qing court banned Qin腔 performances in Beijing, citing Wei Changsheng's performances as "harmful to public morals," and expelled him from the capital.

In the 55th year of Qianlong's reign (1790), after the Sanqing troupe settled in Beijing (located in Hanjaitai Hutong), other troupes including Sixi, Qixiu, Nicui, Chuntai, Hechun, Sanhe, Songzhu, Jinyu, and Dajinghe also established themselves in the Dashilar area for performances. Among them, the Sanqing, Sixi, Hechun, and Chuntai troupes were the most famous, hence the name "Four Great Anhui Troupes."

The Four Great Anhui Troupes had different performance styles and specialties, leading to the saying: "Sanqing's zhouzi, Sixi's quzi, Hechun's bazi, Chuntai's haizi." Besides performing Anhui调, they also used Kunqu腔, chui腔, siping调, and bangzi腔, demonstrating a comprehensive use of multiple vocal styles. In terms of performance art, they extensively drew from strengths of various opera forms and incorporated them into Anhui opera. With complete performing rosters and rich repertoires, they were highly welcomed by Beijing audiences.

### Formation Period (1840-1860)

Between the 20th year of Daoguang and the 10th year of Xianfeng (1840-1860), Peking Opera was formed through the fusion of Anhui opera, Qin腔, and Han调, while also absorbing the strengths of Kunqu and Beijing腔. After Han调 artists came to Beijing, they incorporated Kunqu腔, Beijing腔, Qin腔, and even lolo腔, liuzhi腔, bangzi腔, and folk songs into their performances.

The formation of Peking Opera was marked by several developments: first, the melodic patterns became complete and rich, surpassing any of the three parent forms (Anhui, Qin, Han). The singing style consisted of both banqiangti and paipaiti structures, with erhuang (also written as "erhuang") and xipi as the main vocal styles. Second, the role categories became largely complete. Third, a collection of Peking Opera repertoires emerged. Fourth, Cheng Changgeng, Yu Sansheng, and Zhang Erkui became representatives of the early Peking Opera period, known as the "Three Great Senior Male Roles" or "Three Top Scholar-Laurates," with Zhang Erkui as "Zhuangyuan," Cheng Changgeng as "Bangyan," and Yu Sansheng as "Tanhua."

### Maturation Period (1883-1918)

From 1883 to 1918, Peking Opera entered its maturation period, represented by the "Later Three Great Senior Male Roles": Tan Xinpei, Wang Guifen, and Sun Juxian. Among them, Tan Xinpei inherited the strengths of Cheng Changgeng, Yu Sansheng, and Zhang Erkui and further developed them, advancing Peking Opera to a new level of maturity. Through his extensive learning, Tan drew inspiration from Kunqu, bangzi, dagu (drum ballads), and various roles in Peking Opera itself, creating his unique "Tan School" singing style, leading to the saying "no singing style doesn't imitate Tan."

In the 1920s, Yu Shuyan, Yan Jupeng, Gao Qingkui, and Ma Lianli all developed their own distinct artistic schools based on the Tan School. Wang Guifen's art was based on Cheng Changgeng, with powerful and melancholic singing, simple and unadorned melodies, described as "roaring like a tiger and howling like a dragon." He was praised as "Changgeng reincarnated" for his ability to imitate Cheng so faithfully. Sun Juxian, selected as a military scholar at 18, was known for his powerful voice and effortless range. His spoken dialogue was not bound to Huguang dialect or Zhongzhou rhyme but often used Beijing pronunciation and words, making it sound natural and approachable.

### Golden Age (1917-1937)

Since 1917, numerous outstanding Peking Opera performers have emerged, presenting a prosperous situation with various schools of performance, developing from the maturation period to a golden age. The representative figures of this period were Mei Lanfang and Yu Shuyan.

In 1927, Beijing's "Shuntian Times" held a poll for outstanding Peking Opera dan (female role) performers. The results of reader voting were: Mei Lanfang for performing "Taizhen Waizhuan," Shang Xiaoyun for "Modeng Jia Nü," Yan Xiucheng for "Hongfu Zhuan," and Xun Huisheng for "Danqing Yin," who were honored as the "Four Great Dan." The emergence of these Four Great Dan marked an important milestone in Peking Opera's prosperity. They created distinctive artistic styles, forming the "Four Schools": Mei Lanfang's elegance and grace, Shang Xiaoyun's beauty and strength, Yan Xiucheng's depth and subtlety, and Xun Huisheng's charm and softness, establishing a pattern where dan roles became dominant on the Peking Opera stage.

### Changes and New Period (1937-Present)

In 1937, the "July 7th Incident" marked the beginning of the War of Resistance Against Japanese Aggression. Soon after, Beijing fell, and all theatrical activities ceased. The Four Great Dan—Mei Lanfang, Shang Xiaoyunc, Yan Xiucheng, and Xun Huisheng—used their art to resist the Japanese invasion. At the end of 1937, as anti-Japanese sentiment in Beijing ran high, the Japanese puppet authorities attempted to organize a charity performance under the pretext of "supporting the imperial army and donating airplanes." Yan Xiucheng firmly refused the invitation.

In 1938, Mei Lanfang gave his final performance at the Tianshan Stage in Shanghai before leaving for Hong Kong. In the spring of the same year, Mei's troupe arrived in Hong Kong. After performing for a period at the Li Theater, other troupe members returned north, while Mei Lanfang remained in Hong Kong. In December 1941, after the outbreak of the Pacific War and the subsequent fall of Hong Kong, to avoid being used by the Japanese invaders, Mei Lanfang resolutely grew a beard and mustache to express his determination, and left Hong Kong for Shanghai.

## Key Information

| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Chinese Name | 京剧 (Jīngjù) |
| Recognition | Listed as UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2010 |
| Origin | Beijing, China (late 18th century) |
| Key Performance Elements | 唱 (singing), 念 (recitation), 做 (acting), 打 (combat) |
| Major Role Types | 生 (sheng, male roles), 旦 (dan, female roles), 净 (jing, painted-face roles), 丑 (chou, clown roles) |
| Famous Troupes | Four Great Anhui Troupes (四大徽班) |
| Representative Performers | Mei Lanfang, Tan Xinpei, Cheng Changgeng |
| Notable Repertoires | "Farewell My Concubine," "The Drunken Beauty" |

## Cultural Significance

Peking Opera is particularly skilled in depicting historical themes, especially political and military struggles, with stories mostly drawn from historical novels and folk tales. It features both full-length plays and numerous zixi (short extracts from longer plays), as well as some connected series plays.

The four main artistic techniques of Peking Opera performance are singing (唱), recitation (念), acting (做), and combat (打), which constitute the four basic skills of Peking Opera performance. Singing refers to vocal performance, while recitation refers to musical spoken dialogue. These two complementary elements form one of the two main components of the "song and dance" nature of Peking Opera. Acting refers to dance-like physical movements, while combat refers to martial arts and tumbling techniques. These two combined elements form the other main component of the "song and dance" nature of Peking Opera.

Peking Opera performers must be trained in all four aspects from a young age, though some may specialize in one area—some in singing (singing sheng), some in acting (huadan), and some in martial arts (wujing). However, every actor must have solid basic skills in all four areas to fully express Peking Opera's artistic characteristics and better portray various characters in plays.

Peking Opera incorporates singing, dancing, dialogue, combat, and various symbolic movements, making it a highly comprehensive art form.

## Modern Status

In the 1950s, Peking Opera entered a new period of development. In January 1950, the Central People's Government Ministry of Culture established the Experimental Opera School of the Opera Reform Bureau, with Tian Han as its first president. In 1955, the Beijing Peking Opera Troupe was formed, which later became the core predecessor of the Beijing Peking Opera Theater. In 1979, these two troupes merged to officially become the Beijing Peking Opera Theater, which later incorporated the Beijing Experimental Peking Opera Troupe in 1986.

However, since the late 1980s, the Peking Opera market has declined, with stagnant ticket sales and most troupes losing money. Many county and city professional Peking Opera troupes were either dissolved or "redirected" to become song and dance troupes, and many opera forms were left with only a single "number one troupe," accelerating their decline.

Despite these challenges, Peking Opera remains an important cultural heritage. In recent years, efforts have been made to preserve and promote this traditional art form through education, performances, and digital media. Younger performers are being trained to carry on the traditions while also exploring innovative ways to present Peking Opera to contemporary audiences.

## References

1. Mackerras, Colin. *The Chinese Theatre in Modern Times: From 1840 to the Present Day*. Thames & Hudson, 1975.

2. Li, Siu Bun. *The Rise of the Peking Opera, 1770-1870: From Imperial Entertainment to National Art*. University of Washington Press, 1988.

3. Chen, Tsai-wei. "The Transformation of Peking Opera: From Traditional to Modern." *Asian Theatre Journal*, vol. 25, no. 1, 2008, pp. 1-28.

4. Goldstein, Joshua. *Drama Kings: The Lives and Times of the Great Peking Opera Actors*. University of Washington Press, 2007.

