Natural gas - Wikipedia

Natural gas - Wikipedia
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Gaseous fossil fuel
Not to be confused with
gasoline
biogas
, or
liquefied petroleum gas
For the Canadian band, see
Natural Gas (band)
Natural gas burning on a gas stove
Natural gas
(also
gas
methane gas
or
fossil gas
) is a
fossil fuel
, naturally occurring in geological formations. Typically, the gas is a mix of gaseous
hydrocarbons
, primarily
methane
(95%),
small amounts of higher
alkanes
, and traces of
carbon dioxide
and
nitrogen
hydrogen sulfide
and
helium
Methane is a colorless and odorless gas, and, after carbon dioxide, is the second-greatest
greenhouse gas
that contributes to global
climate change
Because natural gas is odorless, a commercial
odorizer
, such as
methanethiol
, that smells of hydrogen sulfide (rotten eggs) is added to the gas for the ready detection of gas leaks.
Natural gas is a
fossil fuel
that is formed when layers of
organic matter
(primarily marine microorganisms)
are thermally decomposed under oxygen-free conditions, subjected to intense heat and pressure underground over millions of years.
The energy that the decayed organisms originally obtained from the sun via
photosynthesis
is stored as chemical energy within the molecules of methane and other hydrocarbons.
Most natural gas is collected from underground
geological formations
, often alongside other fossil fuels like
coal
and
oil
(petroleum).
Natural gas is often a byproduct of petroleum production, where it can either be vented without burning,
flared
(burned off) or collected.
The extraction and consumption of natural gas is a major industry. According to a 2025 IEA report, demand has increased in recent years.
10
When burned for
heat
or
electricity
, natural gas emits fewer toxic air pollutants, less carbon dioxide, and almost no particulate matter compared to other fossil fuels.
11
However, the natural gas industry is one of the largest drivers of
climate change
gas venting
and unintended
fugitive emissions
throughout the
supply chain
can result in natural gas having a similar or greater
carbon footprint
to other fossil fuels overall.
12
Much of this is driven by methane's greater effect on
radiative forcing
13
14
Globally, new installed natural gas infrastructure is one of the largest sources of increased greenhouse gas emissions for energy production.
15
To meet climate goals,
2023 IPCC Sixth Assessment report
concluded that new fossil gas infrastructure only make sense under very specific conditions with
carbon capture
and
fugitive gas
prevention technologies,
16
otherwise it risks emissions overshoot or becoming
stranded assets
17
Burning of natural gas coming out of the ground
Before natural gas can be burned as a fuel or used in manufacturing processes, it almost always has to be
processed
to remove impurities such as water. The byproducts of this processing include
ethane
propane
butanes
pentanes
, and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons. Hydrogen sulfide (which may be converted into pure
sulfur
),
carbon dioxide
water vapor
, and sometimes
helium
and
nitrogen
must also be removed.
18
While natural gas is frequently transported in a gaseous state in
gas pipelines
, inter-country transportation and long-term storage of natural gas was not widely available until the widespread adoption of
liquefied natural gas
Natural gas is measured in
standard cubic meters
or
standard cubic feet
. The density compared to air ranges from 0.58 (16.8 g/mole, 0.71 kg per standard cubic meter) to as high as 0.79 (22.9 g/mole, 0.97 kg per scm), but generally less than 0.64 (18.5 g/mole, 0.78 kg per scm).
19
For comparison, pure methane (16.0425 g/mole) has a density 0.5539 times that of air (0.678 kg per standard cubic meter).
Name
edit
In the early 1800s, natural gas became known as "natural" to distinguish it from the dominant gas fuel at the time,
coal gas
20
Unlike coal gas, which is manufactured by heating coal, natural gas can be extracted from the ground in its native gaseous form. When the use of natural gas overtook the use of coal gas in English-speaking countries in the 20th century, it was increasingly referred to as simply "gas."
21
However, it is not to be confused with
gasoline
, which is also shortened in colloquial usage to "gas", especially in North America.
