Paper by Gaspard Pagès
Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology, n°3, 2024
The Puymorens iron mine is located at an altitude of between , and , m at the western edge of the... more The Puymorens iron mine is located at an altitude of between , and , m at the western edge of the Pyrénées-Orientales department (France), which is bordered by the Ariège department in France and Andorra to the west and Spain to the south. It is the highest-altitude iron ore exploitation in the Pyrenees mountains. A major transportation corridor facilitating the north to south crossing of the Pyrenean massif passes by the foot of the mine, from the Ariège valley to the Carol valley. The mine is known to have been in operation from the seventeenth century to the end of the 's, and it supplied ore to many modern smelting sites in Andorra, Catalonia and Ariège. New data acquired from the FEDER FERMAPYR and PCR FERAPO programs have enabled the identification of older ironworks in the neighboring Carol valley, which also used this ore and have been radiocarbon dated between the fourth and the sixth centuries. By placing this series of Visigothic smelting sites in their environmental context, we will be able to describe their technical specificities and the impetuses for the early exploitation of iron ore and wood at high altitudes in the Pyrenees. The study will be based as much on the results of archaeological excavations and surveys as well as on anthracology studies to understand the relation between iron ore smelting and the forest exploitation for charcoal production.
Boisseuil D., Rico C. (DIR.), Le marché des matières premières dans l’Antiquité et au Moyen Âge Rome, éd. École française de Rome (Collection de l’École française de Rome, n° 563), p. 117-132, 2021
In the bloomery process, two ferrous materials can be studied to investigate the circulation of r... more In the bloomery process, two ferrous materials can be studied to investigate the circulation of raw materials in ancient and medieval iron metallurgy: iron ores and semi-products, mainly in the form of bars since the Ancient times. Recent archaeometric developments in archaeometallurgy, based on the chemical analyses of major and trace elements contained in ores, reduction wastes (slag), and ferrous products, now provide new insights for studying the origin and circulation of these materials, questioning the possibilities and constraints that condition them, and putting into perspective the models frequently used in archaeology and history regarding this circulation.
This contribution offers an initial assessment of these questions based on the interdisciplinary studies carried out over the last twenty years, from the excavation of ancient and medieval iron reduction workshops to the study of the iron bars from the wrecks of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer or those used in the construction of Gothic cathedrals. The complexity of the production chains highlighted is reflected in particular by a strong sectorisation of tasks, multiple, crossed and more or less distant exchanges. The possible circulation of ore over long distances to the reduction site has to be considered, as well as the circulation of more or less purified and fragmented iron masses from the reduction site to workshops specialised in the manufacture of bars. Finally, it reveals a constraining character: the dimensions of the cleansed and used raw iron masses never exceed 9 kg.
This contribution offers an initial assessment of these questions based on the interdisciplinary studies carried out over the last twenty years, from the excavation of ancient and medieval iron reduction workshops to the study of the iron bars from the wrecks of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer or those used in the construction of Gothic cathedrals. The complexity of the production chains highlighted is reflected in particular by a strong sectorisation of tasks, multiple, crossed and more or less distant exchanges. The possible circulation of ore over long distances to the reduction site has to be considered, as well as the circulation of more or less purified and fragmented iron masses from the reduction site to workshops specialised in the manufacture of bars. Finally, it reveals a constraining character: the dimensions of the cleansed and used raw iron masses never exceed 9 kg.
Artefact - Techniques, histoire et sciences humaines, 2023
Cette introduction est en grande partie issue de l’atelier-concept «Définir, identifier, question... more Cette introduction est en grande partie issue de l’atelier-concept «Définir, identifier, questionner l’artisanat» qui s’est tenue à Paris le 27 septembre 2022 et qui a été organisée par le GDR «Techniques
et production dans l’histoire» (GDR TPH 2092). Cette introduction collective reprend les interventions de la table ronde qui avait ouvert cette journée d’échanges. Cette dernière a fait écho à de précédents ateliers du GDR, autour de la technique et de l’industrie notamment.
et production dans l’histoire» (GDR TPH 2092). Cette introduction collective reprend les interventions de la table ronde qui avait ouvert cette journée d’échanges. Cette dernière a fait écho à de précédents ateliers du GDR, autour de la technique et de l’industrie notamment.