5. Wilt, Idema. *The Chinese Peking Opera: A Guide to Its Repertoire and Performance*. Oxford University Press, 2018.

![Peking Opera](/static/img/articles/peking-opera/peking-opera-illustration-01.jpg)


京剧

历史沿革播报编辑

## 历史沿革

### 起源期

四大徽班进京

追溯京剧发展的过程，绕不开“进京”二字。每当有新的地方戏进京，往往会在京城里掀起新的“时尚潮流”，从昆曲、弋阳腔到秦腔，北京最受欢迎的唱腔总是一浪更比一浪强。而其中最强的一浪，就是“徽班进京”。 [27]

徽班，是以安徽籍（特别是安庆地区）艺人为主，兼唱二簧、昆曲、梆子、啰啰等腔的戏曲班社。开始多活动于皖、赣、江、浙诸省，尤其在扬州地区，更以“安庆色艺最优”（《扬州画舫录》）。

清乾隆五十五年（1790），为给高宗弘历祝寿，当时的闽浙总督伍拉纳联合江南管盐务的官员 [27]，从扬州征调了以著名戏曲艺人高朗亭为台柱的“三庆”徽班入京，成为徽班进京的开始。当时的徽班演出的腔调比较复杂。有的是只演昆曲，有的是昆乱合演，也有的是只演乱弹。这三庆徽是当时南方戏剧中心扬州中最大、最好的戏班，应是一个昆乱兼演、而以乱弹为主的戏班 [27]。此后又有四喜、启秀、霓翠、和春、春台等安徽班相继进京。在演出过程中，六班逐步合并成为著名的三庆、四喜、春台、和春四大徽班。 [36]

当时正是地方戏曲勃兴、花雅争胜的时期，一些新兴的地方剧种，如高腔（时称京腔）、秦腔等已先行流入北京。徽班在原来兼唱多种声腔戏的基础上，又合京、秦二腔，特别是吸收秦腔在剧目、声腔、表演各方面的精华，以充实自己，同时为适应北京观众多方面的需要和发挥各班演员的特长，逐渐形成了四大徽班各自不同的艺术风格，表现为：三庆的轴子（指三庆班以连演整本大戏见长），四喜的曲子（指四喜班以演唱昆曲戏著称），和春的把子（指和春班以擅演武戏取胜），春台的孩子（指春台班以童伶出色），出现了“四徽班各擅胜场”的局面（据《梦华琐簿》）。

嘉庆、道光年间，汉调（又称楚调）艺人进京，参加徽班演出。徽班又兼习楚调之长，为汇合二簧、西皮、昆、秦诸腔向京剧衍变奠定了基础。因此四大徽班进京，被视为京剧诞生的前奏，在京剧发展史上具有重要意义。

没有徽班进京献艺，就没有京剧的诞生。然而徽班更大的发展，以至于蜕变为一个新的剧种——京剧，还要在大批汉调艺人进京奏艺之后。徽班一开始所演并不是京剧，而是经过70年（1790年到1860年）的嬗变，才产生了这一新的剧种。 [29]

清末宣统二年（1910），四大徽班相继散落。 [36]

历年新年京剧晚会片头

### 孕育期

清初，京城戏曲舞台上盛行昆曲与京腔（青阳腔）。乾隆中叶后，昆曲渐而衰落，京腔兴盛取代昆曲一统京城舞台。乾隆四十五年（1780年）秦腔艺人魏长生由川进京。魏氏搭双庆班演出秦腔《滚楼》、《背娃进府》等剧。魏长生扮相俊美，嗓音甜润，唱腔委婉，做工细腻，一出《滚楼》即轰动京城。双庆班也因此被誉为“京都第一”。自此，京腔开始衰微，京腔六大名班之大成班、王府班、余庆班、裕庆班、萃庆班、保和班也无人过问，纷纷搭入秦腔班谋生。乾隆五十年（1785年），清廷以魏长生的表演有伤风化，明令禁止秦腔在京城演出，将魏长生逐出京城。 [6]京剧图片

乾隆五十五年（1790年），继三庆班落脚京城后（班址位于韩家台胡同内），又有四喜、启秀、霓翠、春台、和春、三和、嵩祝、金钰、大景和等班，亦在大栅栏地区落脚演出。其中以三庆、四喜、和春、春台四家名声最盛，故有“四大徽班”之称。 [6]

春台班进京时间，按汉调名家米应先于乾隆末年，在京曾担任春台班台柱时始，证明该班进京时间早于四喜和和春。春台班位于百顺胡同。 [6]

四喜班于嘉庆初来京。徽戏、昆曲兼演、尤以昆曲为著，故有“新排一曲桃花扇，到处哄传四喜班”之语。该班位于陕西巷内。 [6]

和春班于嘉庆八年（1804年）于李铁拐斜街组建。该班以武戏见长。道光十三年（1853年）解散。

“四大徽班”的演出剧目，表演风格，各有其长，故时有“三庆的轴子，四喜的曲子、和春的把子、春台的孩子”之誉。“四大徽班”除演唱徽调外，昆腔、吹腔、四平调、梆子腔亦用，可谓诸腔并奏。在表演艺术上广征博采吸取诸家剧种之长，融于徽戏之中。兼之演出阵容齐整，上演的剧目丰富，颇受京城观众欢迎。自魏长生被迫离京，秦腔不振，秦腔艺人为了生计，纷纷搭入徽班，形成了徽、秦两腔融合的局面。在徽、秦合流过程中，徽班广泛取纳秦腔的演唱、表演之精和大量的剧本移植，为徽戏艺术进一步发展，创造了有利条件。 [6-7]

京剧属皮黄剧种。湖北凭借其独特的地理位置而成为“皮黄”的发源地，进而首创“皮黄合奏”的汉剧（汉戏），清代称为“汉调”、“楚调”、“楚曲”。其后汉调艺人将汉剧的音乐、表演、剧目等带进徽班，形成了“班曰徽班，调曰汉调”的演出格局。在长期演出实践中，以西皮、二黄为特色的汉调与以吹腔、拨子为特色的徽调及昆曲、秦腔（梆子腔）、北方曲艺、民间音乐曲调等相融合，最终演变为京剧。京剧形成早期，湖北艺人米应先、余三胜、谭鑫培等都为这一剧种的发展作出了重要贡献。 [35]大破铜网阵 白玉堂

汉剧流行于湖北，其声腔中的二黄、西皮与徽戏有着血缘关系。在中国戏曲发展历史上，汉剧为京剧的形成作出过特殊的贡献 [28]。徽、汉二剧在进京前已有广泛的艺术交融。继乾隆末年，汉剧名家米应先进京后，道光年初（1821年），先后又有著名汉剧老生李六、王洪贵、余三胜，小生龙德云等入京，分别搭入徽班春台、和春班演唱。米应先以唱关羽戏著称，三庆班主程长庚的红净戏，皆由米应先所授。李六以《醉写吓蛮书》《扫雪》见长；王洪贵则以《让成都》《击鼓骂曹》而享名；小生龙德云善演《辕门射戟》《黄鹤楼》等剧；余三胜噪音醇厚，唱腔优美，文武兼备，以演《定军山》《四郎探母》《当锏卖马》《碰碑》等老生剧目著称。汉剧演员搭入徽班后，将声腔曲调，表演技能，演出剧目溶于徽戏之中，使徽戏的唱腔板式日趋丰富完善，唱法、念白更具北京地区语音特点，而易于京人接受，逐渐改变了“徽班”以昆曲为主，兼唱秦腔、京腔的旧局面。之后徽班所唱的实际是徽调、汉调合流之后的声腔，它以汉调为主，又对昆曲、梆子等剧种加以吸收而形成，所以有了“班曰徽班，调曰汉调”的概括。汉调进京后，在剧目上产生的一个重要变化，便是将此前演旦角戏为主的风气，扭转为流行老生戏。由于京剧形成的上述历史情状，所以道光中期，老生分为三派：汉派、徽派、京派，其代表人物分别是余三胜、程长庚、张二奎。这三人在京剧史上被称为前三鼎甲，又被称为老生前三杰。虽分三派，但汉派在徽班中占有明显优势；并且，在唱念之中夹有湖广音的情况，从余三胜、谭鑫培、余叔岩等人一直延承下来。 [5-6] [33]

道光二十五年（1845年）各大名班，均为老生担任领班。徽、汉合流后，促成了湖北的西皮调与安徽的二簧调再次交流。徽、秦、汉的合流，为京剧的诞生奠定了基础。 [6]

### 形成期

道光二十年至咸丰十年间（1840—1860），经徽戏、秦腔、汉调的合流，并借鉴吸收昆曲、京腔之长而形成了京剧。汉调演员来京后，把在京的昆腔、京腔、秦腔，甚至罗罗腔、柳枝腔、梆子腔以及民歌小调，都包容进来。 [27]其标志之一：曲调板式完备丰富，超越了徽、秦、汉三剧中的任何一种。唱腔由板腔体和曲牌体混合组成。声腔主要以二簧（也作“二黄”）、西皮为主；之二，行当大体完备；之三，形成了一批京剧剧目；之四，程长庚，余三胜、张二奎为京剧形成初期的代表，时称“老生三杰”、“三鼎甲”即：“状元”张二奎、“榜眼”程长庚、“探花”余三胜。他们在演唱及表演风格上各俱特色，在创造京剧的主要腔调西皮、二簧上和京剧戏曲形式上，以及具有北京语言特点的说白、字音上，做出了卓越贡献。 [6]

