IP address - Wikipedia

IP address - Wikipedia
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Numerical label used to identify a network interface in an IP network
An
Internet Protocol address
IP address
) is a numerical label, such as
192.0.2.1
or
2001:db8::42
, that is assigned to a device connected to a
computer network
that uses the
Internet Protocol
for communication.
IP addresses serve two main functions: network interface
identification
, and location
addressing
Internet Protocol version 4
(IPv4) was the first standalone specification for the IP address, and has been in use since 1983.
IPv4 addresses are defined as a
32-bit
number, which later then became too small to provide enough addresses as the internet grew, leading to
IPv4 address exhaustion
over the 2010s. Its designated successor,
IPv6
, uses 128 bits for the IP address, giving it a larger
address space
Although
IPv6 deployment
has been ongoing since the mid-2000s, both IPv4 and IPv6 are still used side-by-side as of 2025
[update]
IP addresses are usually displayed in a
human-readable
notation, but systems may use them in various different
computer number formats
CIDR notation
can also be used to designate how much of the address should be treated as a routing prefix. For example,
192.0.2.1
24
indicates that 24
significant bits
of the address are the prefix, with the remaining 8 bits used for host addressing. This is equivalent to the historically used
subnet mask
(in this case,
255.255.255.0
).
The IP address space is managed globally by the
Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) and the five
regional Internet registries
(RIRs). IANA assigns blocks of IP addresses to the RIRs, which are responsible for distributing them to
local Internet registries
in their region such as
internet service providers
(ISPs) and large institutions. Some addresses are reserved for
private networks
and are not globally unique.
Within a network, the
network administrator
assigns an IP address to each device. Such assignments may be on a
static
(fixed or permanent) or
dynamic
basis, depending on network practices and software features. Some jurisdictions consider IP addresses to be
personal data
Function
An IP address serves two principal functions: it
identifies
the host, or more specifically, its
network interface
, and it provides the location of the host in the network, and thus, the capability of establishing a path to that host. Its role has been characterized as follows: "A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there."
The
header
of each
IP packet
contains the IP address of the sending host and that of the destination host.
IP versions
Two
versions of the Internet Protocol
are in common use on the Internet today. The original version of the Internet Protocol that was first deployed in 1983 in the
ARPANET
, the predecessor of the Internet, is
Internet Protocol version 4
(IPv4).
By the early 1990s, the rapid
exhaustion of IPv4 address space
available for assignment to
Internet service providers
and end-user organizations prompted the
Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) to explore new technologies to expand addressing capability on the Internet. The result was a redesign of the Internet Protocol which became eventually known as
Internet Protocol Version 6
(IPv6) in 1995.
IPv6 technology was in various testing stages until the mid-2000s, when commercial production deployment commenced.
Today, these two versions of the Internet Protocol are in simultaneous use. Among other technical changes, each version defines the format of addresses differently. Because of the historical prevalence of IPv4, the generic term
IP address
typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of version 5 to the experimental
Internet Stream Protocol
in 1979, which, however, was never referred to as
IPv5
Versions 1 to 9 were defined, but only 4 and 6 ever gained widespread use.
Transmission Control Protocol
(the protocol suite later referred to as
TCP/IP
) versions 1
and 2
were published in 1974 and 1977. Version 3
was defined in 1978, and version 3.1 is the first version in which TCP is separated from IP.
Version 6 is a synthesis of several suggested versions, version 6
Simple Internet Protocol
, version 7
TP/IX: The Next Internet
, version 8
P. Internet Protocol
, and version 9
TCP and UDP with Bigger Addresses (TUBA)
10
11
Subnetworks
IP networks may be divided into
subnetworks
in both
IPv4
and
IPv6
. For this purpose, an IP address is recognized as consisting of two parts: the
network prefix
in the high-order bits and the remaining bits called the
rest field
host identifier
, or
interface identifier
(IPv6), used for host numbering within a network.
The
subnet mask
or
CIDR notation
determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts.
The term
subnet mask
is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions, however, use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the
routing prefix
. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be
192.0.2.1
and
255.255.255.0
, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is
192.0.2.1
24
, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet.
IPv4 addresses
Main article:
IPv4 § Addressing
Decomposition of an IPv4 address from
dot-decimal notation
to its binary value
An IPv4 address has a size of 32 bits, which limits the
address space
to
294
967
296
(2
32
) addresses. Of this number, some addresses are reserved for special purposes such as
private networks
(≈18 million addresses) and
multicast addressing
(≈270 million addresses).
IPv4 addresses are usually represented in
dot-decimal notation
, consisting of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g.,
192.0.2.1
. Each part represents a group of 8 bits (an
octet
) of the address.
12
In some cases of technical writing,
specify
IPv4 addresses may be presented in various
hexadecimal
octal
, or
binary
representations.
