Mass media - Wikipedia

Mass media - Wikipedia
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Forms of media that reach large audiences
"Mass Media" redirects here. For the company, see
Mass Media (company)
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Mass media
refers to the forms of
media
that reach large audiences via
mass communication
. It includes
broadcast media
digital media
print media
social media
streaming media
advertising
, and
events
Mass media encompasses
news
advocacy
entertainment
, and
public service announcements
, and intersects with the study of
marketing
propaganda
public relations
political communication
journalism
art
drama
computing
, and
technology
. The
influence of mass media
on individuals and groups has also been analysed from the standpoint of
anthropology
economics
history
law
philosophy
psychology
, and
sociology
Mass media is often controlled by
media conglomerates
, which may include mass media organisations, companies, and networks, and may be susceptible to
media capture
Definition
edit
In the late 20th century, mass media could be classified into eight mass media industries: books, the Internet, magazines, movies, newspapers, radio, recordings, and television. The explosion of digital
communication technology
in the late 20th and early 21st centuries challenged this classification. By the early 2000s, a classification called the "seven mass media" came into use, comprising:
(books, pamphlets, newspapers, magazines, posters, etc.) – late 15th century
Recordings
gramophone records
magnetic tapes
cassettes
cartridges
CDs
, and
DVDs
) – late 19th century
Cinema
– c. 1900
Radio
– c. 1910
Television
– c. 1950
The
Internet
– c. 1990
Mobile phones
– c. 2000
The sixth and seventh media, Internet and mobile phones, are often referred to collectively as
digital media
, and the fourth and fifth, radio and TV, as
broadcast media
Some argue that
video games
have developed into a distinct mass form of media.
Characteristics
edit
Five characteristics of mass communication have been identified by sociologist
John Thompson
of
Cambridge University
"Comprises both technical and institutional methods of production and distribution".
clarification needed
Involves the "
commodification
of symbolic forms"
clarification needed
"Separate contexts between the production and reception of information"
clarification needed
Its "reach to those 'far removed' in time and space, in comparison to the producers"
clarification needed
"Information distribution" – a "one-to-many" form of communication, whereby products are
mass-produced
and disseminated to large audiences
Mainstream media
edit
In common usage, the term "mass" denotes not that a given number of individuals receives the products, but rather that the products are available in principle to a plurality of recipients.
The term "mass media" is sometimes used as a synonym for "
mainstream media
". However, mass media may include
alternative media
outlets that employ
mass communication
technology, even if their audience is smaller than mainstream media. In contrast, mainstream media are distinguished from alternative media by their content and point of view.
History
edit
See also:
History of books
History of magazines
History of newspapers
, and
History of journalism
Early wooden printing press, depicted in 1520
The first dated print book known as the
Diamond Sutra
was printed in China in 868 AD, although it is clear that books were printed earlier.
according to whom?
Movable clay type was invented in 1041 in China.
10
However, due to the slow spread of literacy in China, and the relatively high cost of paper there, the earliest printed mass medium was probably the European
popular prints
from about 1400.
according to whom?
Although these were produced in huge numbers, very few early examples survived, and even most known to be printed before about 1600 have not survived.
11
The term "mass media" was coined with the creation of print media, which is notable for being the first example of mass media, as we use the term today.
according to whom?
This form of media started in Europe in the Middle Ages.
according to whom?
Johannes Gutenberg
's invention of the printing press allowed the mass production of books to sweep the nation. He printed the
Latin Bible
on a
printing press
with
movable type
in 1453. The invention of the printing press gave rise to some of the first forms of mass communication by enabling the publication of books and newspapers on a scale much larger than was previously possible.
12
13
14
The invention also transformed the way the world received printed materials, although books remained too expensive to be called a mass medium for at least a century after that. Newspapers developed from c. 1612, with the first English example in 1620
15
although they took until the 19th century to reach a mass audience. The first high-circulation newspapers arose in London in the early 1800s, such as
The Times
, and were made possible by the invention of the high-speed rotary steam printing press and railroads which allowed large-scale distribution over wide geographical areas. The increase in circulation, however, led to a decline in feedback and interactivity from the readership, making newspapers a one-way medium.
16
17
18
19
The phrase "the media" began to be used in the 1920s.
20
The notion of "mass media" was generally restricted to print media up until the post-Second World War, when radio, television and video were introduced. The audio-visual facilities became very popular, because they provided both information and entertainment, because the colour and sound engaged the viewers/listeners and because it was easier for the general public to passively watch TV or listen to the radio than to actively read.