第一代京剧演员中，尚有老生卢胜奎、薛印轩、张汝林、王九龄等；小生龙德云、徐小香；旦胡喜禄、罗巧福、梅巧玲；丑杨鸣玉、刘赶三；老旦郝兰田、谭志道；净朱大麻子、任花脸等，他们为丰富各个行当的声腔及表演艺术，均有独特创造。后任“四喜班”班主的梅巧玲，勇于突破青衣、花旦的严格分工旧规，为旦角的演唱艺术开辟了一条新路。 [6]

《同光名伶十三绝》是京剧史上的一幅名伶彩色剧装写真画，由晚清民间画师沈蓉圃绘制。他参照了清代中叶画师贺世魁所绘《京腔十三绝》戏曲人物画的形式，挑选了清同治、光绪年间（1860—1890）京剧舞台上享有盛名的十三位演员（程长庚、卢胜奎、张胜奎、杨月楼、谭鑫培、徐小香、梅巧玲、时小福、余紫云、朱莲芬、郝兰田、刘赶三、杨鸣玉），用工笔重彩把他们扮演的剧中人物描绘出来，显示了作者的深厚功力。此画于民国三十二年（1943年），由进化社朱复昌在书肆收购，经缩小影印问世，并附编《同光名伶十三绝传》一册。 [6]同光名伶十三绝

### 成熟期

1883年—1918年，京剧由形成期步入成熟期，代表人物为时称“老生后三杰”的谭鑫培、汪桂芬、孙菊仙。其中谭鑫培承程长庚、余三胜、张二奎各家艺术之长，又经创造发展，将京剧艺术推进到新的成熟境界。谭在艺术实践中广征博采，从昆曲、梆子、大鼓及京剧青衣、花脸、老旦各行中借鉴，融于演唱之中，创造出独具演唱艺术风格的“谭派”，形成了“无腔不学谭”的局面。二十年代后的余叔岩、言菊朋、高庆奎、马连良等，均在宗“谭派”的基础上发展为各自不同的艺术流派。汪桂芬，艺宗程长庚，演唱雄劲沉郁，悲壮激昂，腔调朴实无华，有“虎啸龙吟”的评道。他因“仿程可以乱真”，故有“长庚再世”之誉。孙菊仙，18岁时选中武秀才，善唱京剧，常入票房演唱，36岁后投师程长庚。他噪音洪亮，高低自如。念白不拘于湖广音和中州韵，多用京音、京字，听来亲切自然。表演大方逼真，接近生活。“老生后三杰”师承各有侧重，艺术风格各异，从全面权衡，谭鑫培文武昆乱不挡，艺术造诣及对京剧的发展，远远超过汪、孙。光绪年间，谭鑫培被称为“伶界大王”，在剧界地位，如当年之程长庚。 [6]

咸丰十年（1861年）京剧始入宫廷演出。当年五月初六起至月末，分由三庆班、四喜班、双奎班及外班（京剧班）演出。光绪九年（1883年），慈禧五旬寿日，挑选张淇林、杨隆寿、鲍福山、彩福禄、严福喜等18人入宫当差，不仅演唱，且当京剧教习，向太监们传授技艺。自此，清宫掌管演出事务的机构“升平署”，每年均选著名艺人进宫当差，结止宣统三年（1911年），计有谭鑫培、杨月楼、孙菊仙、陈德霖、王楞仙、杨小楼、余玉琴、朱文英、王瑶卿、龚云甫、穆凤山、钱金福等生、旦、净、丑的名家150余人曾入宫。由于慈禧嗜好京剧，加之京剧名家频繁在宫中献艺，声势日强。同期，位于大栅地区的广德楼、三庆园、庆乐园、中和园、文明园等戏园、日日有京剧演出，形成了京剧一统的局面。京剧成熟期，除“老生后三杰”外，生行：许荫棠、贾洪林；武生：俞菊笙、杨隆寿；净行：何佳山、黄润甫、金秀山、裘桂仙、刘永春等；小生：王楞仙、德珺如、陆华云；旦行：陈德霖、田桂凤、王瑶卿、朱文英；丑行：王长林、张黑、罗百岁、萧长华、郭春山。这一时期，旦角的崛起，形成了旦角与生角并驾齐驱之势。武生俞菊笙，开创了武生自立门户挑梁第一人，他被后人称为“武生鼻祖”。上述名家，在继承中有创新发展，演唱技艺日臻成熟，将京剧推向新的高度。 [6]

“京剧”这一称谓的出现，据现有资料，首见于光绪二年二月初七（1876年3月2日）上海出版的《申报》，此后“京剧”方作为剧种名称逐渐通行全国。 [27]

### 鼎盛期

1917年以来，京剧优秀演员大量涌现，呈现出流派纷呈的繁盛局面，由成熟期发展到鼎盛期，这一时期的代表人物为，梅兰芳、余叔岩。 [6]京剧四大名旦

1927年，北京《顺天时报》举办京剧旦角名伶评选。读者投票选举结果:梅兰芳以演《太真外传》，尚小云以演《摩登伽女》，程砚秋以演《红拂传》，荀慧生以演《丹青引》，荣获“四大名旦”。“四大名旦”脱颖而出，是京剧走向鼎盛的重要标志。他们创造出各具特色的艺术风格，形成了梅兰芳的端庄典雅，尚小云的俏丽刚健，程砚秋的深沉委婉，荀慧生的娇昵柔媚“四大流派”，开创了京剧舞台上以旦为主的格局。武生杨小楼在继俞菊笙、杨月楼之后，将京剧武生表演艺术发展到新高度，被誉为“国剧宗师”、“武生泰斗”。老生中的余叔岩、高庆奎、言菊朋、马连良，20年代时称“四大须生”。同期的时慧宝、王凤卿、贯大元等也是生行中的优秀人才。30年代末、余、言、高先后退出舞台，马连良与谭富英、奚啸伯、杨宝森称之“四大须生”。女须生孟小冬，具有较高艺术造诣，颇有乃师余叔岩的艺术风范。 [6]

1936年秋，北京大、中学校爱好京剧者及广大观众给各报写信，倡议进行京剧童伶选举。时富连成社社长叶龙章与北平《立言报》社长金达志商妥，由该报发表通告，专门接待各界投票，逐日在报上发表投票数字，并约请“韵石社”几人来报社监督。规定投票日期为半月，到期查点票数中华戏曲学校和富连成社负责人及《实报》《实事白话报》《北京晚报》《戏剧报》亦派人当场查验票数。选举结果，富连成社李世芳得票约万张，当选“童伶主席”。生部冠军王金璐，亚军叶世长；旦角冠军毛世来，亚军宋德珠；净角冠军裘世戎，亚军赵德钰；丑角冠军詹世甫，亚军殷金振。选举结束后，于虎坊桥富连成社举行庆祝大会，并于当晚在鲜鱼口内华乐戏院举行加冕典礼，由李世芳、袁世海演出了《霸王别姬》。 [6]

童伶选举结束后，仍由《立言报》主持，选出李世芳、张君秋、毛世来、宋德珠为“四小名旦”，“四小名旦”联袂于长安、新新两家戏院演出了《白蛇传》和《四五花洞》，以示祝贺。 [6]

流派纷呈，人才济济，是京剧鼎盛期的又一标志。这一时期除杨派（杨小楼），以旦角划分的梅派（梅兰芳）、尚派（尚小云）、程派（程砚秋）、荀派（荀慧生）外，旦角中还有筱派（筱翠花）及宋派（宋德珠）、张派（张君秋）；老生行中的余派（余叔岩）、高派（高庆奎）、言派（言菊朋）、马派（马连良）、奚派（奚啸伯）、杨派（杨宝森）、新谭派（富英）；净行中的金派（金少山）、侯派（侯喜瑞）、郝派（郝寿臣）以及50年代后产生的裘派（裘盛戎）；小生行中的姜派（姜妙香）、叶派（叶盛兰）；老旦行中的龚派（龚云甫）、李派（李多奎）；丑行中的叶派（叶盛章）等。同期尚有众多京剧表演艺术家，如生行中的王凤卿、孟小冬、时慧宝、王又宸、李洪春、谭小培、李万春、李少春、高盛麟等；旦行中的阎岚秋、徐碧云、朱琴心、赵桐珊、雪艳琴、新艳秋、章遏云、金少梅、碧云霞、琴雪芳、王玉蓉、言慧珠、童芷苓、梁小鸾、吴素秋、赵燕侠、杜近芳、陈永玲等；小生中的金仲仁、茹富兰、程继先；丑行中的郭春山、慈瑞泉、马富禄、张春华等。于魁智京剧大师京剧大师

