Jainism - Wikipedia

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Indian religion
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Ethics of Jainism
Mahavratas (major vows)
Ahiṃsā (non-violence)
Satya (truth)
Asteya (non-stealing)
Brahmacarya (chastity)
Aparigraha (non-possession)
Anuvratas (further vows)
Sāmāyika
Sallekhana
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Ṇamōkāra mantra
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Jainism
dʒ
eɪ
əm
dʒ
aɪ
əm
JAY
-niz-əm,
JYE
-niz-əm
),
also known as
Jain Dharma
is an
Indian religion
which teaches a path toward spiritual purity and enlightenment through disciplined non-violence (
ahimsa
) to all living creatures. The tradition is spiritually guided by twenty-four
tirthankaras
(ford-makers), supreme teachers who have conquered the cycle of rebirth and attained omniscience (
kevala jnana
). The core of
Jain philosophy
is established on three ethical pillars:
ahiṃsā
(nonviolence),
anekāntavāda
(non-absolutism or many-sided reality), and
aparigraha
non-possession
). While its ultimate spiritual goal is
moksha
(liberation from
karma
), these ethical principles have historically fostered a community renowned for its high literacy, trusted role in commerce, and distinct intellectual culture.
Jain philosophy distinguishes itself through the doctrine of
anekāntavāda
, which asserts that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects; thus, no single viewpoint can claim absolute truth. This framework encourages intellectual humility and conflict resolution, contrasting with the "one-sided" (
ekānta
) views rejected by the tradition. Ethically, the vow of
aparigraha
(non-attachment) requires
monks
to renounce all property, while encouraging laypersons to limit their possessions and voluntarily limit their desires (
iccha-parimana
). Historically, the application of non-violence drove the
Jain community
away from agriculture and warfare toward trade and banking, where they became a dominant mercantile force in ancient and medieval India, supporting a vast network of
temples
, libraries, and charitable institutions.
The tradition views itself as eternal, with the
tirthankaras
guiding every cosmic time cycle. In the current cycle, the first
tirthankara
was
Rishabhanatha
, credited in tradition with establishing civilized society. The 23rd
tirthankara
Pārśvanātha
, is dated by historians to the
c.
8th or 7th century BCE
, making him likely the earliest historical figure of the tradition. The 24th and final
tirthankara
Mahavira
c.
6th or 5th century BCE
, was a contemporary of the
Buddha
and a central figure in the
Śramaṇa
movement of
Greater Magadha
, which rejected the authority of the Vedas and established the current ascetic order.
Jainism has between four and five million followers, known as
Jains
or
Jainas
, residing mostly in
India
, with significant diaspora communities in
North America
Europe
, and
East Asia
. The community is divided into two major sub-traditions, the
Digambaras
("sky-clad") and
Śvētāmbaras
("white-clad"), which differ on ascetic practices, gender, and canonical texts, though they share the same core philosophy. Despite their small numbers, Jains have exerted a disproportionate influence on
Indian culture
, contributing significantly to the development of logic, art, architecture, and the legal and ethical frameworks of modern India. Major festivals include
Paryushana
or
das lakshana
Akshaya Tritiya
Mahavir Janma Kalyanak
, and
Diwali
Etymology
The name
Jainism
comes from
ji
(Sanskrit), "to conquer," referring to the battle against the passions and bodily desires, aiming to reach omniscience. Those few who accomplish this are called
jina
, "conqueror." Adherents are called
jain
or
jaina
"follower of the conquerors," a term which replaced the older name
nirgrantha
, bondless, which was only used for ascetic wanderers.
Jain doctrine and philosophy
Main article:
Jain philosophy
Ratnatraya
(the three jewels)
The hand symbolizes
Ahiṃsā
, the wheel
dharmachakra
, the resolve to halt
saṃsāra
(transmigration).
Main articles:
Moksha (Jainism)
Ratnatraya
, and
Gunasthana
Its salvational goal for ascetics is to reach
moksha
(liberation), while for most Jain laypersons it is to accumulate good
karma
that leads to better rebirth and a step closer to liberation.
10
Purification of soul and liberation can be achieved through the three jewels (
ratnatraya
):
11
12
samyak darśana
, right vision or faith in the Jain teachings
13
or scriptures,
14
more specifically the seven tattvas;
15
16
samyak gyana
, right knowledge and understanding of the Jain teachings,
14
18
more specifically of self (
jiva
) and non-self (
ajiva
);
15
and
samyak charitra
, correct conduct, behavior consistent with these teachinngs and the five vows.
14
19
Jain texts often add
samyak tapas
(correct asceticism) as a fourth jewel, emphasizing belief in ascetic practices as the means to liberation (
moksha
).
18
The four jewels are called
Moksha Marga
(the path of liberation).
11
The core of Jainism is also summarized in the three tenets of
ahiṃsā
(nonviolence),
aparigraha
(asceticism), and
anekāntavāda
, a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality.
Core principles (the vows)
Nishidhi stone
, depicting the vow of
sallekhana
, 14th century,
Karnataka
Main article:
Ethics of Jainism
See also:
Yamas § Five Yamas
Jainism teaches five ethical duties, which it calls five vows. These are called
anuvratas
(small vows) for Jain laypersons, and
mahavratas
(great vows) for Jain mendicants.
20
For both, its moral precepts preface that the Jain has access to a
guru
(teacher, counsellor),
deva
(Jina, god), doctrine, and that the individual is free from five offences: doubts about the faith, indecisiveness about the truths of Jainism, insincerity of desire for Jain teachings, non-recognition of fellow Jains, and insufficient admiration of fellow Jains' spiritual endeavors.
21
Such a person undertakes the following five vows of Jainism:
Ahiṃsā
, "intentional non-violence" or "noninjury":
21
The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to other human beings, as well as all living beings (particularly animals).
21
This is the highest ethical duty in Jainism, and it applies not only to one's actions, but demands that one be non-violent in one's speech and thoughts.
22
23
24
Satya
, "truth": This vow is to always speak the truth. Neither lie, nor speak what is not true, and do not encourage others or approve anyone who speaks an untruth.
20
22
25
Asteya
, "not stealing": A Jain layperson should not take anything that is not willingly given.
21
26
Additionally, a Jain mendicant should ask for permission to take it if something is being given.
27
28
Brahmacharya
, "celibacy": Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures is prescribed for Jain monks and nuns. For laypersons, the vow means chastity, faithfulness to one's partner.
20
22
29
Aparigraha
, "non-possessiveness": This includes non-attachment to material and psychological possessions, avoiding craving and greed.
20
Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations, own nothing and are attached to no one.
30
31
32
Jainism prescribes seven supplementary vows, including three
guņa vratas
(merit vows) and four
śikşā vratas
33
34
The
Sallekhana
(or
Santhara
) vow is a "religious death" ritual observed at the end of life, historically by Jain monks and nuns, but rare in the modern age.
35
In this vow, there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake to end one's life by choice and with dispassion,
36
37
This is believed to reduce negative karma that affects a soul's future rebirths.
38
Ahimsa
– non-violence
Main article:
Ahimsa in Jainism
The principle of
ahimsa
(non-violence or non-injury) is a fundamental tenet of Jainism.
39
It holds that one must abandon all violent activity and that without such a commitment to non-violence all religious behavior is worthless.
39
In Jain theology, it does not matter how correct or defensible the violence may be, one must not kill or harm any being, and non-violence is the highest religious duty.
39
40
Jain texts such as
Ācārāṅga Sūtra
and
Tattvarthasūtra
state that one must renounce all killing of living beings, whether tiny or large, movable or immovable.
41
42
Its theology teaches that one must neither kill another living being, nor cause another to kill, nor consent to any killing directly or indirectly.
40
41
Furthermore, Jainism emphasizes non-violence against all beings not only in action but also in speech and in thought.
41
42
It states that instead of hate or violence against anyone, "all living creatures must help each other".
42
Jains believe that violence negatively affects and destroys one's soul, particularly when the violence is done with intent, hate or carelessness, or when one indirectly causes or consents to the killing of a human or non-human living being.
42
The doctrine exists in Hinduism and Buddhism, but is most highly developed in Jainism.
39
44
45
46
47
The theological basis of non-violence as the highest religious duty has been interpreted by some Jain scholars not to "be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures", but resulting from "continual self-discipline", a cleansing of the soul that leads to one's own spiritual development which ultimately affects one's salvation and release from rebirths.
48
Jains believe that causing injury to any being in any form creates bad
karma
which affects one's rebirth, future well-being and causes suffering.
49
50
Late medieval Jain scholars re-examined the
Ahiṃsā
doctrine when faced with external threat or violence. For example, they justified violence by monks to protect nuns.
51
52
According to
Dundas
, the Jain scholar
Jinadattasuri
wrote during a time of destruction of temples and persecution that "anybody engaged in a religious activity who was forced to fight and kill somebody would not lose any spiritual merit but instead attain deliverance".
53
However, examples in Jain texts that condone fighting and killing under certain circumstances are relatively rare.
51
Aparigraha
– non-attachment
Main article:
Aparigraha
The third main principle in Jainism is
aparigraha
which means non-attachment to worldly possessions.