During the 20th century, the growth of mass media was driven by
technology
, including that which allowed much duplication of material. Physical duplication technologies such as
printing
, record pressing and film duplication allowed the duplication of books, newspapers and movies at low prices to huge audiences.
Radio
and
television
allowed the electronic duplication of information for the first time. Mass media had the economics of linear replication: a single work could make money. Proportional to the number of copies sold, and as volumes went up, unit costs went down, increasing profit margins further. Vast fortunes were made in mass media. In a democratic society, the media can serve the
electorate
about issues regarding government and corporate entities. Some consider the
concentration of media ownership
to be a threat to democracy.
21
In recent times, the Internet has become the latest and most popular mass medium. Information has become readily available through websites, and easily accessible through
search engines
. Modern-day mass media includes the internet, mobile phones, blogs, podcasts and RSS feeds.
22
Mergers and acquisitions
edit
Between 1985 and 2018, about 76,720 deals have been announced in the media industry. This sums up to an overall value of around US$5,634 billion.
23
There have been three major waves of M&A in the mass media sector (2000, 2007 and 2015), while the most active year in terms of numbers was 2007 with around 3,808 deals. The United States is the most prominent country in media M&A with 41 of the top 50 deals having an acquirer from the United States.
The largest deal in history was the acquisition of
Time Warner
by
AOL
Inc. for US$164,746.86 million.
Influence and sociology
edit
Main article:
Influence of mass media
In 1997, J. R. Finnegan Jr. and K. Viswanath identified three main effects or functions of mass media.
First,
The Knowledge Gap
: the mass media influences knowledge gaps due to factors including "the extent to which the content is appealing, the degree to which information channels are accessible and desirable, and the amount of social conflict and diversity there is in a community".
Second,
Agenda Setting
: people are influenced in how they think about issues due to the selective nature of what media groups choose for public consumption. J. J. Davis states that "when risks are highlighted in the media, particularly in great detail, the extent of agenda setting is likely to be based on the degree to which a public sense of outrage and threat is provoked". When wanting to set an agenda, framing can be invaluably useful to a mass media organisation. Framing involves "taking a leadership role in the organisation of public discourse about an issue". The media is influenced by the desire for balance in coverage, and the resulting pressures can come from groups with particular political action and advocacy positions. Finnegan and Viswanath say, "groups, institutions and advocates compete to identify problems, to move them onto the public agenda, and to define the issues symbolically" (1997, p. 324).
Third,
Cultivation of Perceptions
: the extent to which media exposure shapes audience perceptions over time is known as cultivation. Television is a common experience, especially in places like the United States, to the point where it can be described as a "homogenising agent" (S. W. Littlejohn). However, instead of being merely a result of the TV, the effect is often based on socioeconomic factors. Having a prolonged exposure to TV or movie violence might affect a viewer to the extent where they actively think community violence is a problem, or alternatively find it justifiable. The resulting belief is likely to be different depending on where people live, however.
Since the 1950s, when cinema, radio and TV began to be the primary or only source of information for most of the population, these media became the central instruments of mass control.
24
25
When a country reaches a
high level of industrialisation
, the country itself "belongs to the person who controls communications".
26
Mass media play a significant role in shaping public perceptions on a variety of important issues, both through the information that is dispensed through them, and through the interpretations they place upon this information.
24
They also play a large role in shaping modern culture, by selecting and portraying a particular set of beliefs, values and traditions (an entire way of life), as reality. That is, by portraying a certain interpretation of reality, they shape reality to be more in line with that interpretation.
25
Mass media also play a crucial role in the spread of civil unrest activities such as anti-government demonstrations, riots and general strikes.
27
That is, the use of radio and television receivers has made the unrest influence among cities not only by the geographic location of cities, but also by proximity within the mass media distribution networks.
27
Media artist
Joey Skaggs
has demonstrated the ease with which mass media can be manipulated using fabricated press releases, staged events, and fictitious experts. His long-running series of media hoaxes reveal how news outlets can be drawn to sensational narratives, often publishing stories with minimal fact-checking. Skaggs' work has been cited as a critique of journalistic practices and a case study in the vulnerabilities of modern media systems.
28
Limited-effects theory
theorizes that because people usually choose what media to interact with based on what they already believe, media exerts a negligible influence.
