National park - Wikipedia

National park - Wikipedia
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Park for conservation of nature and usually also for visitors
This article is about a kind of natural park. For other uses, see
National park (disambiguation)
Bogd Khan Uul National Park
in
Mongolia
is one of the earliest preserved areas now called a national park.
National parks often allow protected species to flourish. Pictured are
alpine ibexes
Capra ibex
) in the
Gran Paradiso National Park
Piedmont, Italy
. The ibex population increased tenfold since the area was declared a national park in 1922.
national park
is a
nature park
designated for
conservation
purposes because of unparalleled national natural, historic, or cultural significance. It is an area of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that is protected and owned by a government. Although governments hold different standards for national park designation, the conservation of 'wild nature' for posterity and as a symbol of national pride
is a common motivation for the continued protection of all national parks around the world. National parks are almost always accessible to the public.
Usually national parks are developed, owned and managed by national governments, though in some countries with
federal
or
devolved
forms of government, "national parks" may be the responsibility of subnational, regional, or local authorities.
The United States established
Yellowstone National Park
, the first "public park or pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people", in 1872.
Although Yellowstone was not officially termed a "national park" at the time, in practice
it is widely held to be the first and oldest national park in the world.
The
Tobago Main Ridge Forest Reserve
(in what is now Trinidad and Tobago; established in 1776)
and the area surrounding
Bogd Khan Uul Mountain
(Mongolia, 1778), which were restricted from cultivation to protect surrounding farmland, are considered the oldest legally
protected areas
Parks Canada
, established on May 19, 1911, is the world's oldest national park service.
The
International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) and its
World Commission on Protected Areas
(WCPA) have defined "National Park" as its
Category II
type of protected areas
10
According to the IUCN, 6,555 national parks worldwide met its criteria in 2006. IUCN is still discussing the parameters of defining a national park.
The largest national park in the world meeting the IUCN definition is the
Northeast Greenland National Park
, which was established in 1974 and is 972,000 km
(375,000 sq mi) in area.
11
Definitions
edit
Landscapes of the
Koli National Park
in
North Karelia
Finland
, have inspired many painters and composers, including
Jean Sibelius
Juhani Aho
, and
Eero Järnefelt
12
Manuel Antonio National Park
in Costa Rica was listed by
Forbes
as one of the world's 12 most beautiful national parks.
13
Beech trees in Mallard Wood,
New Forest National Park
, Hampshire, England
In 1969, the IUCN declared a national park to be a relatively large area with the following defining characteristics:
14
One or several
ecosystems
not materially altered by human exploitation and occupation, where plant and animal species, geomorphological sites and habitats are of special scientific, educational, and recreational interest or which contain a natural landscape of great beauty;
Highest competent authority of the country has taken steps to prevent or eliminate exploitation or occupation as soon as possible in the whole area and to effectively enforce the respect of ecological, geomorphological, or aesthetic features which have led to its establishment; and
Visitors are allowed to enter, under special conditions, for inspirational, educative, cultural, and recreative purposes.
In 1971, these criteria were further expanded upon leading to more clear and defined benchmarks to evaluate a national park. These include:
Minimum size of 1,000 hectares within zones in which protection of nature takes precedence
Statutory legal protection
Budget and staff sufficient to provide effective protection
Prohibition of
exploitation of natural resources
(including the development of dams) qualified by such activities as sport, hunting, fishing, the need for management, facilities, etc.
While the term national park is now defined by the IUCN, many protected areas in various countries are still called national park even when they correspond to other categories of the IUCN Protected Area Management Definition, for example:
15
Swiss National Park
, Switzerland: IUCN Ia – Strict Nature Reserve
Everglades National Park
, United States: IUCN Ib – Wilderness Area
Koli National Park
, Finland: IUCN II – Surface Area
Victoria Falls National Park
, Zimbabwe: IUCN III – National Monument
Vitosha
National Park, Bulgaria: IUCN IV – Habitat Management Area
New Forest National Park
, United Kingdom: IUCN V – Protected Landscape
Etniko Ygrotopiko Parko Delta Evrou, Greece: IUCN VI – Managed Resource Protected Area
While national parks are generally understood to be administered by national governments (hence the name), in Australia, with the exception of six national parks, national parks are run by state governments and predate the
Federation of Australia
; similarly, national parks in the Netherlands are administered by the provinces.