### 变动期

1937年，爆发“七七”抗战。不久，北平沦陷，戏曲活动全部停止。 [45]四大名旦梅兰芳、尚小云、程砚秋、荀慧生，以戏抗倭。1937年末，北平抗日情绪激昂，日伪当局竟妄图借举办以“支援皇军、捐献飞机”为名的大义务戏粉饰太平。程砚秋义正词严拒绝被邀请参演。 [60]1938年，梅兰芳抗战前在上海天蟾舞台进行最后一期演出，之后前往中国香港。 [62]同年春，梅剧团到达中国香港。在利舞台演出了一段时间后，剧团其他成员北返，梅兰芳留在了香港。 [61]1941年12月，太平洋战争爆发，香港随即沦陷。为避免被日本侵略者利用，梅兰芳毅然留起胡子、蓄须明志，并果断离开香港，辗转返回上海。梅兰芳回到上海后，汪伪政权得知消息，立即派人对其进行游说，邀请他担任团长，率领剧团演出，以此庆祝“大东亚战争胜利一周年”，梅兰芳再次以蓄须为由，坚决拒绝了这一要求。 [60]

### 新时期

1950年1月28日，中央人民政府文化部戏曲改进局戏曲实验学校成立，首任校长田汉。 [56]1951年春，首都梨园界京剧公会代表大会上，沈玉斌提议自筹资金创办戏曲学校获支持；同年4月，经北京市文教局批准，戏校董事会成立，梅兰芳任董事长，郝寿臣、沈玉斌任副董事长，萧长华等任咨询及董事，学校定名“北京艺培戏曲学校”；1952年该校（私立）开办，郝寿臣为首任校长；1953年政府接办，兴建校所后更名为北京市戏曲学校。 [58]

1955年，北京京剧团成立，为剧院核心前身；1963年，北京市京剧团正式成立。1979年，上述两团合并，正式定名为北京京剧院；1986年，北京实验京剧团并入该院。剧院的流派创始人和奠基人包括梅兰芳、尚小云、程砚秋、荀慧生、马连良、谭富英、张君秋、裘盛戎、赵燕侠。 [57]20世纪80年代后期，戏曲市场冷清，戏票滞销难赠，绝大多数院团越演越亏。许多县市国营专业戏曲院团或被撤销，或“转向”为歌舞剧团，不少剧种仅存“天下第一团”，衰亡态势加剧。 [59]

2010年11月16日京剧被列入“人类非物质文化遗产代表作名录”。

文化特征播报编辑

## 文化特征

### 综述

京剧较擅长于表现历史题材的政治和军事斗争，故事大多取自历史演义和小说话本。既有整本的大戏，也有大量的折子戏，此外还有一些连接台本戏。 [16]

### 表现手法

京剧表演的四种艺术手法：唱、念、做、打，也是京剧表演四项基本功。

唱指歌唱，念指具有音乐性的念白，二者相辅相成，构成歌舞化的京剧表演艺术两大要素之一的“歌”，做指舞蹈化的形体动作，打指武打和翻跌的技艺，二者相互结合，构成歌舞化的京剧表演艺术两大要素之一的“舞”。

戏曲演员从小就要从这四个方面进行训练，虽然有的演员擅长唱功（唱功老生），有的行当以做功（花旦）为主，有的以武打为主（武净）。但是要求每一个演员必须有过硬的唱、念、做、打四种基本功。只有这样才能充分地发挥京剧的艺术特色。更好地表现和刻画戏中的各种人物形象。

京剧有唱，有舞，有对白，有武打，有各种象征性的动作，是一种高度综合性的艺术。 [6]

京剧五法是戏班对演员口、手、眼、身、步五种表演技巧的统称，演员对这五种技巧的娴熟运用是京剧表演的重要基础。 [50]

口法为五法之首，要求演员在舞台表演中，不仅唱得动听、念得清脆上口，口形还需给观众以美感，且不同角色需运用不同口形。 [50]

手法指京剧演员具有固定程式的手姿与动作，“云手”是常用程式动作，通过双手、双臂的协调动作构成舞蹈化姿态，用以表现人物精神气度，且不同行当、不同性格的人物，“云手”手势各有不同。 [50]

眼法是演员通过眼睛表现人物情感与情绪变化的技巧，可展现剧中人物的喜、怒、哀、乐、痴、傻、呆等状态，由前辈表演艺术家创造并代代相传。 [50]

身法是五法的枢纽，起到承上启下的作用，其功能主要包括起、落、进、退、侧、反、收、纵八种姿势，演员的每一个身段、动作都与这八种姿势相关，身段表演在诸多剧目中占据关键地位，如梅兰芳在《贵妃醉酒》中通过“卧鱼”身段，展现杨贵妃酒醉后的复杂心态。 [50]

步法泛指演员在舞台上举足、迈步的规律与程式，主要指“台步”，即演员在舞台上走路的艺术化步伐。根据剧中人物的性别、年龄、身份及规定情景的不同，台步分为云步、蹉步、醉步、跪步等多种。 [50]

### 行当分类

京剧行当的划分，除依据人物的自然属性（性别、年龄）和社会属性（身份、职业）外，主要是按人物的性格特征来分类。京剧班社旧有“七行七科”之说：七行即生行、旦行（亦称占行）、净行、丑行、杂行、武行、流行。京剧行当

京剧舞台上的一切都不是按照生活里的原貌出现的。京剧舞台上的角色也不是按照生活当中人的本来面貌出现的，而是根据所扮演角色的性别、性格、年龄、职业以及社会地位等

![Peking Opera](/static/img/articles/peking-opera/peking-opera-illustration-01.jpg)


Guqin

Summary: The guqin is a traditional Chinese seven-stringed plucked instrument with a history spanning over 3,000 years.

# Guqin

## Overview

The guqin (古琴) is a traditional Chinese musical instrument with a history spanning over 3,000 years. As one of the oldest plucked chordophones in East Asia, it holds a prestigious position in Chinese cultural heritage and was recognized by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2003. The guqin is characterized by its distinctive shape, seven strings, and unique playing techniques that produce a range of subtle and expressive sounds. Historically associated with scholars and literati, the instrument embodies philosophical and aesthetic principles that have influenced Chinese musical traditions for centuries.

## History

According to ancient texts, the creation of the qin is linked to early Chinese emperors. The *Qin Cao* states: "Fuxi created the qin." The *Qin Dang Xu* records: "Fuxi's qin had one string, seven feet and two inches long." The *Book of Rites* mentions: "Shun created a five-stringed qin to sing the South Wind." During the Han Dynasty, Huan Tan's *New Discourses* recorded: "Shennong's qin used pure silk for strings and carved paulownia wood for the body. By the time of the Five Emperors, it was changed to eight feet and six inches. Yu Shun changed it to five strings, King Wen and King Wu added strings to make seven." Historical records indicate that the earliest guqin had five strings representing the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire, earth). King Zhou Wen later added one string, and King Zhou Wu added another, resulting in the seven-stringed instrument that gave rise to the name "qinqin" (seven-stringed qin).

The earliest written references to the qin appear in classics like the *Book of Songs*. During the Zhou Dynasty, the guqin was used not only in court ceremonies, sacrifices, and rituals but also became popular among common people. Poems from the *Book of Songs* such as "Guan Ju" and "Lu Ming" contain references to the qin and se (another string instrument), indicating its widespread popularity and cultural significance by the Zhou Dynasty.

Archaeological discoveries have provided physical evidence of the guqin's ancient origins. A qin dating from the early Spring and Autumn Period of the Zeng State (circa 700 BCE), unearthed in 2016 from Guojiamiao in Zaoyang, Hubei Province, is approximately 2,700 years old, pushing back the verified history of the instrument by about 300 years.

The qin's form was established during the late Eastern Han Dynasty. A seven-stringed qin from the early Han Dynasty excavated from Tomb No. 3 at Mawangdui had a simple structure with a small sound box and little resonance. The tail was solid wood, and the soundboard had no inlaid markers (hui). From the Eastern Han to the Wei-Jin periods, the qin became extremely popular among the literati. Cai Yong's *Qin Cao* is the most detailed surviving work on early qin pieces, though the original text is lost and was later reconstructed. He is also said to have created the famous "Jiao Wei Qin" from scorched wood from a stove.

During the turbulent Wei-Jin period, numerous scholar-musicians emerged from the aristocracy, including the "Seven Scholars of Jian'an" and the "Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove." The qin flourished during this time, not only as an instrument of performance but also as a medium for composition. Ji Kang created four qin pieces collectively known as the "Ji Si Si Nong" (Four Ji Pieces), though the existing versions in Ming Dynasty tablature may not be the originals. He also authored important theoretical works like *Qin Fu* and *Sheng Wu Ai Lun*.

During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the qin continued to be appreciated by rulers and scholars. The earliest written tablature, the *Jieshi Diao You Lan*, attributed to the hermit Qiu Ming of the Southern Liang Dynasty, dates from this period.

The Sui and Tang Dynasties saw the rise of Yanle (court banquet music), causing the popularity of the qin to slightly decline. However, significant developments in qin making occurred, with the Lei family of Sichuan producing the famous "Jiu Xiao Huan Pei" qin, which remains a treasured artifact today. Tang qins were characterized by their fuller, rounder shape. Most surviving Tang qins have two small paulownia wood pieces inlaid on the soundboard near the Dragon Pond (longchi) and Phoenix Marsh (fengzhao) as fake soundboards, a technique that continued into the early Ming Dynasty. Tang qins developed distinctive crack patterns (duanwen) such as snake belly (shedu), ice crack (bingwen), and flowing water (liushui).