Journal: Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports, 2023
The metallographic analyses of four steel masses from the SM42 and SM43 wrecks in Saintes-Maries-... more The metallographic analyses of four steel masses from the SM42 and SM43 wrecks in Saintes-Maries-de-laMer , France, confirm that they are raw products that were traded in the Mediterranean area in the same way as semifinished products or amphorae. The masses were roughly hammered and cut to facilitate cleaning and compacting and are made of highly carburised steel. These masses from wrecks SM42 and SM43 are the only fully carburised materials found in all 45 iron-carrying wrecks from antiquity discovered at this location. This suggests that steel was traded in the Roman Empire in the form of roughly hammered raw materials obtained by cutting large blooms into smaller parts.
Artefact - Techniques, histoire et sciences humaines, 2022
The concept of industry has long been rejected by ancient and medieval historians and archaeologi... more The concept of industry has long been rejected by ancient and medieval historians and archaeologists, who preferred the concept of craft. Rather than setting the two concepts against each other, this article proposes to distinguish between them in order to combine them and think of them together in an enriched conceptual framework. Thus, it proposes a presentation of the historical construction of an- cient and medieval industry based on a few exemplary files, points out the evo- lutions and achievements and distinguishes the common points and differences between the two periods.
PLOS ONE, 2022
Starting from the second century BC, with the fast expansion of the Roman Empire, iron production... more Starting from the second century BC, with the fast expansion of the Roman Empire, iron production and consumption developed exponentially in north-western Europe. This rapid growth naturally led to an increase in trade, that still remains to be studied encompassing a broad scope, so as to not neglect long-distance exchanges. This is today possible by taking advantage of the progress made in the past 40 years in archaeology and archaeometallurgy. Cargoes of iron bars recovered from a group of 23 wrecks located off the coast of Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (Bouches-du-Rhône, France), opposite an old branch of the Rhône River, constitute a rich opportunity to examine this trade, by comparing the slag inclusions trapped in iron bars to primary slag from the six main ironmaking areas in Gaul. Based on a trace element analysis of these inclusions and this slag, we suggest that ships travelled down the Rhône carrying iron produced in Wallonia (Belgium), while others sailed up the Rhône transporting iron produced in Montagne Noire (Aude, France).
Archaeological and Anthropological sciences, 2020
Consultable:
https://rdcu.be/b45eb
Since prehistoric times, iron ore has been traded to be... more Consultable:
https://rdcu.be/b45eb
Since prehistoric times, iron ore has been traded to be used for various purposes as in medicines, pigments, and cosmetics. This non-metallurgical iron ore trade, involving the transportation of ore from the mined deposits via trade hubs to consumption areas, must be viewed as part of a long-distance trading network, such as that for the trading of iron bars. This paper proposes an initial synthesis of (i) the circulation of iron ore fragments in the western Mediterranean and (ii) their multiple non-metallurgical uses in antiquity, as recorded in Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder. The basis of our discussion is a heterogeneous, concatenated chemical database, set up to assess the sourcing of iron ore fragments discovered in the Roman harbor of Colonia Narbo Martius (Narbonne, Aude, France). Lastly, we advance that in antiquity, iron ore was traded from Elba and possibly from southern Tuscany to Gaul, via the harbor of Colonia Narbo Martius, probably for use in medicine and as a coloring base. However, further development of this topic is required, since this trade is part of a larger, more complex network of distribution.
https://rdcu.be/b45eb
Since prehistoric times, iron ore has been traded to be used for various purposes as in medicines, pigments, and cosmetics. This non-metallurgical iron ore trade, involving the transportation of ore from the mined deposits via trade hubs to consumption areas, must be viewed as part of a long-distance trading network, such as that for the trading of iron bars. This paper proposes an initial synthesis of (i) the circulation of iron ore fragments in the western Mediterranean and (ii) their multiple non-metallurgical uses in antiquity, as recorded in Naturalis Historia by Pliny the Elder. The basis of our discussion is a heterogeneous, concatenated chemical database, set up to assess the sourcing of iron ore fragments discovered in the Roman harbor of Colonia Narbo Martius (Narbonne, Aude, France). Lastly, we advance that in antiquity, iron ore was traded from Elba and possibly from southern Tuscany to Gaul, via the harbor of Colonia Narbo Martius, probably for use in medicine and as a coloring base. However, further development of this topic is required, since this trade is part of a larger, more complex network of distribution.
