Song Dynasty Literature: The Golden Age of Chinese Literature

Synopsis

Song Dynasty literature represents a golden age in the history of Chinese literature, with the literary form of Song Ci reaching the pinnacle of Chinese verse history. Writers of this period created countless timeless masterpieces that have had a profound influence on later generations of literature. This article will delve into the historical background, main forms, representative writers, and their immortal works of Song Dynasty literature.

Overview of Song Dynasty Literature

Song Dynasty literature (960–1279) stands as one of the most glorious periods in the history of Chinese literary development and the golden age when the literary form of ci poetry matured and flourished. Unlike the Tang Dynasty, which was dominated by shi poetry, Song Dynasty literature is represented by ci, reaching the pinnacle of Chinese rhyming literature.

The prosperity of the Song Dynasty's social economy, the development of cities, and the growth of the urban commoner class provided fertile ground for literary flourishing. The performative nature of ci allowed it to spread widely among the populace, while the participation of scholar-officials elevated its artistic quality.

Historical Background of Song Dynasty Literature

Political and Social Environment

The Song Dynasty is divided into two periods: the Northern Song (960–1127) and the Southern Song (1127–1279). After unifying the Central Plains, the Northern Song implemented policies that emphasized civil administration over military affairs, elevating the status of scholar-officials and leading to unprecedented development in culture and education. However, pressure from northern ethnic minorities persisted, ultimately leading to the fall of the Northern Song and the southward migration of the Song court.

Economic and Cultural Prosperity

The Song Dynasty saw highly developed commodity economies, expanded city scales, and the emergence of bustling metropolises like Bianjing (Kaifeng) and Lin'an (Hangzhou). Urban commoner culture rose, with teahouses and taverns widespread in entertainment districts, and the performance of ci became a significant cultural and recreational activity.

The Development of Song Ci Poetry

Origins of Ci

Ci is a new poetic form set to the Yanyue music that emerged since the Sui and Tang dynasties. It originated among the common people and was later adopted and refined by literati and refined scholars. Ci gradually matured during the late Tang and Five Dynasties period, reaching its zenith in the Song Dynasty.

Periodization of Song Ci

Representative Poets of the Graceful and Restrained School

Liu Yong (c. 984–c. 1053)

Liu Yong, originally named Liu Sanbian, courtesy name Jingzhuang, and commonly known as Liu Qi, was one of the most famous ci poets of the early Northern Song. Proficient in musical temperament, he excelled at creating long tunes (changdiao) and made significant contributions to the formal development of ci.

Liu Yong's ci often depicted urban prosperity and romantic love, with language that was accessible and emotions that were sincere and moving. "Bell in the Rain and Chilly Cicadas" is his representative work:

Chilly cicadas trill forlorn,
We face the evening pavilion, the sudden shower just done.
Outside the city gate, the farewell feast leaves us forlorn;
We linger, yet the orchid boat urges me on.
Hand in hand we gaze at each other's tearful eyes,
And burst into sobs with words congealed on our lips.
I'll go my way
Far, far away
On miles and miles of misty waves where sail the ships,
And evening clouds hang low in boundless Southern skies.

Yan Shu (991–1055)

Yan Shu, who rose to the position of Prime Minister, was an important ci poet of the early Northern Song. His ci is known for its aura of wealth and nobility, elegant sentiments, refined language, and profound artistic conception.

Representative work "Silk-Washing Stream: A New Song and a Cup of Wine":

A new song and a cup of wine,
Last year's weather the old pavilion.
When will the setting sun on westward journey incline?
Flowers fall off, do what I may;
Swallows return, no strangers they.
In fragrant garden path alone I still stray.

Li Qingzhao (1084–c. 1155)

Li Qingzhao, also known as Yi'an Jushi, was the most outstanding female ci poet of the Song Dynasty. Her ci is divided into two periods by the southward migration of the court: the earlier period depicting boudoir life, and the later period reflecting on her personal fate.

The earlier "Like a Dream: I Often Remember the Sunset at the Creek Pavilion" is fresh and lively:

I often remember the sunset at the creek pavilion,
Drunk, we lost our way back.
Having enjoyed ourselves to the full at dusk, we turned the boat homeward,
By mistake we went deep into the lotus cluster.
Row, row,
Startled a flock of egrets and gulls on the sandbar.

The later "Slow, Slow Song: Seeking, Seeking" is somber and sorrowful:

Seeking, seeking,
Chilly and quiet,
Desolate, painful and miserable.
Even when it's warmer there is still a chill,
It is most difficult to keep well.
Three or two cups of light wine,
How can they ward off the strong morning wind?
Wild geese fly past, while I'm broken-hearted;
But I recognize they are my old friends.

Representative Poets of the Heroic and Unrestrained School

Su Shi (1037–1101)

Su Shi, courtesy name Zizhan, also known as Dongpo Jushi, was one of the greatest literary figures of the Northern Song. Proficient in poetry, ci, prose, calligraphy, and painting, he was a rare polymath in literary history.