30
For monks and nuns, Jainism requires a vow of complete non-possession of any property, relations and emotions.
55
The ascetic is a wandering mendicant in the Digambara tradition, or a resident mendicant in the
Śvētāmbara
tradition.
55
For Jain laypersons, it recommends limited possession of property that has been honestly earned, and giving excess property to charity.
30
According to Natubhai Shah,
aparigraha
applies to both the material and the psychic. Material possessions refer to various forms of property. Psychic possessions refer to emotions, likes and dislikes, and attachments of any form. Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to one's personality.
56
Metaphysics and cosmology
Main article:
Jain cosmology
Jain metaphysics explains the nature of the universe and its interaction with the soul (
jiva
).
57
It posits that the soul is an eternal entity that is separate from the body and the physical world.
57
Their interaction is what defines the cycle of rebirth (
Saṃsāra
).
57
Soul and karma
Main article:
Karma in Jainism
According to Jain beliefs, vibrational energy (
virya
) draws
karmic particles
to the soul and creates bondages.
58
Purification of soul from karmic particles and thereby liberation can be achieved through
ratnatraya
, the path of the three jewels,
11
12
namely
samyak darśana
, correct faith in the Jain teachings;
samyak gyana
, correct knowledge and understanding of those teachings; and
samyak charitra
, correct conduct, behavior consistent with the five vows.
19
Jainism, like other Indian religions, believes in
karma
, but with a unique and fundamental difference. It is the only tradition that conceives of
karma
as a physical, material substance — subtle, invisible particles of matter (
pudgala
) that exist in the universe.
58
These particles are drawn to the soul (
jiva
) by its actions, thoughts, and words.
59
This "
karmic
dirt" then sticks to the soul, obscuring its innate, pure qualities of consciousness and bliss.
60
61
This bondage of
karma
is the cause of the soul's entrapment in
Saṃsāra
and its repeated cycles of birth and death.
62
The
Tattvas
(fundamental truths)
Main article:
Tattva (Jainism)
The
tattvas
are the seven (or nine) fundamental truths that form the basis of the entire Jain path. They describe the step-by-step process of
karmic
bondage and liberation:
63
64
Jīva
— The living, sentient soul.
63
64
Ajīva
— Non-living substances, including matter, time, and
karma
63
64
Āsrava
— The influx or inflow of
karmic
particles to the soul.
63
64
Bandha
— The bondage of these
karmic
particles to the soul.
63
64
Saṃvara
— The stoppage of new
karmic
inflow (achieved by vows and discipline).
63
64
Nirjarā
— The shedding or purification of existing, bound
karma
(achieved by asceticism).
63
64
Moksha
— The complete liberation of the soul, freeing it from all
karma
to regain its pure, omniscient state.
63
64
Some texts add two more categories,
Punya
(good
karma
) and
Paapa
(bad
karma
), as sub-types of
Āsrava
and
Bandha
, making nine
tattvas
in total.
65
66
67
Saṃsāra
(cycle of rebirth)
Classification of
Saṃsāri Jīvas
(transmigrating souls) in Jainism
Main articles:
Saṃsāra (Jainism)
and
Vitalism (Jainism)
Saṃsāra
is the doctrine of the worldly cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, through which the soul transmigrates based on its
karma
68
This cycle is considered the natural state of existence, but it is also one of suffering, and the ultimate aim of Jainism is liberation (
Moksha
) from it.
69
70
According to Jain tradition, souls can be reborn in one of four states of existence (
gatis
): as heavenly beings, humans, animals/plants, or hellish beings.
71
Jain theosophy also describes a vast number of potential birth-situations, traditionally 8.4 million, through which the unliberated soul cycles.
71
72
Jain philosophy also uniquely posits the existence of
abhavya
(incapable) souls, a category of souls that are eternally trapped in
Saṃsāra
and can never attain liberation.
73
74
Cosmology: substance, time, and realms
Main article:
Dravya
Jain cosmology views the universe as an uncreated, eternal, and self-sustaining entity.
75
It was never created by a god and will never be destroyed.
75
This universe is composed of six eternal substances known as
dravya
Jīva
(the living soul)
76
77
78
Pudgala
(non-sentient matter)
76
77
78
Dharma
(the principle of motion)
77
78
Adharma
(the principle of rest)
77
78
Ākāśa
(space)
76
77
78
Kāla
(time)
77
78
79
Division of time in Jain cosmology
Kāla
(time) is itself conceived as a boundless, eternal wheel (
kālachakra
) that rotates ceaselessly.
80
It is divided into two half-cycles: an ascending arc (
utsarpiṇī
) of progressive happiness and virtue, and a descending arc (
avasarpiṇī
) of progressive sorrow and decline.
81
80
82
83
84
85
Rebirth
loka
(realms of existence) in Jain cosmology
86
The universe itself is structurally divided into three realms, or
lokas
: the
Urdhva Loka
(upper world of heavenly beings), the
Madhya Loka
(middle world of humans, animals, and plants), and the
Adho Loka
(lower world of hellish beings).
87
All unliberated souls, including gods and demons, transmigrate through these three realms based on their karma.
87
Epistemology
Main article:
Jain epistemology
Jain philosophy accepts three reliable means of knowledge (
pramana
). It holds that correct knowledge is based on perception (
pratyaksa
), inference (
anumana
), and testimony (
sabda
or the word of scriptures).
88
89
These ideas are elaborated in Jain texts such as
Tattvarthasūtra
Parvacanasara
Nandi
and
Anuyogadvarini
90
89
Some Jain texts add analogy (
upamana
) as the fourth reliable means, in a manner similar to
epistemological theories
found in other Indian religions.
91
In Jainism,
jnāna
(knowledge) is said to be of five kinds—
mati jñāna
(sensory knowledge),
śrutu jñāna
(scriptural knowledge),
avadhi jñāna
clairvoyance
),
manah prayāya Jñāna
telepathy
) and
kevala jnana
omniscience
).
92
According to the Jain text
Tattvartha sūtra
, the first two are indirect knowledge, and the remaining three are direct knowledge.
93
Anekāntavāda
- many-sided reality
Jain temple painting explaining Anekantavada with
Blind men and an elephant
Main article:
Anekantavada
The second main principle of Jainism is
anekāntavāda
94
95
from
anekānta
("many-sidedness," etymologically "
non
-oneness" or "not being one") and
vada
("doctrine").
94
95
The doctrine states that truth and reality are complex and always have multiple aspects. It further states that reality can be experienced, but cannot be fully expressed with language. It suggests that human attempts to communicate are
Naya
, "partial expression of the truth".
94
According to it, one can experience the taste of truth, but cannot fully express that taste through language. It holds that attempts to express experience are
syāt
, or valid "in some respect", but remain "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete".
96
It concludes that in the same way, spiritual truths can be experienced but not fully expressed.
94
It suggests that the great error is belief in
ekānta
(one-sidedness), where some relative truth is treated as absolute.
97
The doctrine is ancient, found in Buddhist texts such as the
Samaññaphala Sutta
. The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahāvīra's approach to answering all metaphysical philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (
syāt
).
98
99
These texts identify
anekāntavāda
as a key difference from the
Buddha
's teachings. The Buddha taught the Middle Way, rejecting extremes of the answer "it is" or "it is not" to metaphysical questions. The Mahāvīra, in contrast, taught his followers to accept both "it is", and "it is not", qualified with "perhaps", to understand Absolute Reality.
100
The permanent being is conceptualized as
jiva
(soul) and
ajiva
(matter) within a dualistic
anekāntavāda
framework.
101
According to
Paul Dundas
, in contemporary times the
anekāntavāda
doctrine has been interpreted by some Jains as intending to "promote a universal religious tolerance", and a teaching of "plurality" and "benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions". Dundas states this is a misreading of historical texts and Mahāvīra's teachings.
102
According to him, the "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings of the Mahāvīra is about the nature of
absolute reality
and human existence.
103
He claims that it is not about condoning activities such as killing animals for food, nor violence against disbelievers or any other living being as "perhaps right".
102
The five vows for Jain monks and nuns, for example, are strict requirements and there is no "perhaps" about them.
104
Similarly, since ancient times, Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism according to Dundas, but Jainism disagreed, in specific areas, with the knowledge systems and beliefs of these traditions, and vice versa.
105
Concept of God and Tirthankaras
Jain miniature painting of 24 tirthankaras,
Jaipur
c.
1850
Main article:
God in Jainism
Jainism is a
transtheistic
religion,
106
holding that the
universe was not created
, and will exist forever.
107
The universe is independent, having no creator, governor, judge, or destroyer.
57
108
In this, it is unlike the Abrahamic religions and the theistic strands of
Hinduism
, but similar to Buddhism.
109
However, Jainism believes in the world of heavenly and hellish beings who are born, die, and reborn like earthly beings.
110
111
The souls who live happily in the body of a heavenly celestial do so because of their positive karma.
112
It is further stated that they possess a more transcendent knowledge about material things and can anticipate events in the human realms.
112
However, once their past karmic merit is exhausted, it is explained that their souls are reborn again as humans, animals, or other beings.