Radiocarbon n°59/2, 2017
The large number of iron-laden wrecked ships discovered off Saintes-Maries-de-laMer (south of Fra... more The large number of iron-laden wrecked ships discovered off Saintes-Maries-de-laMer (south of France) since the 1990s has enriched our knowledge of both maritime trade in the Mediterranean and the ferrous bars used during antiquity. This exceptional corpus has spawned numerous studies in the fields of archaeology, history, and archaeo-metallurgy, but, despite a relatively well-documented context, the chronology of wrecks is still to be clarified. Until recently, the chronology of the corpus was mainly supported by the archaeological remains found in the cargo of the wrecks, resulting in a chronological range from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD. However, the 14 C dating of an iron bar from Saintes-Maries-de-laMer , older by more than a century from the expected chronological range, has revived discussions about the chronology of all the wrecks. Thanks to the development of a new protocol for dating ferrous alloys, based on an extensive study of the ferrous material, 34 samples of iron extracted from 13 ferrous bars constituting the cargo of seven ships could be 14 C dated. The 14 C results and the archaeological and historical data were subjected to Bayesian analysis to build a chronological framework for the antique shipwrecks of Saintes-Maries-de-laMer. It appears that all these ships could belong to a larger phase than the one deduced from archaeological remains alone. Consequently, this study helps to support a new vision of the trade between the northeastern Mediterranean and western Europe.
Notice sur la communication du colloque « Le marché des matières premières dans l’Antiquité et au... more Notice sur la communication du colloque « Le marché des matières premières dans l’Antiquité et au Moyen Âge (2) : La circulation des matières premières : routes, moyens, acteurs (2014) » », Madrid, éd. Casa de Velasquez.
Le développement d'une approche comparative entre l'évaluation de la quantité de grumes mises en ... more Le développement d'une approche comparative entre l'évaluation de la quantité de grumes mises en oeuvre dans une charpente de comble et le volume de bois présent dans ce même comble, permet l'acquisition d'informations relatives aux contextes économique, technique et social dans lesquels le chantier a été conduit. En réalisant ce type de comparaison de façon systématique dans vingt-trois édifices religieux mosans (Belgique et Pays-Bas), il est possible de retracer, étape par étape, grâce aux datations dendrochronologiques des charpentes du xii e au xviii e siècle, les causes et les moteurs ayant influencé les modes de construction des charpentiers. En parallèle, la confrontation de ces enseignements avec les volumes de fer utilisés dans les combles rend compte de la prise d'importance de ce matériau au fil du temps et de l'évolution des principes architecturaux. Ce volet de l'étude a été enrichi d'analyses archéométallurgiques destinées à déterminer le mode de réduction employé pour produire ces éléments métalliques afin de mesurer l'éventuelle influence d'innovations sidérurgiques sur l'emploi du fer dans les charpentes médiévales et modernes, sachant que la Wallonie a connu, à partir de la fin du Moyen Âge, le développement précoce de la métallurgie du fer indirecte (métallurgie moderne) en lieu et place de la métallurgie du fer directe (métallurgie ancienne).
Au large des Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, au débouché d'un des anciens bras du Rhône, onze épaves tr... more Au large des Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer, au débouché d'un des anciens bras du Rhône, onze épaves transportant principalement du fer ont été découvertes. Datée de la transition de notre ère (fin du I er s. av. J.-C. -I er s. ap. J.-C.), chacune livre entre 20 et 150 t de fer qui se déclinent sous la forme de huit demi-produits standardisés (types et sous-types compris) parfois estampillés. Nous proposons de préciser ces particularités typologiques et épigraphiques à travers des études archéométriques menées sur une cinquantaine de ces barres. Des caractéristiques métallographiques et chimiques sont alors dégagées dans chaque ensemble. Elles permettent de comprendre la réalité technique d'une typologie complexe et d'affiner les connaissances sur les circuits de production ferreux dans le monde méditerranéen antique.
The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the organisation of the manufactur... more The aim of this paper is to contribute to the understanding of the organisation of the manufacture and circulation of iron bars and the possible bar standardisation of a given set of artefacts in order to throw more light on commercial patterns during Antiquity. A set of 48 iron based metal bars originating from the Roman shipwrecks at Les Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer (France) has been studied using comprehensive metallographic observations, ranging from macroscopic to microscopic scales and slag inclusion (SI) analyses. A comparison of the results allows one to distinguish different metal qualities (inclusions, pores, welding, carbon content) that may be linked to morphological types, which shows the possible standardisation of this set of artefacts. Moreover, SI analyses allow distinguishing various origins for the Primary Pieces of Metal, thereby throwing light on a specific organisation of the iron bar production line during the late Roman period.