In Canada, there are both national parks operated by the federal government and provincial or territorial parks operated by the provincial and territorial governments, although nearly all are still national parks by the IUCN definition.
16
In many countries, including Indonesia, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, national parks do not adhere to the IUCN definition, while some areas which adhere to the IUCN definition are not designated as national parks.
Terminology
edit
Mingan Archipelago National Park Reserve
17
Gulf of St. Lawrence
Quebec
Canada
As many countries do not adhere to the IUCN definition, the term "national park" may be used loosely.
In the United Kingdom
, and in some other countries such as
Taiwan
, a "national park" simply describes a general area that is relatively undeveloped, scenic, and attracts tourists, with some form of planning restrictions to ensure it maintains those characteristics. There may be substantial human settlements within the bounds of a national park.
Conversely, parks that meet the criteria may be not be referred to as "national parks". Terms like "preserve" or "reserve" may be used instead.
History
edit
Early references
edit
Starting in 1735 the
Naples government
undertook laws to protect Natural areas, which could be used as a
game reserve
by the royal family;
Procida
was the first protected site;
18
the difference between the many previous royal hunting preserves and this one, which is considered to be closer to a Park rather than a hunting preserve,
19
is that Neapolitan government already considered the division into the present-day wilderness areas and non-strict nature reserves.
citation needed
In 1810, the English poet
William Wordsworth
described the
Lake District
as a "sort of national property, in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy".
20
The painter
George Catlin
, in his travels through the
American West
, wrote during the 1830s that
Native Americans in the United States
might be preserved "(by some great protecting policy of government) ... in a
magnificent park
... A
nation's Park
, containing man and beast, in all the wild and freshness of their nature's beauty!"
21
First efforts: Hot Springs, Arkansas and Yosemite Valley
edit
Yosemite Valley
Yosemite National Park
, California, United States
The first effort by the U.S. Federal government to set aside such protected lands was on 20 April 1832, when President
Andrew Jackson
signed legislation that the
22nd United States Congress
had enacted to set aside four sections of land around what is now
Hot Springs, Arkansas
, to protect the natural,
thermal springs
and adjoining mountainsides for the future disposal of the U.S. government.
22
23
24
It was known as
Hot Springs Reservation
, but no legal authority was established. Federal control of the area was not clearly established until 1877.
22
The work of important leaders who fought for animal and land conservation were essential in the development of legal action. Some of these leaders include President Abraham Lincoln,
Laurance Rockefeller
, President Theodore Roosevelt, John Muir, and First Lady
Lady Bird Johnson
to name a few.
25
John Muir
is today referred to as the "Father of the National Parks" due to his work in Yosemite.
26
He published two influential articles in
The Century Magazine
, which formed the base for the subsequent legislation.
27
28
President
Abraham Lincoln
signed an Act of Congress on 1 July 1864, ceding the
Yosemite Valley
and the
Mariposa Grove
of
giant sequoias
(later becoming
Yosemite National Park
) to the state of California. According to this bill, private ownership of the land in this area was no longer possible. The state of California was designated to manage the park for "public use, resort, and recreation". Leases were permitted for up to ten years and the proceeds were to be used for conservation and improvement. A public discussion followed this first legislation of its kind and there was a heated debate over whether the government had the right to create parks. The perceived mismanagement of Yosemite by the Californian state was the reason why Yellowstone was put under national control at its establishment six years later.
29
30
First national park: Yellowstone
edit
Grand Prismatic Spring
in
Yellowstone National Park
, Wyoming, United States; Yellowstone was the first national park in the world.
In 1872,
Yellowstone National Park
was established as the United States' first national park,
31
being also the world's first national park. In some European and Asian countries, however, national protection and
nature reserves
already existed - though typically as game reserves and recreational grounds set aside for royalty, such as a part of the
Forest of Fontainebleau
(France, 1861).