Subnetting history
In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, the network number was always the highest-order octet (most significant eight bits). Because this method allowed for only 256 networks, it soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the addressing specification was revised with the introduction of
classful network
architecture.
Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the
class
of the address. Three classes (
, and
) were defined for universal
unicast
addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher-order classes (
and
). The following table gives an overview of this now-obsolete system.
Historical classful network architecture
Class
Leading
bits
Size of
network
number
bit field
Size of
rest
bit field
Number
of networks
Number of addresses
per network
Start address
End address
24
128 (2
16
777
216
(2
24
0.0.0.0
127.255.255.255
10
16
16
16
384
(2
14
65
536
(2
16
128.0.0.0
191.255.255.255
110
24
097
152
(2
21
256 (2
192.0.0.0
223.255.255.255
Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it lacked
scalability
in the face of the rapid expansion of networking in the 1990s. The class system of the address space was replaced with
Classless Inter-Domain Routing
(CIDR) in 1993.
citation needed
CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators' discussions.
Private addresses
Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be globally unique. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved.
Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via
TCP/IP
, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Today, such private networks are widely used and typically connect to the Internet with
network address translation
(NAT), when needed.
Three non-overlapping ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks are reserved.
13
These addresses are not routed on the Internet, and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry. Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many
home routers
automatically use a default address range of
192.168.0.0
through
192.168.0.255
192.168.0.0
24
).
Reserved private IPv4 network ranges
13
Name
CIDR
block
Address range
Number of
addresses
Classful
description
24-bit block
10.0.0.0/8
10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255
16
777
216
Single Class A
20-bit block
172.16.0.0/12
172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
048
576
Contiguous range of 16 Class B blocks
16-bit block
192.168.0.0/16
192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255
65
536
Contiguous range of 256 Class C blocks
IPv6 addresses
Main article:
IPv6 address
Decomposition of an IPv6 address from
hexadecimal
representation to its binary value
In IPv6, the address size was increased from 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits, thus providing up to 2
128
(approximately
3.403
10
38
) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future.
The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also to redesign routing in the Internet by allowing more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. This resulted in slower growth of
routing tables
in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 2
64
hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization ratios will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e., the local administration of the segment's available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the
routing policy
change, without requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering.
The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR.
All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for
IPv6
, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers,
voice over IP
(VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and some
networking hardware
Private addresses
Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as
unique local addresses
(ULAs). The routing prefix
fc00::
is reserved for this block,
14
which is divided into two
blocks with different implied policies. The addresses include a 40-bit
pseudorandom number
that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.
Early practices used a different block for this purpose (
fec0::
), dubbed site-local addresses.
15
However, the definition of what constituted a
site
remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must not be used in new systems.
16
Addresses starting with
fe80::
, called
link-local addresses
, are assigned to interfaces for communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between all IPv6 hosts on a link. This feature is used in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration, such as for the
Neighbor Discovery Protocol
Private and link-local address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet.
IP address assignment
IP addresses are assigned to a host either dynamically as they join the network, or persistently by configuration of the host hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a
static IP address
. In contrast, when a computer's IP address is assigned each time it restarts, this is known as using a
dynamic IP address
Dynamic IP addresses are assigned by network using
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
17
DHCP is the most frequently used technology for assigning addresses. It avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows devices to share the limited address space on a network if only some of them are online at a particular time. Typically, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default in modern desktop operating systems.
The address assigned with DHCP is associated with a
lease
and usually has an expiration period. If the lease is not renewed by the host before expiry, the address may be assigned to another device. Some DHCP implementations attempt to reassign the same IP address to a host, based on its
MAC address
, each time it joins the network. A network administrator may configure a DHCP server to allocate specific IP addresses to specific MAC addresses.
DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically.
Bootstrap Protocol
is a similar protocol and predecessor to DHCP.
Dialup
and some
broadband networks
use dynamic address features of the
Point-to-Point Protocol
Computers and equipment used for the network infrastructure, such as routers and mail servers, are typically configured with static addressing.
In the absence or failure of static or dynamic address configurations, an operating system may assign a link-local address to a host using stateless address autoconfiguration.
Sticky dynamic IP address
Sticky
is an informal term used to describe a dynamically assigned IP address that seldom changes.
18
IPv4 addresses, for example, are usually assigned with DHCP, and a DHCP service
can
use rules that maximize the chance of assigning the same address each time a client asks for an assignment. In IPv6, a
prefix delegation
can be handled similarly, to make changes as rare as feasible. In a typical home or small-office setup, a single
router
is the only device visible to an
Internet service provider
(ISP), and the ISP may try to provide a configuration that is as stable as feasible, i.e.
sticky
. On the local network of the home or business, a local DHCP server may be designed to provide sticky IPv4 configurations, and the ISP may provide a sticky IPv6 prefix delegation, giving clients the option to use sticky IPv6 addresses.