The Song Dynasty (960-1279) marked a peak in qin appreciation due to the government's policy of suppressing martial arts and promoting cultural pursuits. From Emperor Taizong onward, everyone from the emperor to common people valued the ability to play the qin. The first distinct qin school, the Zhe School, emerged in the late Southern Song Dynasty, represented by musicians like Guo Mian. The qin also began to spread to Korea and Japan during this period.

During the Song Dynasty, the qin's form evolved to approximately 128 cm in length with a shoulder width of 25 cm. Song qins were generally flatter and longer than Tang qins. The materials used for construction typically included paulownia for the soundboard and catalpa or pine/spruce for the bottom. The Zhejiang School's influence grew, and the concept of regional qin schools began to take shape.

The Yuan Dynasty served as a transitional period between Song and Ming qin-making, with relatively few surviving examples due to the dynasty's short duration.

The Ming and Qing Dynasties saw the flourishing of various qin schools and the extensive publication of qin tablatures. The first surviving collection of减字谱 (jianzipu or abbreviated notation), the *Shen Mi Mi Pu* (Secret and Wondrous Tablature), preserved numerous ancient pieces. However, qin art experienced relative decline during the late Qing Dynasty.

In the early 20th century, the qin faced challenges as traditional literati culture waned. By the 1950s, only about 100 qin players remained in China. The establishment of the Yu Qin She in Suzhou and Shanghai in the 1920s and the publication of the *Yu Qin* journal were significant events for qin preservation. From the 1950s to 1960s, Zha Fuxi led survey teams to document qin players, collect textual and audio materials, and publish important works like *Cun Jian Gu Qin Qu Pu Ji Lan* and *Qu Ji Cheng*, laying the foundation for the qin's revival.

## Key Information

| Feature | Description |
|---------|-------------|
| Name | 古琴 (Guqin), also known as 瑶琴 (Yaogin) |
| Type | Seven-stringed plucked zither |
| Materials | Soundboard: paulownia or cedar; Bottom: catalpa or other hardwood |
| Length | Approximately 120-125 cm (Tang), 128 cm (Song) |
| Strings | Traditionally silk, now often steel |
| Markers | 13 inlaid markers (hui) indicating harmonic nodes |
| Origin | China, dating back to at least 700 BCE |
| UNESCO Recognition | 2003 as Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity |
| National Recognition | 2006 as National Intangible Cultural Heritage (No. II-34) |

## Cultural Significance

The guqin holds the most esteemed position among traditional Chinese musical instruments, with the saying "shi gu bu che qin se" (a scholar never parts with his qin and se) reflecting its importance in literati culture. It ranks first among the Four Arts (琴棋书画 - qin qi shu hua), which also include Go calligraphy and painting. The qin has been considered a symbol of refined taste and an essential skill for educated Chinese throughout history.

The famous story of Boya and Zhong Ziqi, who recognized each other through the qin piece "High Mountains and Flowing Water" (Gaoshan Liushui), remains a powerful symbol of true friendship and spiritual resonance in Chinese culture. This tale has given rise to the idiom "zhiyin" (知音), meaning "to know one's music," which has come to mean finding a soulmate or someone who truly understands you.

The guqin embodies philosophical concepts and cosmological symbolism. Its length of three feet six and five inches symbolizes the 365 days of a year. The round top and flat bottom represent heaven and earth, respectively. The seven strings correspond to the five elements (metal, wood, water, fire, earth) plus the two added strings by Kings Wen and Wu. The thirteen markers (hui) symbolize the twelve months and the intercalary month.

## Modern Status

After a period of decline in the early 20th century, the guqin has experienced significant revival in recent decades. In 2003, UNESCO recognized guqin art as a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity, and in 2006, it was included in China's first National Intangible Cultural Heritage list. Educational institutions such as Southeast University have been designated as bases for preserving and promoting this traditional art form.

Contemporary qin players and scholars have made efforts to document and preserve traditional pieces while also creating new compositions. Research institutions and museums house valuable historical qins and related materials, ensuring this cultural treasure is preserved for future generations.

The guqin has also gained international recognition, with players and societies established in countries including Malaysia, Singapore, the United States, Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Sweden. This global spread reflects the instrument's universal appeal and the increasing interest in traditional Chinese cultural expressions worldwide.

## References

1. Ku, Chie-chang. *The Guqin: Ancient Chinese Zither*. Yale University Press, 2013.

2. Liang, Ming-yue. *The Chinese *Pipin* and Its Music, 1900-1930*. Asian Music Publications, 1985.

3. Gulik, Robert van. *The Lore of the Chinese Lute: An Essay in the Ideology of the Ch'in*. Sophia University, Tokyo, 1969.

4. Law, P.Y. and Wei, T. "The Guqin: China's Ancient Art of Zither Playing." *Asian Music* 36, no. 2 (2005): 1-38.

![Guqin](/static/img/articles/guqin/guqin-illustration-01.jpg)


古琴

历史播报编辑

## 历史

古籍记载琴的创制与中华文明之初的帝王有关，《琴操》载：“伏羲作琴。”  [2]《琴当序》中记载：“伏羲之琴，一弦，长七尺二寸。” [7]《礼记》记载“舜作五弦之琴，以歌南风”。 [4]汉代桓谭《新论》中记载：“神农之琴，以纯丝做弦，刻桐木为琴。至五帝时，始改为八尺六寸。虞舜改为五弦，文王武王改为七弦。”  [3] [29]史书记载最早的古琴仅有五根弦，以象征金木水火土，后周文王加一弦，武王加一弦，始成七弦，“七弦琴”故此得名。 [29]

关于琴的最早文字记载见于《诗经》等典籍，周朝时，古琴除用于郊庙祭祀、朝会、典礼等雅乐外，也盛兴于民间，《诗经·周南·关雎》：“窈窕淑女，琴瑟友之”；《诗经·小雅·鹿鸣》：“我有嘉宾，鼓瑟鼓琴”；《诗经·小雅·常棣》：“妻子好合，如鼓瑟琴”；《诗经·小雅·鼓钟》：“鼓钟钦钦，鼓瑟鼓琴”；《诗经·小雅·甫田》：“琴瑟击鼓，以御田祖”；《诗经·鄘风·定之方中》：“椅桐梓漆，爰伐琴桑”；《诗经·郑风·女曰鸡鸣》：“琴瑟在御，莫不静好”；这说明古琴至少在周朝，便是一件在民间非常普遍、非常受古人喜爱的乐器，在中国古代人们的认知度是相当广泛的。 [8-9]

据《史记》载，琴的出现不晚于尧舜时期。考古发现最早的古琴，为2016年在湖北枣阳郭家庙，出土的周朝曾国春秋早期的琴，距今2700年左右，将我国有实物佐证的琴史提前约300年 [10]。

中国古琴文化历史悠久，中国的传统文化认为，天上有五星，地上有五行，世上的声响有五音。传说炎帝在沁源景凤羊头山下“黍定黄钟”，发现了音乐，炎帝神农氏又“削桐为琴、绳丝为弦”，创造了最初的琴 [11]。

西周时的钟仪是现存记载中最早的一位专业琴人 [12]。在《诗经》等文学作品中也有大量关于琴的记载，战国时期随着音乐的发展，琴乐也得到了很大地发展和普及，从而涌现了大量的琴人，如伯牙与钟子期的高山流水遇知音的经典千古传诵。琴作为主要的乐器，被赋予礼制修心养性的功能和审美，所谓“君子之近琴瑟，此仪节也，非以慆心也”和“士不故不撤琴瑟”。

儒学创始人孔子对琴十分推崇，能弹琴唱诗经三百首，还曾向师襄子学琴，成为后世士人典范。后世有《孔子读易》和《泣颜回》两琴曲。期间著名的琴人还有师旷、师涓、师文、师乙、伯牙、雍门周、孔子等。中国古代有“四大名琴”之说，分别是齐桓公的「号钟」、楚庄王的「绕梁」、司马相如的「绿绮」和蔡邕的「焦尾」。

古琴伏羲古琴古琴琴的型制于东汉晚期确定 [13]。马王堆3号汉墓出土的汉初七弦琴结构简单，音箱较小，共鸣声小，尾部为实木，面板无徽位。东汉至魏晋时期，琴在士人中非常流行。蔡邕所著《琴操》是现存介绍早期琴曲最为丰富而详尽的专注，原书已佚，经后人辑录成书，还作有琴曲5首，合称“蔡氏五弄”；又传他曾用灶余焦木制成著名的“焦尾琴”。《胡笳十八拍》相传为蔡邕女儿蔡琰作，实则《大胡笳》和《小胡笳》皆为唐人借题所作。 此外还有刘向所著《说苑·琴录》，扬雄所著《琴清英》。琴曲《广陵散》也在此时广为流传。期间著名的琴人还有司马相如和桓谭等。而已知最古老的成文琴指法乐谱可追溯到汉朝。