32
Yellowstone was part of a
federally governed territory
. With no state government that could assume stewardship of the land, the federal government took on direct responsibility for the park, the official first national park of the United States. The combined effort and interest of conservationists, politicians and the
Northern Pacific Railroad
ensured the passage of enabling legislation by the United States Congress to create Yellowstone National Park.
Theodore Roosevelt
and his group of conservationists, the
Boone and Crockett Club
, were active campaigners and were highly influential in convincing fellow Republicans and big business to back the bill. Yellowstone National Park soon played a pivotal role in the conservation of these national treasures, as it was suffering at the hands of poachers and others who stood at the ready to pillage what they could from the area. Theodore Roosevelt and his newly formed Boone and Crockett Club successfully took the lead in protecting Yellowstone National Park from this plight, resulting in laws designed to conserve the natural resources in Yellowstone and other parks under the Government's purview.
citation needed
American
Pulitzer Prize
-winning author
Wallace Stegner
wrote: "National parks are the best idea we ever had. Absolutely American, absolutely democratic, they reflect us at our best rather than our worst."
33
International growth of national parks
edit
1890 map of Mackinac National Park
The first area to use "national park" in its creation legislation was the U.S.'s
Mackinac National Park
, in 1875. (The area was later transferred to the state's authority in 1895, thus losing its official "national park" status.
34
35
Royal National Park
in
New South Wales
, Australia, was the world's second official national park
Following the idea established in Yellowstone and Mackinac, there soon followed parks in other nations. In Australia, what is now
Royal National Park
was established just south of
Sydney
Colony of New South Wales
, on 26 April 1879, becoming the world's second official national park.
36
Since Mackinac lost its national park status, the Royal National Park is, by some considerations, the second oldest national park now in existence.
35
37
38
Banff National Park
became Canada's first national park in 1885. New Zealand established
Tongariro National Park
in 1887. Argentina became the third country in the Americas to create a national park system, with the creation of the
Nahuel Huapi National Park
in 1934, through the initiative of
Francisco Moreno
Abisko National Park
in Sweden was one of the first national parks established in Europe
In Europe, the first national parks were a set of nine in
Sweden
in 1909, following the passing of a
Riksdag
law on national parks that year. Switzerland became the second European nation with the founding of the
Swiss National Park
in 1914. In 1971,
Lahemaa National Park
in
Estonian SSR
became the first area to be designated a national park in the former
Soviet Union
Several national parks in Africa:
Virunga National Park
, the
Rwenzori Mountains National Park
, the
Queen Elizabeth National Park
, the
Bwindi Impenetrable National Park
and the
Volcanoes National Park
Africa's first national park was established in 1925 when king
Albert I of Belgium
designated an area in the east of what was then his personal domain of
Congo Free State
, now
Democratic Republic of Congo
as the
Albert National Park
, later renamed
Virunga National Park
. In 1926, the government of South Africa designated
Kruger National Park
as the nation's first national park, although it was an expansion and reorganization of the earlier government protected Sabie Game Reserve, established in 1898 by President
Paul Kruger
of the old
South African Republic
After
World War II
, national parks were founded all over the world. The
United Kingdom
designated its first national park,
Peak District National Park
, in 1951. This followed perhaps 70 years of pressure for greater public access to the landscape. By the end of the decade a further nine national parks had been designated in the UK.
39
Europe has some 359 national parks as of 2010.
citation needed
The
Vanoise National Park
in the Alps was the first French national park, created in 1963 after public mobilization against a
touristic project
. In 1973,
Mount Kilimanjaro
was classified as a National Park and was opened to public access in 1977.
40
In 1989, the
Qomolangma National Nature Preserve
(QNNP) was created to protect 3.381 million hectares on the north slope of
Mount Everest
in the
Tibet Autonomous Region
of China. This national park is the first major global park to have no separate warden and protection staff—all of its management consists of existing local authorities, allowing a lower cost basis and a larger geographical coverage (in 1989 when created, it was the largest protected area in Asia). It includes four of the six tallest mountains in the world:
Everest
Lhotse
Makalu
, and
Cho Oyu
. The QNNP is contiguous to four Nepali national parks, creating a transnational conservation area equal in size to Switzerland.