112
113
The perfect enlightened souls
with
a body are called
Arihants
(victors) and perfect souls
without
a body are called
Siddhas
(liberated souls). Only a soul with a human body can attain enlightenment and liberation. The liberated beings are the supreme beings and are worshipped by all heavenly, earthly, and hellish beings who aspire to attain liberation themselves.
114
106
115
History
Main article:
History of Jainism
For a chronological guide, see
Timeline of Jainism
Jainism is a religion founded in
ancient India
. Jains trace their history through twenty-four
tirthankaras
and revere
Rishabhanatha
as the first
tirthankara
(in the present time-cycle). Some artifacts found in the
Indus River Valley civilization
have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two
tirthankaras
, the 23rd
tirthankara
Parshvanatha
(c. 9th–8th century BCE) and the 24th
tirthankara
Mahavira
c.
599 – c. 527 BCE) are historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the
Buddha
. According to Jain texts, the 22nd
Tirthankara
Neminatha
lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of
Krishna
116
Origins: Parshvanatha and Mahavira
See also:
Timeline of Jainism
and
Śramaṇa
Jainism is an ancient
Indian religion
of obscure origins.
117
118
119
Jains claim it to be eternal, and consider the first
tirthankara
Rishabhanatha
as the reinforcer of Jain Dharma in the current time cycle.
120
It is one of the
Śramaṇa
traditions of ancient India, those that rejected the
Vedas
121
122
and according to the twentieth-century scholar of comparative religion
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
, Jainism was in existence before the Vedas were composed.
123
124
The first twenty two tirthankaras are not considered by non-Jain scholars as
historical
figures.
126
127
The 23rd Tirthankara,
Parshvanatha
, was likely a historical being,
128
129
dated by the Jain tradition to the ninth century BCE;
130
historians date him to the eighth or seventh century BCE.
131
Parshvanatha may have founded a proto-Jain
ascetic
community which subsequently got revived and reformed by
Mahavira
132
133
Mahāvīra is considered a contemporary of the Buddha, in around the sixth or 5th century BCE.
134
135
The interaction between the two religions began with the Buddha;
136
later, they competed for followers and the merchant trade networks that sustained them.
137
138
Buddhist and Jain texts sometimes have the same or similar titles but present different doctrines.
139
Kings
Bimbisara
c.
558
–491 BCE),
Ajatashatru
c.
492
–460 BCE), and
Udayin
c.
460
–440 BCE) of the
Haryanka dynasty
were patrons of Jainism.
140
Jain tradition states that
Chandragupta Maurya
(322–298 BCE), the founder of the
Mauryan Empire
and grandfather of
Ashoka
, became a monk and disciple of Jain ascetic
Bhadrabahu
in the later part of his life.
141
142
Jain texts state that he died intentionally at Shravanabelagola by fasting.
141
143
Epigraphic and archaeological evidence
The historicity of Jainism is supported by epigraphic and archaeological evidence.
144
145
The
Hathigumpha Inscription
at the
Udayagiri Caves
in Odisha, dated to the 2nd century BCE, is a key piece of early evidence.
144
145
This inscription, from King
Kharavela
of
Kalinga
, details his patronage of Jain monks.
144
145
It also provides a historical reference by mentioning the retrieval of a Jina idol taken from Kalinga by a
Nanda dynasty
king (c. 4th century BCE).
144
145
Additionally, excavations at
Kankali Tila
in
Mathura
have provided extensive archaeological evidence of an early Jain center.
146
The site yielded numerous Jain stupas, statues, and
ayagapatas
(votive tablets) dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE.
146
These tablets, commissioned by lay followers (
śrāvakas
), represent early physical evidence of an organized
sangha
(community) that included monks, nuns, and laity.
146
The third century BCE emperor Ashoka, in his pillar edicts, mentions the
Niganthas
(Jains).
147
Tirthankara
statues date back to the second century BCE.
148
Archeological evidence suggests that Mathura was an important Jain center from the second century BCE. onwards.
149
Inscriptions from as early as the first century CE already show the schism between Digambara and Śvētāmbara.
150
There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BCE, and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE.
151
Rishabhdev
, believed to have lived over 592.704×10
18
years ago, is considered the traditional founder of Jainism.
Jain inscription of
Ashoka
c.
236 BCE
Chaumukha
Sculpture with Four Jinas (Rishabhanatha (Adinatha), Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira),
LACMA
, sixth century
Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
built by
King Kharavela
of
Mahameghavahana dynasty
in second century CE
The Indra Sabha cave at the
Ellora Caves
are co-located with Hindu and Buddhist monuments.
Kazhugumalai Jain beds
Sects and traditions
Main article:
Jain schools and branches
Digambara
Mahāvīra
iconography
Śvētāmbara
Simandhar Swami
iconography
The Jain community is divided into two major
denominations
Digambara
and
Śvētāmbara
152
This schism is ancient and centers on differing monastic disciplines, canonical scriptures, and core doctrines (such as the liberation of women).
152
The
Digambara
(sky-clad) tradition holds that male monks must renounce all possessions, including clothes, to practice
achailakya
(nudity).
152
Female monastics, known as
Aryikas
, wear unstitched plain white
sarees
152
The
Śvētāmbara
(white-clad) tradition holds that monastics, both male and female, may wear simple, seamless white robes (
sachailakya
).
152
The Great Schism: traditional accounts
The
Digambara
tradition places the origin of the schism around the 4th century BCE.
153
According to their account,
Acharya
Bhadrabahu
predicted a twelve-year famine in
Magadha
and led a migration of monks to
Karnataka
154
155
Sthulabhadra
, a pupil, remained behind with other monks.
154
155
The Digambara tradition holds that Sthulabhadra's northern group relaxed the original practice of nudity and began wearing white clothes, which was unacceptable to the returning monks who had preserved the
mūla sangha
(original community).
154
155
In this view, the
Digambaras
preserved the original
achailakya
(nude) practice of Mahavira, while the
Svetambaras
adopted a more lax, clothed practice.
154
155
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit
Suttapahuda
of
Kundakunda
156
The
Svetambara
tradition, in texts like the
Viśeṣāvaśyaka Bhāṣya
(5th cent. CE), places the schism much later.
citation needed
Their account states the
Digambara
sect arose 609 years after Mahavira's
nirvana
(c. 1st-2nd cent. CE), founded by a monk named
Sivabhuti
citation needed
The narrative states that Sivabhuti, in a "fit of pique," adopted nudity, which his original tradition rejected.
157
page needed
158
page needed
159
page needed
160
Svetambara texts accuse this new sect of "eight concealments," including the rejection of the canonical texts preserved by their tradition and the new doctrine that women could not attain liberation.
161
162
page needed
163
The Śvētāmbara tradition in turn has two sub-traditions: Deravasi, also known as
Mandirmargis
, and
Sthānakavasī
164
Scholarly analysis and solidification
Most modern scholars, such as Padmanabh Jaini and Paul Dundas, conclude that the schism was not a single "event" but a gradual hardening of differences over several centuries.
161
Monastic nudity and the wearing of robes likely co-existed as acceptable monastic options for some time.
161
Archaeological evidence from Mathura, for instance, shows nude
tirthankara
images from the
Kushan Empire
(c. 1st century CE).
165
The definitive, formal split is often associated with the
Council of Vallabhi
in the 5th century CE.
166
167
This council was organized by the
Svetambara
tradition to formally codify their canonical scriptures (the
Agamas
).
166
167
The
Digambara
tradition, which had its own (and different) scriptural canon, did not attend and rejected the authenticity of these texts, solidifying the schism.
166
167
161
Key doctrinal and practical differences
Digambaras and Śvētāmbara differ in their practices and dress code,
168
169
170
interpretations of teachings,
169
171
and on Jain history especially concerning the
tirthankaras
172
173
174
175
176
Their monasticism rules differ,
177
as does their
iconography
177
Śvētāmbara has had more female than male mendicants,
178
where Digambara has mostly had male monks
179
and considers males closest to the soul's liberation.
180
181
The Śvētāmbaras believe that women can also achieve liberation through asceticism
181
182
and state that the 19th
Tirthankara
Māllīnātha
was female,
183
which Digambara rejects.
184
Early Jain images from Mathura depict Digambara iconography until late fifth century CE where Svetambara iconography starts appearing.
185
Several scholars and scriptures of other religions as well as those of their counterpart
Śvetāmbara
Jains
186
criticize Digambara sect's practices
of public nudity as well as their belief that women are incapable of attaining spiritual liberation.
187
188
189
Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the
Kushan Empire
(c.
1st century CE).
190
Tirthankara
represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm, are identified as the
Ardhaphalaka
(half-clothed) mentioned in texts.
190
The
Yapaniyas
, believed to have originated from the
Ardhaphalaka
, followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs.
190
In the modern era, according to Flügel, new Jain religious movements that are a "primarily devotional form of Jainism" have developed which resemble "Jain Mahayana" style devotionalism.
191
Medieval patronage and decline
Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth and decline of Jainism.
192
In the second half of the first century CE,
Hindu kings
of the
Rashtrakuta
dynasty sponsored major Jain cave temples.
193
King
Harshavardhana
of the seventh century championed Jainism, Buddhism and all traditions of Hinduism.