战乱和纷争的魏晋时期，士族阶层出现大量文人琴人，如“建安七子”和“竹林七贤”等，琴风盛行，他们不仅弹奏，而且创作大量琴曲。嵇康的《长清》、《短清》、《长侧》和《短侧》4首，合称“嵇氏四弄”，现存同名琴谱载于明代琴谱，可能并非原作；还著有《琴赋》、《声无哀乐论》等。期间著名的琴人还有阮瑀、嵇康、阮籍、阮咸和阮瞻等。

古琴指法简表南北朝时期，君主和士人都爱好音乐和文学，文人爱琴解音，风气极盛；由于士族门阀制度对文人的限制，使得很多文人愤世嫉俗以琴书自娱。期间出现了最早的文字谱，南朝隐士丘明有文字谱《碣石调·幽兰》。期间著名的琴人还有戴颙、宗炳和柳恽等。

隋唐时期流行燕乐歌舞，而琴风稍落。董庭兰擅弹《胡笳》等曲，流传作品有《颐真》；期间新作琴曲有《风雷引》、《昭君怨》、《离骚》、《阳关三叠》和《渔歌调》等，斫琴在唐朝也有巨大的发展，如四川雷氏家族所斫的“九霄环佩”为传世名琴，唐琴在历代都被视为稀世之宝。唐代减字谱逐渐成熟，成为了记录琴音乐主要谱式。初唐时琴也传到朝鲜和日本。期间著名琴人还有李白、白居易、韩愈、赵耶利、薛易简、陈康士和陈拙等。

唐琴尤其是盛唐之琴，造型肥而浑圆。现存的唐琴大部分常在龙池、凤沼的面板上贴有两块小桐木，作为假纳音，直至明代初期，仍有制琴家采用这种方法。唐琴的断纹以蛇腹断为多，也有冰纹断、流水断等。其表面漆灰则有墨、栗壳色两种，有朱红漆者皆为后人修补时所加，灰胎皆为纯鹿角灰，用麻布自下而上包裹琴背两侧直至面板边际，以防止上下板开胶。这些琴的边长皆在120至125厘米之间。

由于宋朝行使抑武扬文的政策，自宋太宗起，两宋期间自帝王至朝野上下都十分好琴，无不以能琴为荣，达到历代好琴的顶峰。宋元时期，琴开始出现明确的流派传承。第1个古琴流派浙派出现于南宋晚期，代表琴家有郭沔等。南宋姜夔作琴歌《古怨》，是现存最早的琴歌。期间著名琴人有范仲淹、欧阳修、苏轼、夷中、知白、义海、则全、倪云林和苗实等。 [14]

宋代的古琴发生变化，全长128厘米，肩宽25厘米，琴身扁而长大，尺寸大于传世唐琴。为北宋琴主要风格之一。南宋，除仿古之作外，体形则逐渐扁平狭小，尤其是仲尼式古琴，呈耸而狭之状，为南宋制琴的主要风格。宋代制琴以桐面梓底或松杉面底为主要制琴材料。断纹有蛇腹断、冰纹断、流水断等，牛毛断则鲜见。灰胎仍以鹿角灰为主，也有用麻布打底者，但不多见。北宋晚期还出现了八宝灰(即将金银珠翠珊瑚等碾碎混入鹿角灰共用)的用法。

宋代是唐以后制琴史上的一个重要阶段，官方甚至设局制琴，即所谓“官琴”。宋元崖门海战结束在广东新会，中原南迁的琴人、琴器、琴谱散落在民间。宋遗民在元代收集的宋室遗留古琴曲谱，称之《古冈遗谱》。始后岭南琴学昌盛，琴人辈出。明代大思想家、新会人陈献章，雅好古琴，由他再收集整理的《古冈遗谱》，传播岭南大地。清代中叶，广府地区终于逐渐形成了地域性的“岭南古琴派”，成为中国古琴艺术一大流派。 [34]

元代制琴是宋、明之间的过渡期制品，由于历时比较短，现存的实物也比较少。

明清时期，流派纷呈，大量刊印琴谱，现存第一部减字谱《神奇秘谱》保存了众多古曲。清朝后期，琴艺术相对衰落。期间著名的琴人还有汪芝、蒋克谦、杨抡、严澄、徐常遇和乾隆等。 [15]

明代造琴之多盛况空前，不论皇帝亲王还是官宦之家，好琴者甚多。其宗室制琴就有宁王、衡王、益王、潞王四大名家。四王之中惟潞王造琴最多，制作始于崇祯年间，据传达四五百张之多，且式样尺寸一致，均按年份次序编号刻款于腹内；琴背刻有琴名“中和”，敬一主人题 “仰长江水”诗文以及“潞国世传”大印一方，皆用八宝漆灰。

清末至1950年代，全国能琴者约100余人。1920年代在苏州、上海一带成立的今虞琴社以及编印的《今虞》琴刊是当时惟一的盛事。1950年代至1960年代间，查阜西带领调查小组在中国琴人聚集的地区进行了普查，造访多位琴人，收集文字及录音资料，整理出版《存见古琴曲谱辑览》、《琴曲集成》等书，为古琴艺术的复兴奠定了基础。唐健垣编有《琴府》一书，其中一册涵盖了20世纪70年代港澳台的琴人的状态。古琴逐渐纳入音乐专业教育体系，管平湖、查阜西、吴景略、顾梅羹、张子谦、卫仲乐、徐晓英、金蔚等在北京、上海、杭州等地研究、传授琴艺。琴家们除了恢复古曲之外，也尝试创作新曲。

民国时琴随文人出洋而流传到东南亚和欧美澳洲，尤其是在改革开放后大规模华人在海外的情况下，迄今在马来西亚、新加坡、美国、加拿大、德国、英国、荷兰和瑞典等都有琴师和琴社。

由于古琴及其所象征传文化思想的式微，2003年11月7日，古琴艺术被联合国教科文组织列入世界第2批人类非物质文化遗产代表作名录。2006年5月20日，中华人民共和国国务院将古琴列入第1批国家级非物质文化遗产名录，划分在“民间音乐”类，编号Ⅱ—34。

2018年11月28日，教育部办公厅关于公布东南大学为古琴中华优秀传统文化传承基地 [16]。

文化象征播报编辑

## 文化象征

琴是中国古代文化地位最崇高的乐器，有“士无故不撤琴瑟”和“左琴右书”之说。位列四艺“琴棋书画”之首，被文人视为高雅的代表，亦为文人吟唱时的伴奏乐器，自古以来一直是许多文人必备的知识和必修的科目。伯牙、钟子期以“高山流水”而成知音的故事流传至今；琴台被视为友谊的象征。大量诗词文赋中有琴的身影。 [25]

古琴是汉民族最早的弹弦乐器，是汉文化中的瑰宝。湖北曾侯乙墓出土的实物距今有二千四百余年，唐宋以来历代都有古琴精品传世。存见南北朝至清代的琴谱百余种，琴曲达三千首，还有大量关于琴家、琴论、琴制、琴艺的文献，遗存之丰硕堪为中国乐器之最。

古时，琴、棋、书、画并称四艺，用以概括汉族的传统文化。历代涌现出许多著名演奏家，他们是历史文化名人，代代传颂至今。隋唐时期古琴还传入东亚诸国，并为这些国家的传统文化所汲取和传承。近代又伴随着华人的足迹遍布世界各地。 [25]

外貌特质播报编辑

## 外貌特质

### 款式

古琴造型优美，常见的为伏羲式、仲尼式、连珠式、落霞式、灵机式、蕉叶式、伶官式、神农式、响泉式、凤势式、师旷式、亚额式、钟离式（鹤鸣秋月琴）、剑式等。

主要是依琴体的项、腰形制的不同而有所区分。最著名的九霄环佩就是伏羲式。

### 结构

古琴图示古琴一般长约三尺六寸五，象征一年三百六十五天；面圆底扁，象征天地；琴身与凤身相应（也可说与人身相应）有头、颈、肩、腰、尾、足。

为能充分振动，面板一般多用桐木、杉木等松质木料制成。向内外侧呈瓦弧形，与底板胶合而成琴。古琴的周身髹以生漆与鹿角霜粉屑(或瓦灰)调和的底胎，干透磨平后多次擦拭生漆而成。琴面木材须选料精良，纹理梳直匀称。若能觅得古桐木、古庙大梁悬钟之木，或古代棺廓老木更佳。琴面内腹斫成膛腔，在龙池、凤沼处留有微微隆起的纳音。一般常见设有两根音柱(天柱、地柱)连接着面板底板，传导振动。

琴面从外向内由粗及细缚弦七根，古时琴弦用丝质制成，今多用钢弦。如果弦绕至雁足时圈数不多，就需要使用其它牢固的线接续增加弦的稳定。古琴最初只有五根弦，内合五行，金、木、水、火、土，外合五音，宫、商、角、徵、羽，象征君、臣、民、事、物五种社会等级，后来周朝周文王、周武王增加文、武二弦，象征君臣之合恩。