Le site perché du Roc de Pampelune occupe, de la fi n du V e Le site perché du Roc de Pampelune o... more Le site perché du Roc de Pampelune occupe, de la fi n du V e Le site perché du Roc de Pampelune occupe, de la fi n du V e Le site perché du Roc de Pampelune occupe, de la fi n du V siècle au milieu du VI e siècle, un plateau calcaire dans la garrigue nord montpelliéraine (Hérault, France) sur un peu plus de deux hectares. Depuis 1999, sa fouille a livré plus de 5400 scories (soit environ 109 kg) et de nombreuses structures métallurgiques qui ont motivé un examen approfondi pour localiser les espaces de travail et préciser le type d'activité. Une lecture croisée liant analyses archéologiques et métallographiques a donc été réalisée afi n de déterminer le rôle et la place de la métallurgie au sein de cet établissement. Ainsi, est mise en évidence, à côté du rôle administratif, l'importance économique de ces habitats perchés dans la réorganisation du réseau de peuplement des campagnes gauloises au cours du premier Moyen Age.
Book by Gaspard Pagès
Artisanat et économie du fer en France méditerranéenne de l'Antiquité au début du Moyen Âge: une approche interdisciplinaire
The author proposes here a wide time span insight of iron’s craft industry and economy along the ... more The author proposes here a wide time span insight of iron’s craft industry and economy along the French Mediterranean shores, through the archaeological study of ancient iron artefacts. This study integrates an archeometrical approach, combining metallographic and petrographic methods specifically adapted to the analysis of antique metal manufactured objects.
A holistic approach has been considered for the artefacts and its context, incorporating the new studies of twelve significant metallurgical sites with their particular topics –i.e. pilot archaeological site- to precise, already existing bibliographical inventories.
An exhaustive documentation of the new locations has been achieved both through the archaeological data obtained and rigorous description of the installations. Around 28000 metallurgical materials counting objects and slags have been adequately inventoried, and 169 of them have been subjected to the archaeometric study.
This work is structured according to the three major activities emerging from the iron bloomery process: The production of the metal (direct reduction of the ore), the manufacture of the objects (forging) and the trade of ferrous artefacts in a semi-finished form (circulation of semi-products). Thus, through the evolution of these three economical activities, it is possible to highlight the choices and the behaviour which were adopted for the same exercise from the Antiquity commercial systems to the Carolingian reform, to finally contribute to a better knowledge of the society to the Roman period to the beginning of the Middle Ages in the south of Gaul.
A holistic approach has been considered for the artefacts and its context, incorporating the new studies of twelve significant metallurgical sites with their particular topics –i.e. pilot archaeological site- to precise, already existing bibliographical inventories.
An exhaustive documentation of the new locations has been achieved both through the archaeological data obtained and rigorous description of the installations. Around 28000 metallurgical materials counting objects and slags have been adequately inventoried, and 169 of them have been subjected to the archaeometric study.
This work is structured according to the three major activities emerging from the iron bloomery process: The production of the metal (direct reduction of the ore), the manufacture of the objects (forging) and the trade of ferrous artefacts in a semi-finished form (circulation of semi-products). Thus, through the evolution of these three economical activities, it is possible to highlight the choices and the behaviour which were adopted for the same exercise from the Antiquity commercial systems to the Carolingian reform, to finally contribute to a better knowledge of the society to the Roman period to the beginning of the Middle Ages in the south of Gaul.
PhD, Dec 1, 2008
"The author proposes here a wide time span insight of iron’s craft industry and economy along the... more "The author proposes here a wide time span insight of iron’s craft industry and economy along the French Mediterranean shores, through the archaeological study of ancient iron artefacts. This study integrates an archeometrical approach, combining metallographic and petrographic methods specifically adapted to the analysis of antique metal manufactured objects.
A holistic approach has been considered for the artefacts and its context, incorporating the new studies of twelve significant metallurgical sites with their particular topics –i.e. pilot archaeological site- to precise, already existing bibliographical inventories.
An exhaustive documentation of the new locations has been achieved both through the archaeological data obtained and rigorous description of the installations. Around 28000 metallurgical materials counting objects and slags have been adequately inventoried, and 169 of them have been subjected to the archaeometric study.
This work is structured according to the three major activities emerging from the iron bloomery process: The production of the metal (direct reduction of the ore), the manufacture of the objects (forging) and the trade of ferrous artefacts in a semi-finished form (circulation of semi-products). Thus, through the evolution of these three economical activities, it is possible to highlight the choices and the behaviour which were adopted for the same exercise from the Antiquity commercial systems to the Carolingian reform, to finally contribute to a better knowledge of the society to the Roman period to the beginning of the Middle Ages in the south of Gaul."
A holistic approach has been considered for the artefacts and its context, incorporating the new studies of twelve significant metallurgical sites with their particular topics –i.e. pilot archaeological site- to precise, already existing bibliographical inventories.