194
The Pallava King
Mahendravarman I
(600–630 CE) converted from Jainism to Shaivism.
195
His work
Mattavilasa Prahasana
ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and expresses contempt for Jain ascetics.
196
The
Yadava dynasty
built many temples at the
Ellora Caves
between 700 and 1000 CE.
197
198
199
King
Āma
of the eighth century converted to Jainism, and the Jain pilgrimage tradition was well established in his era.
200
Mularaja
(10th century CE), the founder of the
Chalukya dynasty
, constructed a Jain temple, even though he was not a Jain.
201
During the 11th century,
Basava
, a minister to the Jain
Kalachuri
king
Bijjala
, converted many Jains to the
Lingayat
Shaivite sect. The Lingayats destroyed Jain temples and adapted them to their use.
202
The
Hoysala
King
Vishnuvardhana
c.
1108
–1152 CE) became a
Vaishnavite
under the influence of
Ramanuja
, and Vaishnavism then grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka.
203
The ruins of
Gori Jain temples
in
Nagarparkar
, Pakistan, a pilgrimage site before 1947
204
Jainism faced persecution during and after the
Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent
. The scholarship in context of Jain relations with the ruler of
Delhi Sultanate
remains scarce, notwithstanding there were several instances of cordial relations of Jains with prominent rulers of the Sultanate.
Alauddin Khalji
(1296–1316), as attested by the Jain texts held discussions with Jain sages and once specially summoned Acharya Mahasena to Delhi.
205
One more prominent Jain figure Acharya Ramachandra Suri was also honored by him. During his reign, his governor of Gujarat,
Alp Khan
permitted the reconstruction of the temples razed during earlier Muslim conquests and himself made huge donation for the renovation of Jain temples.
206
207
Muhammad bin Tughluq
(1325–1351) according to the Jain chronicles favoured the Jain scholars.
208
The
Mughal emperors
in general were influenced by the Jain scholars and made patronage and grants for their pilgrimage sites under
Humayun
(1540–1556),
Akbar
(1556–1605),
Jahangir
(1605–1627) and even
Aurangzeb
(1658–1707).
209
Despite this, there were instances of religious bigotry during the Mughal rule towards Jains.
Babur
(1526–1530), the first Mughal emperor ordered the destruction of various Jain idols in
Gwalior
210
In 1567, Akbar
ravaged the fort of Chittor
. After the conquest of the fort, Akbar ordered the destruction of several Jain shrines and temples in Chittor.
211
Similarly there were instances of desecration of Jain religious shrines under
Jahangir
Shah Jahan
and most notably under
Aurangzeb
212
The Jain community were the traditional bankers and financiers, and this significantly impacted the Muslim rulers. However, they rarely were a part of the political power during the Islamic rule period of the Indian subcontinent.
213
Colonial era
A poster of
Virchand Gandhi
, who represented Jainism at the
Parliament of the World's Religions
in
Chicago
in 1893
A 34-foot-tall idol of
Shrimad Rajchandra
at
Dharampur
Valsad
A Gujarati Jain scholar,
Virchand Gandhi
, represented Jainism at the first
World Parliament of Religions
in 1893, held in America during the
Chicago World's Fair
. He worked to defend the rights of Jains and wrote and lectured extensively on Jainism.
214
215
Shrimad Rajchandra
, a mystic, poet and philosopher from
Gujarat
is believed to have attained
jatismaran gnana
(ability to recollect past lives) at the age of seven. Virchand Gandhi mentioned this feat at the Parliament of the World's Religions.
216
He is best known because of his association with Mahatma Gandhi.
217
Shrimad Rajchandra composed
Shri Atmasiddhi Shastra
, considered his magnum opus, containing the essence of Jainism in a single sitting of 1.5–2 hours.
218
He expounds on the six fundamental truths of the soul:
219
Self (soul) exists
It is permanent and eternal
It is the doer of its own actions
It is the enjoyer or the sufferer of its actions
Liberation exists
There is a path to achieve liberation.
Colonial era reports and Christian missions variously viewed Jainism as a sect of Hinduism, a sect of Buddhism, or a distinct religion.
220
221
222
Christian missionaries were frustrated at Jain people without pagan creator gods refusing to convert to Christianity, while colonial era Jain scholars such as
Champat Rai Jain
defended Jainism against criticism and misrepresentation by Christian activists.
223
Missionaries of Christianity and Islam considered Jain traditions idolatrous and superstitious.
224
These criticisms, states
John E. Cort
, were flawed and ignored similar practices within sects of Christianity.
225
The British colonial government in India and Indian princely states promoted religious tolerance. However, laws were passed that made roaming naked by anyone an arrestable crime. This drew popular support from the majority Hindu population, but particularly impacted Digambara monks.
226
The Akhil Bharatiya Jain Samaj opposed this law, claiming that it interfered with Jain religious rights. Acharya
Shantisagar
entered Bombay (now Mumbai) in 1927, but was forced to cover his body. He then led an India-wide tour as the naked monk with his followers, to various Digambara sacred sites, and was welcomed by kings of the Maharashtra provinces.
226
Shantisagar fasted to oppose the restrictions imposed on Digambara monks by the
British Raj
and prompted their discontinuance.
227
The laws were abolished by India after independence.
228
Modern era
The texts attributed to
Kundakunda
inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with his notion of
two truths
and his emphasis on direct insight into
niścayanaya
or 'ultimate perspective', also called "supreme" (
paramārtha
) and "pure" (śuddha).
Shrimad Rajchandra
(1867-1901) was a
Jain
poet and mystic who was inspired by works of
Kundakunda
and
Digambara
mystical tradition. Nominally belonging to the Digambara tradition,
232
his followers sometimes consider his teaching as a new path of Jainism, neither
Śvetāmbara
nor
Digambara
, and revere him as a saint. His path is sometimes referred as
Raj Bhakta Marg
Kavipanth
, or
Shrimadiya
, which has mostly lay followers as was Rajchandra himself.
233
His teachings influenced
Kanji Swami
Dada Bhagwan
191
Rakesh Jhaveri
(Shrimad Rajchandra Mission),
Saubhagbhai
Lalluji Maharaj
(Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures.
Kanji Panth is a lay movement founded by
Kanji Swami
(1890-1980).
234
Nominally it belongs to the
Śvetāmbara
235
but is inspired by Kundakunda and
Shrimad Rajchandra
(1867-1901), though "lacking a place in any Digambara ascetic lineage descending from Kundakunda."
234
Kanji Swami has many followers in the Jain diaspora.
236
They generally regard themselves simply as Digambara Jains, more popularly known as
Mumukshu
, following the mystical tradition of Kundakunda and Pandit Todarmal.
234
Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."
237
The
Akram Vignan Movement
established by
Dada Bhagwan
draws inspiration from teachings of Rajchandra and other Jain scriptures, though it is considered as a Jain-Vaishnava Hindu
syncretistic
movement.
238
Greatly influenced by
Shrimad Rajchandra
, the leader of the campaign for Indian independence,
Mahatma Gandhi
stated regarding Jainism:
239
No religion in the World has explained the principle of
Ahiṃsā
so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism. As and when the benevolent principle of
Ahiṃsā
or non-violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond, Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on
Ahiṃsā
240
Chandanaji
became the first Jain woman to receive the title of
Acharya
in 1987.
241
Practices
The Four-Fold Community (
Caturvidha Saṅgha
Main article:
Jain monasticism
Digambara sadhu (monk)
Śvētāmbara-Deravasi sadhu (monk)
Śvētāmbara-Sthanakwasi sadhu (monk)
A Śvētāmbara sadhvi (nun)(early 20th-century)
A Digambara sadhvi (nun)
Of the major Indian religions, Jainism has had the strongest ascetic tradition.
242
243
244
Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching
siddha
and
moksha
("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").
242
245
246
Jain texts like
Tattvartha Sūtra
and
Uttaradhyayana Sūtra
discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts.
247
Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).
248
Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting
mendicants
, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body.
248
Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition.
249
250
Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the
jiva
(soul).
244
According to tradition, the
tirthankaras
such as the Mahāvīra (Vardhamana) set an example by performing severe austerities for twelve years.
251
252
253
Monastic organization,
sangh
, has a four-fold order consisting of
sadhu
(male ascetics,
muni
),
sadhvi
(female ascetics,
aryika
),
śrāvaka
(laymen), and
śrāvikā
(laywomen).
254
The latter two support the ascetics and their monastic organizations called
gacch
or
samuday
, in autonomous regional Jain congregations.
255
256
257
Jain monastic rules have encouraged the use of mouth cover, as well as the
Dandasan
– a long stick with woolen threads – to gently remove ants and insects that may come in their path.
258
259
260
In Jainism, six essential duties (
avashyakas
) are prescribed for
śrāvakas
(householders).
261
262
The six duties are:
263
Worship of
Pañca-Parameṣṭhi
(five supreme beings)
Following the preachings of Jain saints.