Sticky
should not be confused with
static
; sticky configurations have no guarantee of stability, while static configurations are used indefinitely and only changed deliberately.
Address autoconfiguration
Address block
169.254.0.0
16
is defined for the special use of link-local addressing for IPv4 networks.
19
In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic addresses, also receives a link-local address automatically in the block
fe80::
10
19
These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, to which a host is connected. These addresses are not routable and, like private addresses, cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet.
When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void,
Microsoft
developed a protocol called
Automatic Private IP Addressing
(APIPA), whose first public implementation appeared in
Windows 98
20
APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and became a
de facto
standard
in the industry. In May 2005, the
IETF
defined a formal standard for it.
21
Addressing conflicts
An IP address conflict occurs when two devices on the same local physical or wireless network claim to have the same IP address. A second assignment of an address generally stops the IP functionality of one or both of the devices. Many modern
operating systems
notify the administrator of IP address conflicts.
22
23
When IP addresses are assigned by multiple people and systems with differing methods, any of them may be at fault.
24
25
26
27
28
If one of the devices involved in the conflict is the
default gateway
access beyond the LAN for all devices on the LAN, all devices may be impaired.
Routing
IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing.
Unicast addressing
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The most common concept of an IP address is in
unicast
addressing, available in both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient.
Broadcast addressing
Broadcasting
is an addressing technique available in IPv4 to address data to all possible destinations on a network in one transmission operation as an
all-hosts broadcast
. All receivers capture the network packet. The address
255.255.255.255
is used for network broadcast. In addition, a more limited directed broadcast uses the all-ones host address with the network prefix. For example, the destination address used for directed broadcast to devices on the network
192.0.2.0
24
is
192.0.2.255
29
IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially defined all-nodes multicast address.
Multicast addressing
multicast address
is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses
224.0.0.0
through
239.255.255.255
(the former
Class D
addresses) are designated as multicast addresses.
30
IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix
ff00::
for multicast. In either case, the sender sends a single
datagram
from its unicast address to the multicast group address, and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all interested receivers (those that have joined the corresponding multicast group).
Anycast addressing
Like broadcast and multicast,
anycast
is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one that the router decides is closest in the network. Anycast addressing is a built-in feature of IPv6.
31
32
In IPv4, anycast addressing is implemented with
Border Gateway Protocol
using the shortest-path
metric
to choose destinations. Anycast methods are useful for global
load balancing
and are commonly used in distributed
DNS
systems.
Geolocation
This section
needs expansion
. You can help by
making an edit request
adding missing information
July 2020
Main article:
Internet geolocation
A host may use
geolocation
to deduce the
geographic position
of its communicating peer.
33
34
This is typically done by retrieving geolocation info about the IP address of the other node from a database.
35
Public address
A public IP address is a globally routable unicast IP address, meaning that the address is not an address reserved for use in
private networks
, such as those reserved by
RFC
1918
, or the various IPv6 address formats of local scope or site-local scope, for example, for link-local addressing. Public IP addresses may be used for communication between hosts on the global Internet.
In a home situation, a public IP address is the IP address assigned to the home's network by the ISP. In this case, it is also locally visible by logging into the router configuration.
36
Most public IP addresses change relatively often. Any type of IP address that changes is called a dynamic IP address. In home networks, the ISP usually assigns a dynamic IP. If an ISP gave a home network an unchanging address, it is more likely to be abused by customers who host websites from home, or by
hackers
who can try the same IP address over and over until they breach a network.
36
Address translation
Further information:
Network address translation
Anonymous proxy
, and
Shared web hosting service § Name-based
Multiple client devices can appear to share an IP address, either because they are part of a
shared web hosting service
environment or because an IPv4
network address translation
(NAT) device or
proxy server
acts as an
intermediary
agent on behalf of the client, in which case the real originating IP address is masked from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT device mask many devices in a private network. Only the public interfaces of the NAT device need to have an Internet-routable address.
37
The NAT device maps different IP addresses on the private network to different TCP or UDP
port numbers
on the public network. In residential networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a
residential gateway
. In this scenario, the computers connected to the router have private IP addresses, and the router has a public address on its external interface to communicate on the Internet. The internal computers appear to share one public IP address.
Law
In March 2024, the
Supreme Court of Canada
decided that IP addresses were protected private information under the
Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
, with police searches requiring a warrant in order to obtain them.
38
IP addresses are considered personal data by the
European Commission
and are protected by the
General Data Protection Regulation
39
In the
USA
, the
California Consumer Privacy Act
only protects IP addresses that link to any particular consumer or household; otherwise it is not private data and is not protected under American law.