Su Shi broke the tradition of ci being solely for romantic themes, introducing the subjects and techniques of shi poetry into ci, thus pioneering the Heroic and Unrestrained style. "Charm of a Maiden Singer: Memories of the Past at Red Cliff" is his representative heroic ci:

The Great River flows,
Eastward waves sweeping away,
For thousands of years, gallant heroes.
West of the ancient fortress appears
Red Cliff where General Zhou won his early fame
When the Three Kingdoms were in flame.
Rocks tower in the air
And waves beat on the shore,
Rolling up a thousand heaps of snow.
What a glorious sweep of land,
Once a stage for so many a hero!

Xin Qiji (1140–1207)

Xin Qiji, courtesy name You'an, also known as Jiaxuan, was the greatest patriotic ci poet of the Southern Song. Throughout his life, he advocated resisting the Jin and recovering the Central Plains. Although his grand ambitions remained unfulfilled, he poured his fervent passion into his ci.

His ci is filled with heroic spirit and patriotic fervor. Representative work "Song of Pounding Silk: For Chen Liang":

Drunk, I lit the lamp to see my glaive;
Dreaming back to bugle calls in our linked camps.
Under the flags, beef was grilled for the warriors to eat,
And the fifty-stringed instruments played martial tunes
On the autumn battlefield we drilled our troops.
My gallant steed ran as if on wings,
And my bow thundered like splitting silk.
Alas! I have done all I could
For my native land,
And won myself a name
In history. But white hair grows on my head in vain!

Other Important Ci Poets

Ouyang Xiu (1007–1072)

Ouyang Xiu was a leader of the Northern Song literary scene and one of the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song. His ci is clear, beautiful, deeply graceful, and lingering, exerting a profound influence on later generations. Representative work "Butterflies in Love with Flowers: How Deep, How Deep!"

Qin Guan (1049–1100)

Qin Guan, a disciple of Su Shi, had a graceful, gentle, and beautiful ci style and is considered one of the orthodox representatives of the Graceful and Restrained School. Representative work "Immortal at the Magpie Bridge: Slender Clouds Wrought".

Zhou Bangyan (1056–1121)

Zhou Bangyan was a master of the late Northern Song ci scene. Proficient in musical temperament, his ci works are strict in meter and elegant in language, earning him the title "Du Fu of Ci." Representative work "Waterbag Dance: Burning Aloeswood".

Other Literary Achievements of the Song Dynasty

Ancient Prose Movement

The Song Dynasty inherited the Ancient Prose Movement initiated by Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan of the Tang Dynasty. Among the Eight Great Prose Masters of the Tang and Song, six were from the Song Dynasty: Ouyang Xiu, Su Xun, Su Shi, Su Zhe, Wang Anshi, and Zeng Gong. The Ancient Prose Movement opposed the ornate and superficial parallel prose style, advocating a return to the prose traditions of the pre-Qin and Han dynasties.

Song Dynasty Poetry

Although Song poetry did not reach the brilliance of Tang poetry, it still achieved unique accomplishments. Poets like Su Shi, Huang Tingjian, Yang Wanli, and Lu You created a large number of excellent poems. Song poetry is known for its intellectual interest (liqu), excelling at discussing principles within the poems.

Storytelling Scripts (Huaben) and Drama

The prosperity of Song cities led to the rise of popular literary forms like storytelling and drama. Huaben (storytellers' scripts) became an important source for Chinese fiction.

Artistic Characteristics of Song Dynasty Literature

Influence on Later Generations

Song Dynasty literature had a profound impact on the history of Chinese literature. Song ci, alongside Tang poetry, are considered the twin peaks of Chinese poetic history. The Heroic and Unrestrained style influenced later ci creation, while the Graceful and Restrained style became the mainstream tradition of ci.

After the fall of the Southern Song, ci gradually declined, but the artistic achievements of Song ci are forever engraved in the history of Chinese literature. Ci poets of the Yuan, Ming, Qing, and even modern eras all looked to Song ci as a model.

References

1. Tang Guizhang. Annotations on Three Hundred Song Ci Poems [M]. Beijing: People's Literature Publishing House, 2018.
2. Wang Zhongwen. Metrical Patterns of Tang and Song Ci [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2019.
3. Hu Yunyi. Selected Song Ci [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2020.
4. Ye Jiaying. Seventeen Lectures on Tang and Song Ci [M]. Beijing: Peking University Press, 2017.
5. Long Yusheng. Metrical Patterns of Tang and Song Ci [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2018.
6. Miu Yue. Scattered Essays on Poetry and Ci [M]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2019.
7. Shen Zufen. Appreciation of Song Ci [M]. Shanghai: Shanghai Ancient Books Publishing House, 2021.