Study of
Jain scriptures
Samayika
: practising serenity and meditation
Following discipline in their daily engagement
Charity (
dāna
) of four kinds:
264
Ahara-dāna
- donation of food
Ausadha-dāna
- donation of medicine
Jnana-dāna
- donation of knowledge
Abhaya-dāna
- saving the life of a living being or giving of protection to someone under threat
These duties became fundamental ritual activities of a
Jain
householder. Such as spreading the
grain
for the
birds
in the morning, and
filtering
or
boiling
the water for the next few hours' use became ritual acts of
charity
and
non-violence
261
Samayika
was used as a word for all spiritual activity including icon worship during medieval times.
261
Ahimsa
in practice: Jain diet
Main articles:
Jain vegetarianism
and
Fasting in Jainism
The practice of non-violence towards all living beings has led to Jain culture being
vegetarian
. Devout Jains practice
lacto-vegetarianism
, meaning that they eat no eggs, but accept dairy products if there is no violence against animals during their production.
Veganism
is encouraged if there are concerns about animal welfare.
265
Jain monks, nuns and some followers avoid
root vegetables
such as potatoes, onions, and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up, and because a bulb or tuber's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a higher living being.
266
Jain monks and advanced lay people avoid eating after sunset, observing a vow of
ratri-bhojana-tyaga-vrata
267
Monks observe a stricter vow by eating only once a day.
267
Jains fast particularly during festivals.
268
This practice is called
upavasa
tapasya
or
vrata
269
and may be practiced according to one's ability.
270
Digambaras fast for
Dasa-laksana-parvan
, eating only one or two meals per day, drinking only boiled water for ten days, or fasting completely on the first and last days of the festival,
271
mimicking the practices of a Jain mendicant for the period.
271
Śvētāmbara Jains do similarly in the eight day
paryusana
with
samvatsari-pratikramana
272
The practice is believed to remove karma from one's soul and provides merit (
punya
).
268
A "one day" fast lasts about 36 hours, starting at sunset before the day of the fast and ending 48 minutes after sunrise the day after.
268
Among laypeople, fasting is more commonly observed by women, as it shows their piety and religious purity, gains merit earning and helps ensure future well-being for their family. Some religious fasts are observed in a social and supportive female group.
273
Long fasts are celebrated by friends and families with special ceremonies.
273
Meditation -
sāmāyika
Main article:
Jain meditation
Left: Jain nuns meditating, Right: 10th-century
Gommateshwara statue
depicting standing meditation (
Kayotsarga
posture)
Jainism considers meditation (
dhyana
) a necessary practice, but it never has been a central practice.
274
In Jainism, meditation is concerned more with stopping karmic attachments and activity, not as a means to transformational insights or self-realization in other Indian religions.
274
According to
Padmanabh Jaini
Sāmāyika
is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of
siksavrata
(ritual restraint).
275
The goal of
Sāmāyika
is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second
siksavrata
The
samayika
ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as
Puja
in a Jain temple and doing charity work.
276
277
278
According to Johnson, as well as Jaini,
samayika
connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status".
279
Devotion, worship, and prayer
Main article:
Jain rituals
Praying at the feet of a statue of
Bahubali
There are many rituals in Jainism's various sects. According to Dundas, the ritualistic lay path among Śvētāmbara Jains is "heavily imbued with ascetic values", where the rituals either revere or celebrate the ascetic life of tirthankaras, or progressively approach the psychological and physical life of an ascetic.
281
282
The ultimate ritual is
sallekhana
, a religious death through ascetic abandonment of food and drinks.
281
The Digambara Jains follow the same theme, but the life cycle and religious rituals are closer to a Hindu liturgy.
281
The overlap is mainly in the life cycle (rites-of-passage) rituals, and likely developed because Jain and Hindu societies overlapped, and rituals were viewed as necessary and secular.
283
284
Jains ritually worship numerous deities,
282
especially the
Jinas
. In Jainism a
Jina
as
deva
is not an
avatar
(incarnation), but the highest state of omniscience that an ascetic
tirthankara
achieved.
285
Out of the 24 tirthankaras, Jains predominantly worship four: Mahāvīra,
Parshvanatha
Neminatha
and
Rishabhanatha
286
Among the non-
tirthankara
saints, devotional worship is common for
Bahubali
among the Digambaras.
287
The
Panch Kalyanaka
rituals remember the five life events of the
tirthankaras
, including the
Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava
Panch Kalyanaka Puja
and
Snatrapuja
288
289
Jain worship may include ritual offerings and recitals.
290
The basic ritual is
darsana
(seeing) of
deva
, which includes Jina,
291
or other
yaksas
, gods and goddesses such as Brahmadeva, 52 Viras,
Padmavati
Ambika
and 16 Vidyadevis (including
Sarasvati
and
Lakshmi
).
292
293
294
Terapanthi Digambaras limit their ritual worship to tirthankaras.
295
The worship ritual is called
devapuja
, and is found in all Jain sub-traditions.
296
Typically, the Jain layperson enters the Derasar (Jain temple) inner sanctum in simple clothing and bare feet with a plate filled with offerings, bows down, says the
namaskar
, completes his or her litany and prayers, sometimes is assisted by the temple priest, leaves the offerings and then departs.
296
Jain practices include performing
abhisheka
(ceremonial bath) of the images.
297
Some Jain sects employ a
pujari
(also called
upadhye
), who may be a Hindu, to perform priestly duties at the temple.
298
299
More elaborate worship includes offerings such as rice, fresh and dry fruits, flowers, coconut, sweets, and money. Some may light up a lamp with camphor and make auspicious marks with sandalwood paste. Devotees also recite Jain texts, particularly the life stories of the tirthankaras.
300
290
Traditional Jains, like Buddhists and Hindus, believe in the efficacy of
mantras
and that certain sounds and words are inherently auspicious, powerful and spiritual.
301
302
The most famous of the mantras, broadly accepted in various sects of Jainism, is the "five homage" (
panca namaskara
) mantra which is believed to be eternal and existent since the first tirthankara's time.
301
303
Medieval worship practices included making tantric diagrams of the
Rishi-mandala
including the
tirthankaras
304
The Jain tantric traditions use mantra and rituals that are believed to accrue merit for rebirth realms.
305
Festivals
Main article:
Jain festivals
Celebrating Das Lakshana (Paryushana),
Jain Center of America
, New York City
The most important annual Jain festival is called the
Paryushana
by Svetambaras and
Dasa lakshana parva
by the Digambaras. It is celebrated from the 12th day of the waning moon in the traditional lunisolar month of
Bhadrapada
in the
Indian calendar
. This typically falls in August or September of the Gregorian calendar.
306
307
It lasts eight days for Svetambaras, and ten days among the Digambaras.
306
It is a time when lay people fast and pray. The five vows are emphasized during this time.
307
Svetambaras recite the
Kalpasūtras
, while Digambaras read their own texts. The festival is an occasion where Jains make active effort to stop cruelty towards other life forms, freeing animals in captivity and preventing the slaughter of animals.
306
Forgiveness
I forgive all living beings,
may all living beings forgive me.
All in this world are my friends,
I have no enemies.
Jain festival prayer on the last day
308
The last day involves a focused prayer and meditation session known as
Samvatsari
. Jains consider this a day of atonement, granting forgiveness to others, seeking forgiveness from all living beings, physically or mentally asking for forgiveness and resolving to treat everyone in the world as friends.
306
Forgiveness is asked by saying "
Micchami Dukkadam
" or "
Khamat khamna
" to others. This means, "If I have offended you in any way, knowingly or unknowingly, in thought, word or action, then I seek your forgiveness." The literal meaning of
Paryushana
is "abiding" or "coming together".
309
Mahavir Janma Kalyanak
celebrates the birth of Mahāvīra. It is celebrated on the 13th day of the lunisolar month of
Chaitra
in the traditional Indian calendar. This typically falls in March or April of the Gregorian calendar.
310
311
The festivities include visiting Jain temples,
pilgrimages
to shrines, reading Jain texts and processions of Mahāvīra by the community. At his legendary birthplace of Kundagrama in
Bihar
, north of Patna, special events are held by Jains.
310
The next day of Dipawali
is observed by Jains as the anniversary of Mahāvīra's attainment of
moksha
312
The Hindu festival of
Diwali
is also celebrated on the same date (
Kartika Amavasya
). Jain temples, homes, offices, and shops are decorated with lights and
diyas
(small oil lamps). The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance. Sweets are often distributed. On Diwali morning,
Nirvan Ladoo
is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples across the world. The Jain new year starts right after Diwali.
312
Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are
Akshaya Tritiya
and
Raksha Bandhan
, similar to those in the Hindu communities.
313
314
Scriptures and texts
Main article:
Jain literature
Stela depicting
Śhrut Jnāna
, or complete scriptural knowledge
The Suryaprajnaptisūtra, a fourth or third century BCE astronomy text of Śvētāmbara Jains. Above: its manuscript from
c.
1500
CE.
315
Mangulam
inscription dated 3rd century BCE
Jain canonical scriptures are called
Agamas
. They are believed to have been
verbally transmitted
, much like the ancient Buddhist and Hindu texts,
316
and to have originated from the sermons of the
tirthankaras
, whereupon the
Ganadharas
(chief disciples) transmitted them as
Śhrut Jnāna
(heard knowledge).