Class-dominant theory
argues that the media reflects and projects the view of a minority elite, which controls it.
Culturalist theory
combines the other two theories and claims people interact with media to create their own meanings out of the images and messages they receive. In 2012, an article asserted that 90 percent of US mass media—including
radio
, video news, sports entertainment, and other—were owned by six major companies (GE, News-Corp, Disney, Viacom, Time Warner and CBS).
29
Discrimination
edit
A magazine feature from
Beauty Parade
from 1952 stereotyping women drivers. It features
Bettie Page
American political cartoon titled
The Usual Irish Way of Doing Things
, depicting a drunken Irishman lighting a powder keg and swinging a bottle.
Harper's Weekly
, 1871.
Mass media sources, through framing and agenda-setting, can affect the impact of a story, as particular facts and information can be highlighted (
media influence
). This can correlate with how individuals perceive certain groups of people, as the media coverage a person receives can be limited and may not reflect the whole story or situation. Stories are often covered to reflect a particular perspective, sometimes to target a specific demographic.
30
Mass media, as well as
propaganda
, can reinforce or introduce
stereotypes
to the general public.
31
One example is how mass media has played a large role in the way white Americans perceive African Americans. Historical media focus on African Americans in the contexts of crime, drug use, gang violence and other forms of anti-social behavior has resulted in a distorted and harmful public perception of African Americans.
32
In his article "Mass Media and Racism", Stephen Balkaran states: "The media has played a key role in perpetuating the effects of this historical oppression and in contributing to African Americans' continuing status as second-class citizens." This has resulted in uncertainty among some white Americans as to what the genuine nature of African Americans is.
32
Negative portrayal of men in media contributed to harmful public perception of men.
33
Ethical issues and criticism
edit
Lack of local or specific topic focus is a common criticism of mass media. A mass
news media
outlet often chooses to cover national and international news due to it having to cater for and be relevant for a wide demographic. As such, it can skip over many interesting or important local stories because they simply do not interest the large majority of their viewers.
The term "mass" suggests that the recipients of media products constitute a vast sea of passive, undifferentiated individuals. This is an image associated with some earlier critiques of "mass culture" and
mass society
, which generally assumed that the development of mass communication has had a largely negative impact on modern social life, creating a kind of bland and homogeneous culture which entertains individuals without challenging them.
However, interactive digital media have also been seen to challenge the read-only paradigm of earlier broadcast media.
Since the 1950s, in the countries that have reached a
high level of industrialisation
, the mass media of cinema, radio and TV have a key role in political power.
26
Media bias
on a particular topic can be assessed in comparison to the
median voter
34
Contemporary research demonstrates an increasing level of
concentration of media ownership
, with many media industries already highly concentrated and dominated by a small number of firms.
35
Criticism
edit
When the study of mass media began the media was compiled of only mass media which is a very different media system than the social media empire of the 21st-century experiences.
36
With this in mind, there are critiques that mass media no longer exists, or at least that it does not exist in the same form as it once did. This original form of mass media put filters on what the general public would be exposed to in regards to "news" something that is harder to do in a society of social media.
37
Theorist Lance Bennett explains that excluding a few major events in recent history, it is uncommon for a group big enough to be labeled a mass, to be watching the same news via the same medium of mass production.
38
Bennett's critique of 21st-century mass media argues that today it is more common for a group of people to be receiving different news stories, from completely different sources, and thus, mass media has been re-invented. As discussed above, filters would have been applied to original mass medias when the journalists decided what would or would not be printed.
Social media
is a large contributor to the change from mass media to a new paradigm because through social media what is mass communication and what is
interpersonal communication
is confused.
39
Due to the widespread use of social media and the rapid development of information technology, the media landscape has undergone significant changes. As a result, the Hallin and Mancini media model, based on traditional indicators, no longer fully aligns with today’s media ecosystem. While television continues to target a more mature audience and uphold professional journalism standards, digital journalism and social media tend to adapt those standards to align more closely with audience preferences.
40
Forms
edit
Broadcast media
edit
Main articles:
Radio broadcasting
and
Television
A family listening to a
crystal radio
in the 1920s
Broadcast media includes radio and
radio
and
television
programs. Television includes
cable television
, which may require a
cable converter box
, and generally includes
subscription
-based channels and
pay-per-view
services.