41
In 1993, the
Blue and John Crow Mountains National Park
was established in
Jamaica
to conserve and protect 41,198 hectares, including tropical montane rainforest and adjacent buffer areas.
42
The site includes Jamaica's tallest peak (
Blue Mountain Peak
), hiking trails and a visitor center. The Park was also designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2015.
43
National parks services
edit
The world's first national park service was established May 19, 1911, in Canada.
44
45
The
Dominion Forest Reserves and Parks Act
placed the dominion parks under the administration of the Dominion Park Branch (now
Parks Canada
), within the Department of the Interior. The branch was established to "protect sites of natural wonder" to provide a recreational experience, centred on the idea of the natural world providing rest and spiritual renewal from the urban setting.
46
Canada now has the largest protected area in the world with 450,000 km
of national park space.
47
Even with the creation of Yellowstone, Yosemite, and nearly 37 other national parks and monuments, another 44 years passed before an agency was created in the United States to administer these units in a comprehensive way – the U.S.
National Park Service
(NPS). The
64th United States Congress
passed the
National Park Service Organic Act
, which
President Woodrow Wilson
signed into law on 25 August 1916. Of the 433 sites managed by the National Park Service of the United States, only 63 carry the designation of National Park.
48
Painting (
c.
1900
) of the
Teufelsschloss
in
Kaiser-Franz-Joseph-Fjord
, East Greenland. The site is now part of the Northeast Greenland National Park.
Economic ramifications
edit
Countries with a large
ecotourism
industry, such as Costa Rica, often experience a huge economic effect on park management as well as the economy of the country as a whole.
49
Tourism
edit
Further information:
Ecotourism
Tourism to national parks has increased considerably over time. In Costa Rica for example, a
megadiverse country
, tourism to parks has increased by 400% from 1985 to 1999.
49
The term
national park
is perceived as a
brand name
that is associated with nature-based tourism and it symbolizes a "high quality natural environment with a well-designed tourist infrastructure".
50
Staff
edit
The duties of a
park ranger
are to supervise, manage, and/or perform work in the conservation and use of park resources. This involves functions such as park conservation; natural, historical, and cultural resource management; and the development and operation of interpretive and recreational programs for the benefit of the visiting public. Park rangers also have fire fighting responsibilities and execute search and rescue missions. Activities also include
heritage interpretation
to disseminate information to visitors of general, historical, or scientific information. Management of resources such as wildlife, lake shores, seashores, forests, historic buildings, battlefields, archaeological properties, and recreation areas are also part of the job of a park ranger.
51
Since the establishment of the National Park Service in the US in 1916, the role of the park ranger has shifted from merely being a custodian of natural resources to include several activities that are associated with law enforcement.
52
They control traffic, manage permits for various uses, and investigate violations, complaints, trespass/encroachment, and accidents.
51
Concerns
edit
National parks in former
European colonies
have come under criticism for allegedly perpetuating
colonialism
. National parks were created by individuals who felt that pristine, natural sections of nature should be set aside and preserved from urban development. In America, this movement came about during the
American frontier
and were meant to be monuments to America's true history.
53
Yet, in some instances, the lands that were to be set aside and protected in formerly colonized lands were already being inhabited by native communities, who were then removed off of these lands to create pristine sites for public consumption. Critics claim that the removal of people from national parks enhances the belief that nature can only be protected when humans do not exist within it, and that this leads to perpetuating the dichotomy between nature and humans (also known as the
nature–culture divide
). They see the creation of national parks as a form of eco-
land grabbing
54
Others claim that traveling to national parks to appreciate nature there leads people to ignore the nature that exists around them every day. Still others argue that tourism can actually negatively impact the areas that are being visited.