317
318
The spoken scriptural language is believed to be
Ardhamagadhi
by the Śvētāmbara Jains, and a form of sonic resonance by the Digambara Jains.
316
The Śvētāmbaras believe that they have preserved 45 of the 50 original Jain scriptures (having lost an Anga text and four Purva texts), while the Digambaras believe that all were lost,
319
320
and that Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon. According to them, Digambara
Āchāryas
recreated the oldest-known Digambara Jain texts, including the four
anuyoga
321
322
323
The Digambara texts partially agree with older Śvētāmbara texts, but there are also gross differences between the texts of the two major Jain traditions.
324
The Digambaras created a secondary canon between 600 and 900 CE, compiling it into four groups or
Vedas
: history, cosmography, philosophy and ethics.
325
The most popular and influential texts of Jainism have been its non-canonical literature. Of these, the
Kalpa Sūtras
are particularly popular among Śvētāmbaras, which they attribute to Bhadrabahu (c. 300 BCE). This ancient scholar is revered in the Digambara tradition, and they believe he led their migration into the ancient south Karnataka region and created their tradition.
327
Śvētāmbaras believe instead that Bhadrabahu moved to Nepal.
327
Both traditions consider his
Niryuktis
and
Samhitas
important. The earliest surviving Sanskrit text by
Umaswati
, the
Tattvarthasūtra
is considered authoritative by all traditions of Jainism.
328
329
In the Digambara tradition, the texts attributed to
Kundakunda
are highly revered and have been historically influential,
331
332
333
while the oldest being
Kasayapahuda
and
Shatkhandagama
attributed to Acharya pushpdanta and Bhutbali. Other important Digambara Jain texts include:
Samayasara
Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra
, and
Niyamasara
334
The Digambara-texts attributed to
Kundakunda
inspired
Shrimad Rajchandra
(1867-1901), who in turn influenced
Kanji Swami
(Kanji Path),
Dada Bhagwan
191
Rakesh Jhaveri
(Shrimad Rajchandra Mission),
Saubhagbhai
Lalluji Maharaj
(Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. According to Bauer, "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."
237
Culture (art, architecture)
Main article:
Jain art
The birth of Mahavira, from the
Kalpa Sūtra
(c.
1375–1400 CE)
Sihanamdika ayagapata
, 25–50 CE,
Kankali Tila
, Mathura,
Uttar Pradesh
Inscriptions at a
Udaygiri-Khandagiri
2nd–1st-century BCE Jain rock cut cave,
Odisha
335
Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture. Jain arts depict life legends of
tirthankara
or other important people, particularly with them in a seated or standing meditative posture.
Yakshas
and
yakshinis
, attendant spirits who guard the
tirthankara
, are usually shown with them.
336
The earliest known Jain image is in the
Patna
museum. It is dated approximately to the third century BCE.
336
Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum, Mumbai, and in the Patna museum; these are dated to the second century BCE.
337
Ayagapata
is a type of
votive
tablet used in Jainism for donation and worship in the early centuries. These tablets are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as the
stupa
dharmacakra
and
triratna
. They present simultaneous trends or image and symbol worship. Numerous such stone tablets were discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites like Kankali Tila near
Mathura
in Uttar Pradesh, India. The practice of donating these tablets is documented from first century BCE to the third century CE.
338
149
Samavasarana
, a preaching hall of
tirthankaras
with various beings concentrically placed, is an important theme of Jain art.
339
Kirti Stambh
in
Chittor Fort
, 12th century CE
The
Jain tower in Chittor
, Rajasthan, is a good example of Jain architecture.
340
Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries, containing diagrams from Jain cosmology.
341
Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as
Panch Kalyanaka
, from the life of the
tirthankara
. Rishabha, the first
tirthankara
, is usually depicted in either the
lotus position
or
kayotsarga
, the standing position. He is distinguished from other
tirthankara
by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Bull images also appear in his sculptures.
342
In paintings, incidents from his life, like his marriage and
Indra
marking his forehead, are depicted. Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers; he is also seen painting a house, weaving, and being visited by his mother Marudevi.
343
Each of the twenty-four
tirthankara
is associated with distinctive emblems, which are listed in such texts as
Tiloyapannati
Kahavaali
and
Pravacanasaarodhara
344
Temples
Main article:
Jain temple
Palitana
Girnar
Mount Abu
Sonagiri
Hastinapur
Ayodhya
Shikharji
Kundalpur
Pawapuri
Bawangaja
Ranakpur
Khajuraho
Varanasi
Shravanabelagola
Moodabidri
Udayagiri
Kumbhoj
Osian
Pattadakal
Halebidu
Ellora
Guntur
Kulpakji
Mattancherry
Tirumalai
Pudukottai
Madurai
Chitharal
Major pilgrimage and temple sites in Jainism
Jain temples on
Shatrunjaya
hill near
Palitana
, Gujarat
A Jain temple, a
Derasar
or
Basadi
, is a
place of worship
345
Temples contain
tirthankara
images, some fixed, others moveable.
345
These are stationed in the inner sanctum, one of the two sacred zones, the other being the main hall.
345
One of the images is marked as the
moolnayak
(primary deity).
346
manastambha
(column of honor) is a pillar that is often constructed in front of Jain temples.
347
Temple construction is considered a meritorious act.
348
Ancient Jain monuments include the Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa (
Vidisha
) and
Pataini temple
in Madhya Pradesh, the
Ellora
in Maharashtra, the
Palitana temples
in Gujarat, and the Jain temples at Dilwara Temples near
Mount Abu
, Rajasthan.
349
350
Chaumukha temple
in
Ranakpur
is considered one of the most beautiful Jain temples and is famous for its detailed carvings.
351
According to Jain texts,
Shikharji
is the place where twenty of the twenty-four Jain
Tīrthaṅkaras
along with many other monks attained
moksha
(died without being reborn, with their soul in
Siddhashila
). The Shikharji site in northeastern
Jharkhand
is therefore a revered pilgrimage site.
352
The Palitana temples are the holiest shrine for the Śvētāmbara Murtipujaka sect.
354
Along with Shikharji the two sites are considered the holiest of all pilgrimage sites by the
Jain community
355
The
Jain complex, Khajuraho
and
Jain Narayana temple
are part of a
UNESCO
World Heritage Site
356
357
Shravanabelagola
Saavira Kambada Basadi
or
1000 pillars
and
Brahma Jinalaya
are important Jain centers in Karnataka.
358
359
360
In and around
Madurai
, there are 26 caves, 200 stone beds, 60 inscriptions, and over 100 sculptures.
361
The second–first century BCE Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves are rich with carvings of
tirthanakars
and deities with inscriptions including the
Elephant Cave inscription
362
363
Jain cave temples at
Badami
Mangi-Tungi
and the Ellora Caves are considered important.
364
The
Sittanavasal Cave
temple is a fine example of Jain art with an early cave shelter, and a medieval rock-cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha. Inside are seventeen stone beds with second century BCE.
Tamil-Brahmi
inscriptions.
365
The eighth century
Kazhugumalai temple
marks the revival of Jainism in South India.
366
Jain temples in India and abroad
Ranakpur Jain Temple
Dilwara Temples
Parshvanath Temple
in
Khajuraho
Girnar Jain temples
Jal Mandir
Pawapuri
Lodhurva Jain temple
Palitana temples
Saavira Kambada Basadi
Moodbidri
Karnataka
Jain temple, Antwerp
Belgium
Brahma Jinalaya
Lakkundi
Hutheesing Jain Temple
Pilgrimages
Main article:
Tirtha (Jainism)
Shikharji
Jain
Tirtha
(pilgrim) sites are divided into the following categories:
367
Siddhakshetra
– Site of the
moksha
of an
arihant
kevalin
) or
tirthankara
, such as:
Ashtapada
of
Rishabhanatha
Shikharji
of 20
Tirthankara
Girnar
of
Neminatha
Pawapuri
of
Mahaveera
Champapuri
(capital of
Anga
) of
Vasupujya
Mangi-Tungi
of
Ram
Palitana
of 3
Pandavas
Atishayakshetra
– Locations where divine events are believed to have occurred, such as:
Mahavirji
Rishabhdeo
Kundalpur
Tijara
, and
Aharji
Puranakshetra
–  Places associated with the lives of great men, such as:
Ayodhya
Vidisha
Hastinapur
, and
Rajgir
Gyanakshetra
–  Places associated with famous
acharyas
, or centers of learning, such as
Shravanabelagola
Outside contemporary India, Jain communities built
temples
in locations such as
Nagarparkar
Sindh
(Pakistan). However, according to a UNESCO tentative world heritage site application, Nagarparkar was not a "major religious centre or a place of pilgrimage" for Jainism, but it was once an important cultural landscape before "the last remaining Jain community left the area in 1947 at Partition".
204
Statues and sculptures
Main article:
Jain sculpture
Gommateshwara
(Bahubali)
The 58.8-foot high monolithic statue of
Bahubali
built in 981 CE
Religion
Affiliation
Jainism
Idol of
Suparśvanātha
Jain sculptures usually depict one of the twenty-four
tīrthaṅkaras
; Parshvanatha, Rishabhanatha and Mahāvīra are among the more popular, often seated in
lotus position
or
kayotsarga
, along with
Arihant
Bahubali
, and protector deities like
Ambika
368
Quadruple images are also popular.