An exhaustive documentation of the new locations has been achieved both through the archaeological data obtained and rigorous description of the installations. Around 28000 metallurgical materials counting objects and slags have been adequately inventoried, and 169 of them have been subjected to the archaeometric study.
This work is structured according to the three major activities emerging from the iron bloomery process: The production of the metal (direct reduction of the ore), the manufacture of the objects (forging) and the trade of ferrous artefacts in a semi-finished form (circulation of semi-products). Thus, through the evolution of these three economical activities, it is possible to highlight the choices and the behaviour which were adopted for the same exercise from the Antiquity commercial systems to the Carolingian reform, to finally contribute to a better knowledge of the society to the Roman period to the beginning of the Middle Ages in the south of Gaul."
Book section by Gaspard Pagès
in Bernasconi G., Carnino G., Hilaire-Pérez L., Raveux O. (DIR.), Les Réparations dans l’Histoire, Cultures techniques et savoir-faire dans la longue durée, actes du colloque de Paris (2019), éd. Presses des Mines, Paris, p. 31-40 et pl. 1-4 (Collection Histoire, sciences, techniques et sociétés), 2022
La question de la réparation des objets notamment métalliques dans les domaines de Gaule gallo-ro... more La question de la réparation des objets notamment métalliques dans les domaines de Gaule gallo-romaine est régulièrement reprise par les archéologues et les historiens parce qu’elle amène à s’interroger sur l’autosuffisance du domaine et sur la spécialisation des activités artisanales et agricoles. A travers trois angles d’approches complémentaires – les objets réparés, les équipements d’entretien et les forges de maintenance) – nous proposons de reprendre ce sujet pour montrer notamment la longue vie des objets métalliques maintes fois remis en état ainsi que la différence forte qu’il faut établir entre entretien et réparation ; le premier étant fait à froid et souvent sur le lieu de travail, le second à chaud en se fondant sur des infrastructures plus lourdes implantées ou itinérantes au cœur d’un marché large.
Brysbaert, A., Vikatou I. and Pakkanen J. (eds), Shaping Cultural Landscapes: Connecting Agriculture, Crafts, Construction, Transport, and Resilience Strategies; proceedings of the 26th Annual Meeting of the European Association of Archaeologists (Budapest 2020), Leiden: Sidestone Press, p. 275-285 , 2022
The Early Middle Ages are a period of strong political and social mobility. This period truly mar... more The Early Middle Ages are a period of strong political and social mobility. This period truly marks the end of the Roman as well as the beginning of medieval society and economy (Wickham 2000). With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, in its northwestern part, the power goes first to the Merovingian kings and at the end of the 7th century CE, they are replaced by the Carolingians. Under their rule, the aristocracy becomes more powerful and changes the rural world by organizing manorial complexes 1 (Verhulst 2002; Devroey 2003). This period also sees the growing supremacy of the Christian faith that goes along with the intensifying foundations of churches and abbeys who possesses large estates and hosts craft activities (Lebecq 2000; Henning 2007). Next to them, emporia emerge on the coasts of the North Sea. These ports have a clear commercial orientation and appear as economically dynamic agglomerations (Tys and Loveluck 2006; McCormick 2007). Some historians view the transition from the Merovingian to the Carolingian period as a time of demographic and productive growth due to the rural reorganization in which the North Sea is a zone of active exchanges (Wickham 2000; Verhulst 2002; Devroye 2003). Others however believe the new organisation of the rural world can just as well lead to the ruin of productivity and to the inhibition of efficiency and innovation due to the strong paralyzing domination of the elites (Henning 2007). Nonetheless the early medieval elites are regarded as leading the economy and as responsible for cultural change (Wickham 2008). With the ERC Advanced project 'Rural Riches' (2017-2022) Theuws questioned that point of view and considered the role of the rural population in the economic development in northern Gaul after the collapse of the Roman Empire. In his opinion the mass of objects found in the graves, especially those of the 6th century CE, show that rural dwellers had access to local, regional, and global exchange networks and that they could have triggered economic growth. In order to substantiate this hypothesis, a large amount of data has been collected from sites, their material culture, and burial rites in northern Gaul, allowing the analysis of the distribution patterns by means of GIS and the contextual analysis of finds. The 'Rural Riches' project also employs instrumental 1 The lords possessed and ruled rural estates exploited by labourers supporting themselves and their lords who had to protect them in return.
Benech C., Cantin N., Languille M. -A., Mazuy A., Robinet L. et Zazzo A. (DIR.), Instrumentation portable. Quels enjeux pour l'archéométrie ?, France, Éditions des Archives Contemporaines, (Coll. Sciences archéologiques), 2019