Digital radio
and
digital television
may also transmit
multiplexed
programming, with several channels
compressed
into one
ensemble
Broadcast regulations
programming
, and
terminology
have emerged as independent fields of inquiry. When broadcasting is done via the Internet, the term
webcasting
is often used. In 2004, a new phenomenon occurred when a number of technologies combined to produce
podcasting
Film
edit
Main article:
Film
The term 'film' encompasses motion pictures as individual projects, as well as the field in general. The name comes from the
photographic film
(also called
film stock
), historically the primary
medium
for recording and displaying motion pictures. Many other terms for film exist, such as
motion pictures
(or just
pictures
and "picture"),
the silver screen
photoplays
the cinema
picture shows
flicks
and, most commonly,
movies
41
Films are produced by
recording
people and objects with
cameras
, or by creating them using
animation
techniques or
special effects
. Films comprise a series of individual frames, but when these images are shown in rapid succession, an illusion of motion is created. Flickering between frames is not seen because of an effect known as
persistence of vision
, whereby the eye retains a visual image for a fraction of a second after the source has been removed. Also of relevance is what causes the perception of motion: a psychological effect identified as
beta movement
Video games
edit
Main article:
Video game
Shopping carts for children fitted with gaming computers
A video game is a computer-controlled game in which a video display, such as a monitor or television set, is the primary feedback device. There must also be some sort of
input device
, usually in the form of
button/joystick
combinations, a keyboard and mouse combination, a
controller
, or a player's motion.
Audio recording and reproduction
edit
Sound recording and reproduction
is the
electrical
or mechanical re-creation or amplification of
sound
, often as
music
. This involves the use of
audio equipment
such as microphones, recording devices and loudspeakers. From early beginnings, with the invention of the
phonograph
using purely mechanical techniques, the field has advanced with the invention of electrical recording, the mass production of the
78 record
, the magnetic
wire recorder
followed by the
tape recorder
, and the vinyl
LP record
. The invention of the
compact cassette
in the 1960s, followed by Sony's
Walkman
, gave a major boost to the mass distribution of music recordings, and the invention of
digital recording
and the
compact disc
in 1983 brought massive improvements in ruggedness and quality.
Internet media
edit
See also:
Digital media
and
New media
The
Internet
is a more interactive medium of mass media, and can be briefly described as "a network of networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected
computer networks
that transmit
data
by
packet switching
using the standard
Internet Protocol
(IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business and governmental networks, which together carry various
information
and services, such as
email
online chat
file
transfer, and the interlinked
web pages
and other documents of the
World Wide Web
The Internet is the system of interconnected
computer networks
, linked by
copper
wires,
fibre-optic
cables, and
wireless
connections, while the Web is the contents of the internet linked by
hyperlinks
and
URLs
. The
World Wide Web
is accessible through the Internet, along with many other services including e-mail,
file sharing
and others described below.
Toward the end of the 20th century, the advent of the World Wide Web marked the first era in which most individuals could have a means of exposure on a scale comparable to that of mass media. Forms of internet media include
blogs
microblogs
RSS
feeds, and
podcasts
Mobile
edit
Main article:
Mobile media
Mobile phones
were introduced in
Japan
in 1979 but became a mass media only in 1998 when the first downloadable ringing tones were introduced in Finland. Soon most forms of media content were introduced on mobile phones,
tablets
and other portable device. Similar to the internet, mobile is also an
interactive media
Print media
edit
See also:
Publishing § Industry sub-divisions
, and
Printing
Magazine
edit
Main article:
Magazine
Actress
Mervat Amin
on the cover for Al-Mawwid magazine, June 1972
magazine
is a
periodical
publication
containing a variety of articles, generally financed by
advertising
or purchase by readers. Magazines are typically published
weekly
biweekly
monthly
bimonthly
or
quarterly
, with a
date on the cover
that is in advance of the date it is actually published. They are often printed in colour on
coated paper
, and are bound with a
soft cover
Newspaper
edit
Main article:
Newspaper
A panel in the
Newseum
in
Washington, D.C.
, showing newspaper headlines from the day after
9/11
newspaper
is a
publication
containing news, information, and advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called
newsprint
. It may be general or special interest, and is usually published serially, most often daily or weekly. The dominant function of newspapers is to inform the public of significant events.
42
Newspapers originated after the invention and spread of the
printing press
by
Johann Gutenberg
around 1450, with the first newspaper being the German-language
Relation aller Fürnemmen und gedenckwürdigen Historien
, first published in 1605. The increasing prevalence of internet-based news media has, while challenging newspapers as an alternative source of information and opinion, has also provided a new platform for mass media organisations to reach new audiences.