Tirthankar
idols look similar, differentiated by their individual symbol, except for Parshvanatha whose head is crowned by a snake. Digambara images are naked without any beautification, whereas Śvētāmbara depictions are clothed and ornamented.
369
A monolithic, 18-metre (59-foot) statue of Bahubali,
Gommateshvara
, built in 981 CE by the
Ganga
minister and commander
Chavundaraya
, is situated on a hilltop in
Shravanabelagola
in
Karnataka
. This statue was voted first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by
The Times of India
370
The 33-metre (108-foot) tall
Statue of Ahiṃsā
(depicting Rishabhanatha) was erected in the
Nashik district
in 2015.
371
Idols are often made in
Ashtadhatu
(literally "eight metals"), namely
Akota Bronze
brass
gold
silver
, stone
monoliths
rock cut
, and precious stones.
372
373
Symbols
Main article:
Jain symbols
Om in Jainism
Jain flag
Jain icons and arts incorporate symbols such as the
swastika
Om
, and the
Ashtamangala
. In Jainism,
Om
is a condensed reference to the initials "A-A-A-U-M" of the five parameshthis: "
Arihant
Ashiri
Acharya
Upajjhaya
Muni
".
374
375
The
Ashtamangala
is a set of eight auspicious symbols:
376
in the Digambara tradition, these are
chatra
dhvaja
kalasha
fly-whisk
mirror
, chair,
hand fan
and vessel. In the Śvētāmbar tradition, they are Swastika,
Srivatsa
Nandavarta
Vardhmanaka
(food vessel),
Bhadrasana
(seat),
Kalasha
(pot),
Darpan
(mirror) and pair of fish.
376
A symbol to represent the Jain community was chosen in 1975 as part of the commemoration of the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's
nirvana
The hand with a wheel on the palm symbolizes
ahimsā
. The wheel represents the
dharmachakra
, which stands for the resolve to halt the
saṃsāra
(wandering) through the relentless pursuit of
ahimsā
. The five colours of the
Jain flag
represent the
Pañca-Parameṣṭhi
and the five vows.
377
The
swastika
's four arms symbolise the four realms in which rebirth occurs according to Jainism: humans, heavenly beings, hellish beings and non-humans.
378
379
The three dots on the top represent the three jewels mentioned in ancient texts: correct faith, correct understanding and correct conduct, believed to lead to spiritual perfection.
380
In 1974, on the 2500th anniversary of the nirvana of Mahāvīra, the Jain community chose a single combined image for Jainism.
381
It depicts the three
lokas
, heaven, the human world and hell. The semi-circular topmost portion symbolizes
Siddhashila
, a zone beyond the three realms. The Jain swastika and the symbol of
Ahiṃsā
are included, with the Jain mantra
Parasparopagraho Jīvānām
382
from sūtra 5.21 of Umaswati's
Tattvarthasūtra
, meaning "souls render service to one another".
383
Jainism and ecology
Jainism, one of the world's oldest religions, offers a profound ecological philosophy rooted in its core principles.
384
As noted in the Jain Declaration on Nature, "Jainism is fundamentally a religion of ecology and has turned ecology into a religion. It has enabled Jains to create an environment-friendly value system and code of conduct."
385
Central to Jain ethics is
ahimsa
(non-violence), which extends beyond human interactions to encompass all living beings. "All breathing, existing, living, sentient beings should not be slain, nor treated with violence, nor abused, nor tormented, nor driven away. This is the pure, unchangeable, eternal law."
386
The Jain concept of
parasparopagrahojīvānām
in the
Tattvarth Sutra
, the most authoritative sacred text of Jains, teaches that all souls are responsible for one another and underscores the mutual interdependence of all life forms.
387
Mahavira
, the founder of Jainism taught, "One who neglects or disregards the existence of earth, air, fire, water and vegetation disregards his own existence which is entwined with them."
388
This principle is not merely philosophical but is reflected in daily practices. For instance, Jain monks and nuns often wear masks to prevent inhaling and harming microscopic organisms, demonstrating meticulous care for even the smallest forms of life.
389
Jainism also emphasizes
aparigraha
(non-possessiveness), advocating for minimal consumption and a lifestyle that avoids excess. This principle encourages individuals to live sustainably, reducing their ecological footprint. "Using any resource beyond one's needs and misuse of any part of nature is considered a form of theft. Indeed, the Jain faith goes one radical step further and declares unequivocally that waste and creating pollution are acts of violence."
390
In contemporary times, Jain communities continue to uphold these ecological principles through various initiatives. These include
tree planting
wildlife conservation
, and promoting
vegetarianism
, all aimed at fostering a harmonious relationship with nature. Such practices exemplify the enduring relevance of Jain teachings in addressing modern environmental challenges.
391
Through its unwavering commitment to non-violence, interdependence, and minimalism, Jainism offers a holistic framework for ecological sustainability, emphasizing the sacredness of all life and the importance of living in harmony with the environment.
392
Comparison with other religions
Main articles:
Buddhism and Jainism
and
Jainism and Hinduism
Jain stupa
Jain votive plaque with
Jain stupa
, the "Vasu Śilāpaṭa" ayagapata, 1st century CE, excavated from
Kankali Tila
Mathura
393
The inscription reads:
"Adoration to the Arhat Vardhamana. The daughter of the matron (?) courtesan Lonasobhika (Lavanasobhika), the disciple of the ascetics, the junior (?) courtesan Vasu has erected a shrine of the Arhat, a hall of homage (ayagasabha), cistern and a stone slab at the sanctuary of the
Nirgrantha
Arhats, together with her mother, her daughter, her son and her whole household in honour of the Arhats."
394
Sivayasa Ayagapata
, with stupa fragment,
Kankali Tila
, 75–100 CE
All four
Dharmic religions
—Jainism,
Hinduism
Sikhism
and
Buddhism
—share concepts and doctrines such as
karma
and
rebirth
395
396
397
They do not believe in eternal
heaven
or
hell
or
judgment day
, and leave it up to individual discretion to choose whether or not to believe in gods, to disagree with core teachings, and to choose whether to participate in prayers, rituals and festivals. They all consider values such as
ahimsa
(non-violence) to be important,
398
p. 635
link suffering to craving, individual's actions, intents, and karma, and believe spirituality is a means to enlightened peace, bliss and eternal liberation (
moksha
).
399
400
Jainism differs from both Buddhism and Hinduism in its ontological premises: While all three believe in impermanence, Buddhism incorporates the premise of
anatta
("no eternal self or soul") while Hinduism maintains the concept of an eternal unchanging
atman
("soul"); by contrast, Jainism incorporates an eternal but changing
jiva
("soul").
401
402
403
In Jain thought, there are infinite eternal
jivas
, predominantly in cycles of rebirth, and a few
siddhas
(liberated ones).
404
Unlike Jainism, Hindu philosophies encompass
nondualism
where all souls are identical as Brahman and posited as interconnected one
405
406
407
Jainism rejected the non-dual concept, stating that if there were only one universal consciousness which was already liberated, the purpose of dharma would be nullified. Additionally, the need and desire for an infinitely blissful consciousness to create the universe would imply a limitation within that consciousness. Jainism also criticized Vedanta's inability to explain how an intangible consciousness could create a material universe, filled with countless living beings who experience suffering.
408
Jain scholar Dr. Hukumchand Bharill explains that, according to both Jainism and Vedanta, only consciousness can perceive itself, while the
mind
and
body
are incapable of recognizing and experiencing the soul. In Jainism, the soul, in its state of ignorance, mistakenly identifies with the body and consequently experiences suffering. When the soul realizes its true nature, it attains enlightenment, gaining infinite knowledge and bliss. If there were only a singular, universal consciousness, Bharill questions, who attains realization as the consciousness is already liberated, and the mind is incapable of experiencing soul's boundless knowledge-bliss nature.
409
While both Hinduism and Jainism believe "soul exists" to be a self-evident truth, most Hindu systems consider it to be eternally present, infinite and constant (
vibhu
), but some Hindu scholars propose soul to be atomic. Hindu thought generally discusses Atman and
Brahman
through a monistic or dualistic framework. In contrast, Jain thought denies the Hindu metaphysical concept of Brahman, and Jain philosophy considers the soul to be ever changing and bound to the body or matter for each lifetime, thereby having a finite size that infuses the entire body of a living being.
410
Jainism is similar to Buddhism in not recognizing the primacy of the Vedas and the Hindu Brahman. Jainism and Hinduism, however, both believe "soul exists" as a self-evident truth.
399
411
Jains and Hindus have frequently intermarried, particularly in northern, central and western regions of India.
412
413
Some early colonial scholars stated that Jainism like Buddhism was, in part, a rejection of the Hindu caste system,
414
415
but later scholars consider this a Western error.
416
A caste system not based on birth has been a historic part of Jain society, and Jainism focused on transforming the individual, not society.
412
417
418
419
Monasticism is similar in all three traditions,
422
423
with similar rules, hierarchical structure, not traveling during the four-month
monsoon
season, and celibacy,
423
originating before the Buddha or the Mahāvīra.