55
Critics argue that the establishment of national parks in formerly colonized regions often involved the displacement of Indigenous peoples from their ancestral lands, reinforcing narratives of "pristine" nature and wilderness where humans are excluded. This perspective contributes to the ongoing debate about the nature–culture divide, in which conservation is sometimes viewed as only achievable in the absence of human presence.
Additionally, tourism in national parks can have negative environmental impacts. High levels of visitation may lead to habitat degradation, pollution, soil erosion, and disturbances to wildlife, potentially undermining the ecological health of the areas the parks are intended to protect.
56
See also
edit
Country park
List of national parks
– by country
Lists of tourist attractions
Conservation ecology
Conservation movement
Conservation park (disambiguation)
Federal lands
(United States)
Fossil park
Freedom to roam
Geopark
Global Geoparks Network
International Park
National monument
National Historic Site
National Park Foundation
Open Country
Provincial park
State park
Sustainable development
United Nations Environment Programme
World Database on Protected Areas
References
edit
Notes
edit
In Australia, the vast majority of "national parks" are managed by state governments rather than the federal government; for example,
Royal National Park
, mentioned in this article as one of the earliest national parks, is actually owned and operated by
New South Wales
. Similarly, the province of
Quebec, Canada
, uses the designation "national park" for all of its
provincially owned and operated parks
National parks in the United Kingdom
are devolved to various authorities at the subnational and local levels.
Citations
edit
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Civilizing Nature, National Parks in Global Historical Perspective
, Berghahn, Oxford
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. Archived from
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Archived
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, 43rd Congress, 3rd Session, ex. doc. 35, quoting Department of Interior letter of 10 May 1872, "The reservation so set apart is to be known as the "Yellowstone National Park"."
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Journal of Sustainable Tourism
Volume 10, Issue 2, 2002, p. 133.
doi
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U.S. Office of Personnel Management.
Handbook of occupational groups and families
. Washington, D.C. January 2008. Page 19.
OPM.gov
Archived
3 January 2009 at the
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Accessed 2 November 2014.
R Meadows ; D L Soden In:
National Park Ranger Attitudes and Perceptions Regarding Law Enforcement Issues.
Archived
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Abstract.
Justice Professional
Volume:3 Issue:1 (Spring 1988) Pages:70–93
William., Cronon (1996).
Uncommon ground: rethinking the human place in nature
. W.W. Norton & Co.
ISBN
0-393-31511-8
OCLC
36306399
Claus, C. Anne (3 November 2020).
Drawing the Sea Near
. University of Minnesota Press.
doi
10.5749/j.ctv1bkc3t6
ISBN
978-1-4529-5946-7
S2CID
230646912
Büscher, Bram; Fletcher, Robert (2019).
"Towards Convivial Conservation"
Conservation and Society
17
(3): 283.
Bibcode
2019CoSoc..17..283B
doi
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ISSN
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S2CID
195819004
"Environmental Impact of Tourism in National Parks"
USA National Parks Info
Sources
edit
Eagles, Paul F. J; McCool, Stephen F. (2002).
Tourism in National Parks and Protected Areas: Planning and Management
. CABI.
ISBN
0851997597
320 pages.
Sellars, Richard West (2009).
Preserving Nature in the National Parks: A History
. Yale University Press.
ISBN
978-0300154146
404 pages.
Sheail, John (2010)
Nature's Spectacle - The World's First National Parks and Protected Places
Earthscan, London, Washington.
ISBN
978-1-84971-129-6
Further reading
edit
Craig W. Allin (ed.),
International Handbook of National Parks and Nature Reserves
Bloomsbury Academic
, Greenwood (Pub.), first ed., 1990, 560 pages. ISBN 978-0274924080
Ahmad Naqiyuddin Bakar and Mohd Nazip Suratman (editors for
Universiti Teknologi MARA
),
Protected Areas, National Parks and Sustainable Future
, IntechOpen, 2020, 134 pages. ISBN 978-1-78984-229-6
Eric Duffey (dir. with 18 National Consultants),
National Parks and Reserves of Western Europe
, Harrow House Editions, London, 1982, 288 pages. Preface by Sir
Peter Scott
. ISBN 978-0356085869
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