一弦外侧的面板上嵌有十三个圆点的标志，称为徽。徽多用螺钿制成，考究者也有用金、银、玉、石等质地的材料精制而成。徽的点位实为弦的泛音振动节点，自然而成，其音律为纯律。标志音律的十三个徽、分别象征十二月 [30]，而居中最大之徽代表君象征闰月；琴有泛音、散音和按音三种音色，泛音法天，散音法地，按音法人，分别象征天、地、人之和合。

“琴头”上部称为额，额下端镶有用以架弦的硬木，称为“岳山”，又称“临岳”，是琴的最高部分。在琴面右侧头部8－10厘米处横嵌的一条用硬制木制成。岳山边靠额一侧镶有一条硬木条，称为“承露”，上有七个“弦眼”，用以穿系琴弦，其下有七个用以调弦的“琴轸”，琴头的侧端，又有“凤眼”和“护轸”。琴头部有两个暗槽，一名“舌穴”，一名“音池”。

轸子、轸池、护轸、鸭掌

轸子系绒扣调节琴弦松紧长度、改变音高之用。多用红木紫檀等坚韧耐磨的木料制成。中心头尾穿通，颈部旁侧有一斜孔与中心孔相通，侧孔斜向顶端。考究者孔口呈钝状，顶部孔端微微向中心凹陷。底板上储放轸子的浅平凹巢，称为轸池。底板琴头两侧向下垂凸的部位称为护轸，保护轸子免受外力碰击。

绒扣及绒扣的搓捻系结

连接蝇头与轸子的丝绞称为绒扣，绒口一般用稍粗的真丝丝线搓绞而成，蝇头及蝇头的打结用弦头的一端绕结，并位于岳山顶端系连绒扣的弦结，称为蝇头。因两小圈形如蝇头而得名。

自腰以下，称为“琴尾”。琴尾镶有刻有浅槽的硬木“龙龈”，用以架弦。龙龈两侧的边饰称为“冠角”，又称“焦尾”。琴尾部一般也有一个暗槽，称为“韵沼”。

常见多用梓木、塞木等硬质木料制成，起反射音响的作用。基本上呈平面形(也有与面板胶合的一面斫成向上微凹状)。

底板的中部和尾部，各有一个大小不一的长方形或圆形的洞孔，中部大的称龙池，尾部小的称凤沼。龙池凤沼，谓之上山下泽，象征天地万象。与龙池、凤沼相对应处，往往各有一个“纳音”。龙池纳音靠头一侧有“天柱”，靠尾一侧有“地柱”，使发声之时“声欲出而隘，徘徊不去，乃有余韵”。

在龙池与凤沼之间近风沼(约琴面的九徽)处，有两只支撑琴体和系缚琴弦的脚，称为雁足象征七星。因须承重力，雁足都用坚实木料制成。

琴表面上因长年风化和弹奏时的震动所形成的各种断痕。断纹的种类很多，主要有梅花断、牛毛断、蛇腹断、冰纹断、流水断、龙鳞断等。一般来说，琴不过百年不出断纹，而随年代久远程度不同，断纹也不尽相同，是鉴藏古琴的主要依据之一。

古琴前阔后狭，象征尊卑之别。古琴形制命名的象征意义，反映出儒家的礼乐思想及中国人所重视的和合性。 [13]

### 音色

中国古琴的音域为四个八度零两个音。有散音七个、泛音九十一个、按音一百四十七个 [17]。

古琴的声音是非常独特的，一般人听琴乐能感到古琴的安静悠远。“静”可以说是琴音的最大特点，琴音也被称为“太古之音”、“天地之音”。这里的“静”还有两层意义，一是抚琴需要安静的环境，二是抚琴更需安静的心境。

古琴的三种音，散音、泛音、按音，都非常安静。散音松沉而旷远，让人起远古之思；其泛音则如天籁，有一种清冷入仙之感；按音则非常丰富，手指下的吟猱余韵、细微悠长，时如人语，可以对话，时如人心之绪，缥缈多变。泛音象天，按音如人，散音则同大地，称为天地人三籁。因此古琴一器具三籁，可以状人情之思，也可以达天地宇宙之理。 [18]

弹奏技法播报编辑

## 弹奏技法

### 定弦

古琴空弦的音高不固定，要根据演奏的乐曲而定，古琴定调复杂，调式有35种之多。按五声音阶定弦，音域有四个八度零一个大二度。 在弹弦乐器中，古琴是一种较独特的乐器，琴面为指板，没有柱和品。演奏时，将琴横置于桌上，右手投弹琴弦，左手按弦取音，完全依靠琴徽标记（不限定在13个徽位上，很多的音是在徽与徽之间），音准上要求极为严格 [17]。

古琴表现力特别丰富，运用不同的弹奏手法，可以发挥出很多艺术表现的特色，它的散音（空弦音）嘹亮、浑厚，宏如铜钟；泛音透明如珠，丰富多采，由于音区不同而有异。高音区轻清松脆，有如风中铃铎；中音区明亮铿锵，犹如敲击玉磬。按音发音坚实，也叫“实音”，各音区的音色也不同，低音区浑厚有力，中音区宏实宽润，高音区尖脆纤细。按音中的各种滑音，柔和如歌，也具有深刻细致的表现力。

### 琴声十六法

冷谦的《琴声十六法》见于明代项元汴的《蕉窗九录》。琴声十六法实际上乃提出了十六个审美范畴，企图为琴乐的审美与表演作一归纳和依据。十六法分别为:轻、松、脆、滑、高、洁、清、虚、幽、奇、古、澹、中、和、疾、徐。 [19]

(1)轻——论音之适中和清实(技巧控制和意趣表达间相互之关系)；

(2)松——论吟猱动荡之妙(技巧论)；

(3)脆——论手指与手腕力度的灵活和弹性(技巧论)；

(4)滑——论指法技巧在滑与涩表现上之难易(技巧论)；

(5)高——论琴乐意境之深远高古(意境论)；

(6)洁——论琴品与人品之配合(道德论)；

(7)清——论平和洁净的环境、心境、乐器等条件在操缦时的重要(意境论)；

(8)虚——论“心静”与“声虚”内外因素配合的重要(意境论)；

(9)幽——论琴音之幽雅出于琴人高雅闲逸之品德(品德论)；

(10)奇—— 论雅淡琴乐之奇特处乃在于吟逗等装饰性之指法和乐句起承转合间变化之处理(表现论)；

(11)古——论琴乐古朴之风格来自和澹宽大之气度(风格论)；

(12)澹——论琴音雅淡的本质(风格论)；

(13)中——论偏之弊处以言中声之妙(表现论)；

(14)和——论和之本质在于技巧之无过不及(本质论)；

(15)疾——中论指法徐疾之处理(兼论技巧与意境)；

(16)徐——论指法舒徐之变化(本质论)。

徐上瀛受了宋·崔遵度(953一1020)《琴笺》“清丽而静、和润而远”思想的影响，写成了琴学最重要的论著《溪山琴况》。二十四况虽比十六法多出了八个范畴，基本上二者的结构都是以一系列美学范畴来组织成文的 [20]。

(1)和——论调弦、吟揉、音意等之和(兼论本质与技巧)；

(2)静——论琴音之简静在于调气与练指(兼论品格修养与风格之配合)；

(3)清——提出贞静宏远为琴度之内涵，并指出气候在演奏中之重要(兼论木质与技巧)；

(4)远——论想象及弦外之音的意境(意境论)；

(5)古——论琴音雅俗之辨(形式与风格论)；

(6)澹——论琴元音之孤高岑寂(趣味论)；

(7)恬——论恬之为君子之质和有德之养(趣味论)；

(8)逸——论琴音之超逸实来自琴人品德之超逸(品德与修养论)；

(9)雅——论琴之雅得于静远澹逸而不媚俗(风格论)；

(10)丽——论琴音丽与媚之别在于古淡与妖冶(风格论)；

(11)亮——论琴音之亮得自左右手所发清实的金石之响(音色论)；

(12)采——论琴音之采得之于几经锻炼後指下之神气(音色论)；

(13)洁——论琴音之意趣实得之于修指之严净(境界论)；

(14)润——论琴音之中和温润(音色论)；

(15)圆——论吟猱、按弹、乐句转折间婉转动荡无滞无碍之处理(技巧论)；

(16)坚——论用指之坚必清劲和无力不觉乃可得金石之声(技巧论)；

(17)宏--- 论琴音必冲和闲雅、下指必宽裕纯朴，始能合乎古调(境界论)；

(18)细——论节奏、章句转折、连指与全篇细微之处理和把握(技巧与趣味论)；

(19)溜——论技巧之熟练无滞得于指之坚实灵活(技巧论)；

(20)健一一论指之灵活刚健与琴冲和闲雅之配合(技巧论)；

(21)轻——论音之轻重变化皆不离中和之旨(音量与趣味论)；

(22)重——论弹琴重抵轻出之法和情气之并兼(音量与技巧论)；

(23)迟——论希声与迟趣之关系(趣味与意境论)；

(24)速——论小速意趣、大速意奇之旨(技巧、趣味与意境论)。

### 弹奏指法

演奏时，将琴置于桌上，右手拨弹琴弦、左手按弦取音。演奏技法繁多，右手指法有主要为擘、托、抹、挑、勾、踢、打、摘及其不同的组合，如：轮、锁、叠涓、撮、滚、拂、历、双弹、打圆等；左手主要分为按音与滑音两种。按音有跪、带起、罨、推出、爪起、掐起、同声等。滑音有吟、猱、撞、唤、进复、退复、分开等。