422
Jain and Hindu monastic communities have traditionally been more mobile and had an itinerant lifestyle, while Buddhist monks have favored belonging to a
sangha
(monastery) and staying in its premises.
138
Buddhist monastic rules forbid a monk to go outside without wearing the sangha's distinctive ruddy robe, or to use wooden bowls.
422
In contrast, Jain monastic rules have either required nakedness (Digambara) or white clothes (Śvētāmbara), and they have disagreed on the legitimacy of the wooden or empty gourd as the begging bowl by Jain monks.
422
Jains have similar views with Hindus that violence in self-defence can be justified,
425
and that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty.
426
Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence; there were Jain monarchs, military commanders, and soldiers.
427
The Jain and Hindu communities have often been very close and mutually accepting. Some Hindu temples have included a Jain
Tirthankara
within its premises in a place of honour,
428
429
while temple complexes such as the
Badami cave temples
and
Khajuraho
feature both Hindu and Jain monuments.
430
431
Fynes (1996) argues that various Jain influences, particularly ideas on the existence of
plant souls
, were transmitted from
Western Kshatrapa
territories to
Mesopotamia
and then integrated into
Manichaean
beliefs.
432
Demographics
Main article:
Jain communities
With an estimated four to five million followers worldwide,
433
434
the vast majority of Jains reside in India. According to the
2011 Census of India
, there were 4.45 million Jains in the country, constituting 0.37% of the total population.
435
The community is highly concentrated, with 78.2% of Indian Jains living in four states:
Maharashtra
(31.5%),
Rajasthan
(14.0%),
Gujarat
(13.0%) and
Madhya Pradesh
(12.7%).
435
Other states with significant populations include
Karnataka
(9.9%),
Uttar Pradesh
(4.8%),
Delhi
(3.7%) and
Tamil Nadu
(2.0%).
435
In 2014, the
Government of India
granted Jainism "national minority" status.
Global diaspora
Significant Jain communities exist globally, largely tracing their origins to Indian migration.
436
The oldest of these is in
East Africa
, particularly Kenya and Uganda, where Jain merchants settled in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
437
Political instability in those countries in the 1960s and 1970s led to a secondary migration, primarily to the
United Kingdom
, which now has a community estimated at 25,000 to 30,000.
438
The first Jain temple consecrated outside India was in
Leicester
438
The largest diaspora community is in the
United States
, with estimates ranging from 80,000 to 100,000, and a significant population also resides in
Canada
(est. 12,000+).
436
A notable community exists in Antwerp, Belgium, where Jains have played a prominent role in the global diamond trade since the mid-20th century. In recent decades, Jainism has also attracted converts in other nations, such as
Japan
439
440
As of 2015, there were approximately 10,000 Jains in
Dubai
441
Socio-economic profile
The Jain community is a distinct socio-economic group within India. Data from the 2015–16
National Family Health Survey
(NFHS-4) identified Jains as the wealthiest religious community in the country.
442
This is strongly correlated with high educational attainment. According to the 2011 census, Jains have the highest literacy rate in India at 86.7% (for ages 7+), and this figure exceeded 97% for the population excluding the retired.
443
Jains also have the highest percentage of college graduates of any religious community.
444
Scholars often attribute this socio-economic profile to the theological principles of the faith.
445
The rigorous observance of
Ahiṃsā
(non-violence) historically discouraged professions like agriculture, which involve the harming of insects and microbes.
446
447
This steered the community toward mercantile pursuits, such as commerce, banking, jewelry, and trade.
447
448
A notable historical example of this financial prominence was the
Jagat Seth
family, a Jain banking house that served as state bankers to the
Nawabs of Bengal
and the
East India Company
in the 18th century.
449
450
In the modern era, this focus has translated to high representation in business, finance, and professional fields.
447
448
32
Foundational industrialists like
Walchand Hirachand
, who established India's first modern shipyard and aircraft factory, emerged from the community.
451
In finance, the merchant
Premchand Roychand
was a key 19th-century founder of the
Bombay Stock Exchange
452
This prominence in large-scale industry continues with contemporary figures such as
Gautam Adani
, founder of the
Adani Group
, and the Patni family of
Kishangarh
, founders of RK Marble, a major global stone processor. This representation also extends to technology and the sciences.
Narendra Patni
, for instance, was a pioneer of the Indian IT services industry with the founding of
Patni Computer Systems
. In science, physicist
Vikram Sarabhai
, founder of the
Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO), is widely regarded as the "father of the Indian space program."
453
Community and philanthropy
A defining characteristic of the Jain community is its highly organized and historical practice of
dāna
(charity).
454
This is a central religious duty for laypersons (
śrāvakas
), who are motivated by two key theological concepts.
454
Firstly, scholars identify
dāna
as the primary mechanism for the laity to acquire good
karma
punya
), which is sought to ensure worldly well-being and a favorable rebirth. Secondly, this practice is the main expression of the householder's vow of
Aparigraha
(non-attachment). This dual motivation has resulted in a long-standing tradition of institutional philanthropy.
454
This is most famously expressed in the establishment of
panjrapoles
(animal hospitals and sanctuaries), which provide care for animals in accordance with the principle of
Ahiṃsā
455
The community has also historically funded and managed
dharamshalas
(pilgrim rest-houses), educational institutions, and
bhandaras
(manuscript libraries), which have been crucial in preserving tens of thousands of ancient and medieval texts.
455
In the 20th century, this philanthropic tradition of supporting educational institutions evolved to include the founding of major national bodies. Industrialist
Kasturbhai Lalbhai
, for example, was a key co-founder of the
Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad
(IIM-A) and the
Physical Research Laboratory
. In the field of public policy, physicist
Daulat Singh Kothari
chaired the influential
Kothari Commission
(1964–1966), which provided the comprehensive framework for the modernization of India's education policy.
See also
Religion portal
Outline of Jainism
Jain law
Jain cosmology
List of ancient Jains
List of Jains
Nonviolence
Vegetarianism
Notes
According to Padmanabh S. Jaini,
samyak darśana
is acceptance of the truth of soul (
jīva
).
17
This view, however, is not shared by all Jain sub-traditions. For example, the Terapanthi Jain tradition, with about 250,000 followers, considers both good karma such as compassionate charity, and bad karma such as sin, as binding one's soul to worldly morality. It states that any karma leads to a negation of the "absolute non-violence" principle, given man's limited perspective. It recommends that the monk or nun seeking salvation must avoid hurting or helping any being in any form.
43
Jain literature, like Buddhist and Hindu literature, has also debated the aspects of violence and non-violence in food creation.
54
The five vows are:
ahiṃsā
(non-violence),
satya
(truth),
asteya
(not stealing),
brahmacharya
(chastity), and
aparigraha
(non-possessiveness).
Long notes that
Ṛṣabha
, the first Tīrthaṅkara of Jainism, means "bull," and that images of bulls are found at seals from the
Indus Valley civilization
, speculating that they may be related to Jainism.
125
According to Long, this view shows influence from Buddhism and Vedanta, which see bondage are arising from
avidya
, ignorance, and see the ultimate solution to this in a form of spiritual
gnosis
229
Johnson also notes that "his use of a vyavahara/niscaya distinction [...] has more in common with Madhyamaka Buddhism and even more with Advaita Vedanta than with the Jain philosophy of Anekantavada."
230
Cort, referring to Johnson, notes that "a minority position exemplified by Kundakunda has deemphasized conduct and focused upon knowledge alone."
231
In Jainism, the
ahiṃsā
precept for a mendicant requires avoidance of touching or disturbing any living being including plants. It also mandates never swimming in water, nor lighting or fire or extinguish one, nor thrashing arms in the air as such actions can torment or hurt other beings that live in those states of matter.
49
The first is desavakasika (staying in a restrained surrounding, cutting down worldly activities). The third is
posadhopavasa
(fasting on the 8th and 14th days on lunar waxing and waning cycles). The fourth is
dana
(giving alms to Jain monks, nuns or spiritual people).
275
According to Dundas,
samayika
seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.
280
Not to be confused with the four
Vedas
of Hinduism.
326
That Which Is, known as the
Tattvartha Sūtra
to Jains, is recognized by all four Jain traditions as the earliest, most authoritative and comprehensive summary of their religion."
330
Some texts refer to the place as Mount Sammeta.
353
According to
Richard Gombrich
and other scholars, Buddhism too was not a rejection or rebellion against any ancient caste system and it too was focused on individual's liberation from rebirths and suffering. The caste system in Buddhist societies and monasteries outside India have been documented. Gombrich states, "Some modernists go so far as to say that the Buddha was against caste altogether: this is not the case, but is one of the mistakes picked up from western authors."
420
416
421
Whether the begging utensils of a monk, such as robe and begging bowl, were justified and legitimate for a Jain monk and were not considered an impediment on the path to salvation, remained a bone of contention among various splinter groups within Jainism, and was partly responsible for the ultimate Digambara-Svetambara split, although it would be a grave oversimplification to reduce the roots of the split to just monks' robes and bowls.
424
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Jainism
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History of religion in India
Indian religions
Nāstika
Religions that require vegetarianism
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