43
As such, in the twenty-first century, newspaper circulation has fallen in almost all regions.
44
Outdoor media
edit
Political advertisements on a billboard in the
Netherlands
in 2019
Outdoor media is a form of mass media which comprises billboards, signs, placards, flying billboards, blimps, skywriting, and
augmented reality
advertising. Many commercial advertisers use this form of mass media when advertising in sports stadiums.
Professions
edit
Journalism
edit
Journalism
is the discipline of collecting, analyzing, verifying and presenting
information
regarding
current events
trends
, issues and people.
Public relations
edit
Public relations
is management of communication between an organisation and its key publics to build, manage and sustain its positive image.
Publishing
edit
A member of staff at the
International Printing Museum
demonstrates printing with a 19th-century, hand-operated
Columbian press
Publishing
is the industry concerned with the production of
literature
or
information
– the activity of making information available for public view. In some cases, authors may be their own publishers. Traditionally, the term refers to the distribution of printed works such as
books
and
newspapers
. With the advent of digital information systems and the
Internet
, the scope of publishing has expanded to include
websites
blogs
and the like.
Software publishing
edit
software publisher
is a
publishing
company
in the
software industry
between the
developer
and the
distributor
. In some companies, two or all three of these roles may be combined (and indeed, may reside in a single person, especially in the case of
shareware
).
Internet celebrity
edit
An
internet celebrity
is anyone who gained fame on the Internet.
See also
edit
Commercial broadcasting
– Practice of airing radio and television advertisements for profit
Digital rights management
– Technology to control access to copyrighted works and prevent unauthorized copying
History of newspaper publishing
Internet censorship
– Legal control of the internet
Journalism
– Production of reports on current events
Media conglomerate
– Large company involved in mass media industry
Media echo chamber
Media economics
– Application of economic questions to media
Media regulation
Media-system dependency
Mediatization (media)
– Process whereby the mass media influence other sectors of society
State media
– Media under editorial control of a government
Notes
edit
"Mass Media"
. eNotes.com.
Archived
from the original on 7 April 2020
. Retrieved
25 June
2019
Riesman
et al.
(1950) ch. 2 p. 50
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26 November
2011
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ISBN
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The Economist
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. Retrieved
28 June
2013
Thompson, John (1995).
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. Stanford University Press. pp.
26–
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ISBN
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. Archived from
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Archived
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Vipond (2000) p. 88
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17 January
2019
With the exception of the Super Bowl and national crises such as 9/11 or the invasion of Iraq, it makes little sense to talk about a mass media audience any longer, at least one defined by large numbers of people gathering around televisions and watching the same information fed from a few sources. In just one decade, between 1993 and 2004, the percentage of people who regularly watched network TV news dropped 34 percent.
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Further reading
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Blanchard, Margaret A. (1998).
History of the mass media in the United States: an encyclopedia
. Fitzroy Dearborn.
ISBN
978-1-57958-012-4
Bösch, Frank.
Mass Media and Historical Change: Germany in International Perspective, 1400 to the Present
(Berghahn, 2015). 212 pp.
online review
Cull, Nicholas John, David Culbert and David Welch, eds.
Mass Persuasion: A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present
(2003) 479 pp; worldwide coverage
Dauber, Cori Elizabeth. "
The shots seen 'round the world: The impact of the images of Mogadishu on American military operations
."
Rhetoric & Public Affairs
4.4 (2001): 653–687
Folkerts, Jean and Dwight Teeter, eds.
Voices of a Nation: A History of Mass Media in the United States
(5th Edition, 2008)
Fourie, Pieter J.
Media Studies: Media History, Media and Society
(2008)
Graber, Doris A., and Johanna Dunaway.
Mass media and American politics
(CQ Press, 2017)
Martin, James B. (2002).
Mass Media: a bibliography with indexes
. Nova.
ISBN
978-1-59033-262-7
Paneth, Donald, ed.
The Encyclopedia of American journalism
(1983)
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Ross, Corey.
Mass Communications, Society, and Politics from the Empire to the Third Reich
(Oxford University press 2010) 448 pp, on Germany
Vaughn, Stephen L., ed.
Encyclopedia of American Journalism
(2007)
online
Wilke, Jürgen (2011).
Media Genres
Institute of European History
Hoggart, Richard (1917).
The Uses of Literacy
. Penguin Books.
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