40
Diagnostic tools
Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine network interfaces and address configuration.
Microsoft Windows
provides the
command-line interface
tools
ipconfig
41
and
netsh
and users of
Unix-like
systems may use
ifconfig
netstat
route
, lanstat,
fstat
, and
iproute2
utilities to accomplish the task.
42
See also
Internet portal
Computer programming portal
Hostname
IP address blocking
IP address spoofing
IP aliasing
IP multicast
List of assigned /8 IPv4 address blocks
Reverse DNS lookup
Virtual IP address
WHOIS
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INTERNET PROTOCOL - DARPA INTERNET PROGRAM PROTOCOL SPECIFICATION
IETF
doi
10.17487/RFC0791
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RFC
791
. IEN 128, 123, 111, 80, 54, 44, 41, 28, 26.
Internet Standard 5.
Obsoletes
RFC
760
. Updated by
RFC
1349
2474
and
6864
S. Deering
; R. Hinden (December 1995).
Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification
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doi
10.17487/RFC1883
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1883
Obsolete.
Obsoleted by
RFC
2460
S. Deering
; R. Hinden (December 1998).
Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification
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doi
10.17487/RFC2460
RFC
2460
Obsolete.
Obsoleted by
RFC
8200
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RFC
1883
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RFC
5095
5722
5871
6437
6564
6935
6946
7045
and
7112
S. Deering
; R. Hinden (July 2017).
Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification
Internet Engineering Task Force
doi
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Internet Standard 86.
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2460
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; C. Sunshine (December 1974).
SPECIFICATION OF INTERNET TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROGRAM
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doi
10.17487/RFC0675
RFC
675
Obsolete.
Obsoleted by
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7805
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Cerf, Vinton (March 1977).
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An IPv4 address has the following format: x . x . x . x where x is called an octet and must be a decimal value between 0 and 255. Octets are separated by periods. An IPv4 address must contain three periods and four octets. The following examples are valid IPv4 addresses:
1 . 2 . 3 . 4
01 . 102 . 103 . 104
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Address Allocation for Private Internets
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Best Current Practice 5.
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1627
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1597
. Updated by
RFC
6761
R. Hinden; B. Haberman (October 2005).
Unique Local IPv6 Unicast Addresses
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doi
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4193
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IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture
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doi
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3513
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Obsoletes
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2373
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4291
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B. Carpenter
(September 2004).
Deprecating Site Local Addresses
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doi
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3879
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Internet Engineering Task Force
doi
10.17487/RFC6890
ISSN
2070-1721
. BCP 153.
RFC
6890
Best Current Practice 153.
Obsoletes
RFC
4773
5156
5735
and
5736
. Updated by
RFC
8190
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3927
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IETF
doi
10.17487/RFC5771
ISSN
2070-1721
. BCP 51.
RFC
5771
Best Current Practice 51.
Obsoletes
RFC
3138
and
3171
. Updates
RFC
2780
D. Johnson;
S. Deering
(March 1999).
Reserved IPv6 Subnet Anycast Addresses
. Network Working Group.
doi
10.17487/RFC2526
RFC
2526
Proposed Standard.
R. Hinden;
S. Deering
(February 2006).
IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture
. Network Working Group.
doi
10.17487/RFC4291
RFC
4291
Draft Standard.
Obsoletes
RFC
3513
. Updated by
RFC
5952
6052
7136
7346
7371
and
8064
Holdener, Anthony T. (2011).
HTML5 Geolocation
O'Reilly Media
. p.
11
ISBN
9781449304720
Komosny, Dan (22 July 2021).
"Retrospective IP Address Geolocation for Geography-Aware Internet Services"
Sensors
21
(15): 4975.
Bibcode
2021Senso..21.4975K
doi
10.3390/s21154975
hdl
11012/200946
ISSN
1424-8220
PMC
8348169
PMID
34372212
"IP geolocation (The NetOp Organization)"
. 25 January 2009. Archived from
the original
on 25 January 2009
. Retrieved
30 June
2024
"What Is a Public IP Address? (and How to Find Yours)"
Lifewire
Comer, Douglas (2000).
Internetworking with TCP/IP:Principles, Protocols, and Architectures – 4th ed
. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. p. 394.
ISBN
978-0-13-018380-4
Archived
from the original on 13 April 2010.
Zimonjic, Peter.
"Police now need a warrant to get a person's IP address, Supreme Court rules"
CBC News
. Retrieved
9 March
2024
"What is personal data?"
European Commission
. Retrieved
9 March
2024
"Are IP addresses 'personal information' under CCPA?"
IAPP
"ipconfig"
Microsoft Docs
. 16 October 2017
. Retrieved
25 August
2020
"Interface Configuration for IP".
Linux Network Administrators Guide
. June 2000
. Retrieved
12 March
2024
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