古琴琴谱播报编辑

## 古琴琴谱

古琴琴谱现在存世共一百五十余部，历代重要的琴谱琴书如下：

现存的历史最早文字谱：唐初手抄卷子《碣石调幽兰》（现存日本东京国立博物馆），据传由南北朝时期南朝梁 · 丘明所作。

最早的减字谱：宋代姜夔《白石道人歌曲》中的《古怨》；文字谱由唐朝曹柔简化为减字谱。

汉代最重要的琴谱琴书：扬雄《琴清英》、诸葛亮的《琴经》、蔡邕的《琴操》。

现存最早的大型古琴曲集：明初朱权编辑的《神奇秘谱》（1425）。

明代重要琴谱：《神奇秘谱》、《太音大全集》、《西麓堂琴统》、《太古遗音》、《风宣玄品》、《琴书大全》、《松弦馆琴

![Guqin](/static/img/articles/guqin/guqin-illustration-01.jpg)


Chinese Dumplings: A Culinary Tradition Across Regions and Festivals


Laba Festival

Summary: The Laba Festival is a traditional Chinese holiday celebrated on the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month with cultural significance and various customs.

## Overview

The Laba Festival, also known as the Laji Festival or Buddha Enlightenment Day, is a traditional Chinese holiday celebrated on the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month (腊月初八). This festival has ancient origins and has evolved over thousands of years, incorporating elements from ancient Chinese sacrificial rituals and Buddhist traditions. The festival is characterized by various customs, most notably the consumption of Laba porridge (腊八粥), which has different variations across different regions of China.

## History

### Origins

The Laba Festival originated from ancient Chinese "La sacrifices" (腊祭). In ancient China, "La" (腊) was originally a type of sacrificial ritual known as "Da La" (大腊). According to "Fengsu Tongyi" (《风俗通》), "La means hunting. It is called La because hunting animals are used to worship ancestors or because it marks the transition between the old and new year, with a grand hunt to repay the gods' blessings." This indicates that "La" and "hunting" were related, and "La sacrifice" involved using hunted animals for sacrifices to ancestors and various deities.

During the Shang Dynasty, people held four major sacrifices throughout the year using captured birds and beasts, worshiping ancestors and deities of heaven and earth. The winter sacrifice was the largest and most grandiose, which later became known as "La sacrifice," and the day of this winter sacrifice was called "La Day." According to the "Records of the Grand Historian: Basic Annals of Qin" (《史记·秦本纪》), "In the twelfth year, the first La sacrifice was held." This means that in the twelfth year of King Huiwen of Qin, located in the western region, imitated the customs of the central plains and held the La sacrifice for the first time.

### Development

During the Han Dynasty, the specific date of La Day was not fixed. It was not until the Han Dynasty that the third "wu" day after the winter solstice was designated as "La Day." Emperor Wu of Han changed to the "Taichu Calendar" (《太初历》), making the first month of the lunar calendar the beginning of the year and the twelfth month the "La month," and fixed the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month as the day of the La sacrifice.

During the Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Laba Festival gradually separated from La Day Festival and became an independent holiday. After Buddhism was introduced to China, it received strong official support, and Buddhist activities flourished within the country. Legend has it that the day Buddha Shakyamuni achieved enlightenment was the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. On this day, Buddhist monasteries would hold various commemorative activities. Thus, the imperial La sacrifice merged with Buddha's enlightenment day in Buddhism, expanding the Laba Festival's influence in official and society, ultimately forming its modern characteristics.

### Golden Age

In the Tang Dynasty, the Laba Festival was initially closely related to Buddhism, commemorating Buddha's enlightenment with minimal participation from secular people. During this period, the main customs of the Laba Festival included bathing monks and Buddha, cooking "medicinal food," and lamp lighting customs. These customs were mainly held in monasteries, initially activities for monks and later gradually spread to the public, attracting active participation and evolving into folk traditions.

By the Song Dynasty, the Laba Festival had become as important as the La Day Festival. As the La Day Festival gradually declined, the Laba Festival eventually replaced it as the main festival of the La month. During this period, the Laba Festival continued to inherit previous customs, with the most notable development being the emergence of Laba porridge, which immediately became the main symbol of the Laba Festival and the most important identifier of its final formation. Additionally, new customs such as winter milling and sending medicinal herbs to eliminate epidemics also indicated the further development of the Laba Festival in the Song Dynasty.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the development of the Laba Festival reached its peak stage, with the festive atmosphere becoming increasingly grand and new customs continuously emerging. In the Ming Dynasty, Laba Festival customs, while inheriting traditions from previous generations, also showed some new changes. For example, the custom of eating Laba porridge had been integrated into many fresh and characteristic ritual activities by the Ming Dynasty, not only expanding the richness of activities but also deepening the cultural connotation.

During the Qing Dynasty, with strengthened ethnic fusion, customs of various ethnic groups merged and permeated each other. The Laba Festival popular among the people not only inherited the characteristics of previous generations' customs but also incorporated many ethnic characteristics. During this period, Laba Festival customs became richer, and people endowed the Laba Festival with more auspicious meanings through historical evolution.

### Gradual Decline

In the late Qing Dynasty, Chinese society entered a period of drastic turmoil and frequent changes in political power, with internal and external troubles and people living in misery. The call for reform to abolish old traditions and learn new ideas grew increasingly loud. Traditional culture became the primary target of suppression. As an important part of the traditional folk festival system, the Laba Festival naturally could not escape the fate of being reformed, showing signs of disintegration and decline.

As early as during the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom period, the official government had taken a repressive attitude toward the Laba Festival and other traditional festivals. For example, the promulgation of the "Heavenly Calendar" at the time clearly proposed six new festivals of the Heavenly Kingdom, none of which were traditional festivals.

In 1911, the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the old system, and the newly established Republic of China adopted a new calendar system (solar calendar) and established new festivals, attempting to align new festivals with Western customs. With the spread of Western ideas and tremendous changes in social forms, the agricultural culture that the Laba Festival relied on gradually retreated to the margins. Gradually, the Laba Festival became less grand, and some customs gradually disappeared. For example, popular customs such as ice storage and hair shaving had long disappeared, leaving only the eating of Laba porridge.

## Key Information

| Aspect | Details |
|--------|---------|
| Chinese Name | 腊八节 (Laba Jie) |
| English Name | Laba Festival |
| Also Known As | Buddha Enlightenment Day, Laji Festival |
| Date | Eighth day of the twelfth lunar month |
| Type | Traditional Chinese festival |
| Regions | Primarily China, with variations in different regions |
| Main Activities | Eating Laba porridge, making Laba garlic, temple visits |
| Main Foods | Laba porridge, Laba garlic, Laba tofu, Laba noodles |
| Cultural Significance | Commemorates Buddha's enlightenment, celebrates harvest, wards off evil spirits |

## Cultural Significance

The Laba Festival embodies rich cultural significance. It originates from ancient La sacrifice customs and is a legacy of "spring prayers and autumn thanks" - human worship and sacrificial activities of nature in later generations. It contains the ancient people's earnest expectations for the next year's agricultural harvest and gratitude and reverence for ancestral souls. After Buddhism was incorporated, its cultural connotation rich in benevolence and philanthropy was also absorbed into the Laba Festival.

In folk society, a series of Laba customs express people's desires for many children and grandchildren, good fortune, and health. The Laba Festival also reflects the Chinese nation's spirit of gratitude, remembrance, and hope for a better future. The various foods and activities of the Laba Festival carry people's wishes for auspiciousness, happiness, and prosperity.

## Modern Status

Today, the Laba Festival is still celebrated in many parts of China, though its scale and significance have diminished compared to previous eras. The most enduring custom is eating Laba porridge, which has become a cultural symbol of the festival. In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in traditional festivals, including the Laba Festival, as part of cultural heritage preservation efforts.

Many Buddhist temples continue to hold ceremonies on this day, distributing Laba porridge to visitors and the needy. In some regions, local governments organize cultural activities to promote traditional customs. The Laba porridge, with its diverse ingredients representing abundance and harmony, has also gained popularity as a healthy food choice, extending beyond its traditional festival context.

## References

1. Zhang, J. (2018). *Traditional Chinese Festivals: History and Customs*. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press.

2. Li, W. (2020). *Buddhism and Chinese Folk Religion: A Historical Study*. Shanghai: Shanghai People's Publishing House.

3. Wang, L., & Chen, H. (2019). *Food and Culture in Traditional China*. New York: Cambridge University Press.

4. Liu, Y. (2017). *The Evolution of Chinese Festivals*. Taipei: Taiwan Commercial Press.

5. Zhao, M. (2021). *Buddhist Influence on Chinese Folk Customs*. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong Press.

![Laba Festival](/static/img/articles/laba-festival/laba-festival-illustration-01.jpg)