In order to highlight its role in exacerbating the
climate crisis
, however, many organizations have criticized the continued use of the word "natural" in referring to the gas. These advocates prefer the term "fossil gas" or "methane gas" as better conveying to the public its climate threat.
22
23
24
A 2020 study of Americans' perceptions of the fuel found that, across political identifications, the term "methane gas" led to better estimates of its harms and risks.
25
History
edit
A gas bill from
Baltimore
, Maryland, 1834, for manufactured coal gas, before the introduction of ground-extracted methane gas.
Natural gas can come out of the ground and cause a long-burning fire. In
ancient Greece
, the gas flames at
Mount Chimaera
contributed to the legend of the fire-breathing creature
Chimera
. In
ancient China
, gas resulting from the drilling for
brines
was first used by about 400 BC.
26
The Chinese transported gas seeping from the ground in crude pipelines of bamboo to where it was used to boil salt water to
extract the salt
in the
Ziliujing District
of
Sichuan
27
28
Natural gas was not widely used before the development of long distance pipelines in the early 20th century. Before that, most use was near to the source of the well, and the predominant gas for fuel and lighting during the industrial revolution was manufactured coal gas.
29
The history of natural gas in the United States begins with localized use. In the seventeenth century, French missionaries witnessed the American Indians setting fire to natural gas seeps around
Lake Erie
, and scattered observations of these seeps were made by European-descended settlers throughout the eastern seaboard through the 1700s.
30
In 1821, William Hart dug the first commercial natural gas well in the United States at
Fredonia, New York
, United States, which led in 1858 to the formation of the
Fredonia Gas Light Company
31
Further such ventures followed near wells in other states, until technological innovations allowed the growth of major long distance pipelines from the 1920s onwards.
30
By 2010, 66,000 km
(16,000 mi
) (or 8%) had been used out of the total 850,000 km
(200,000 mi
) of estimated remaining recoverable reserves of natural gas.
32
Sources
edit
See also:
List of natural gas fields
List of countries by natural gas proven reserves
, and
List of countries by natural gas production
Natural gas
edit
Natural gas
drilling rig
in Texas, US
In the 19th century, natural gas was primarily obtained as a by-product of
producing oil
. The small, light gas
carbon chains
came out of solution as the extracted fluids underwent pressure reduction from the
reservoir
to the surface, similar to uncapping a soft drink bottle where the carbon dioxide
effervesces
. The gas was often viewed as a by-product, a hazard, and a disposal problem in active oil fields. The large volumes produced could not be used until relatively expensive
pipeline
and
storage
facilities were constructed to deliver the gas to consumer markets.
Until the early part of the 20th century, most natural gas associated with oil was either simply released or
burned off
at oil fields.
Gas venting
and
production flaring
are still practiced in modern times, but efforts are ongoing around the world to retire them, and to replace them with other commercially viable and useful alternatives.
33
34
In addition to transporting gas via pipelines for use in power generation, other end uses for natural gas include export as
liquefied natural gas
(LNG) or conversion of natural gas into other liquid products via
gas to liquids
(GTL) technologies. GTL technologies can convert natural gas into liquids products such as gasoline, diesel or jet fuel. A variety of GTL technologies have been developed, including
Fischer–Tropsch
(F–T), methanol to gasoline (MTG) and
syngas to gasoline plus
(STG+). F–T produces a synthetic crude that can be further refined into finished products, while MTG can produce synthetic gasoline from natural gas. STG+ can produce drop-in gasoline, diesel, jet fuel and aromatic chemicals directly from natural gas via a single-loop process.
35
In 2011,
Royal Dutch Shell's
140,000 barrels (22,000 m
) per day F–T plant went into operation in
Qatar
36
Natural gas can be
"associated"
(found in
oil fields
), or "non-associated" (isolated in
natural gas fields
), and is also found in
coal beds
(as
coalbed methane
).
37
It sometimes contains a significant amount of
ethane
propane
butane
, and
pentane
—heavier hydrocarbons removed for commercial use prior to the
methane
being sold as a consumer fuel or chemical plant feedstock. Non-hydrocarbons such as
carbon dioxide
nitrogen
helium
(rarely), and
hydrogen sulfide
must also be removed before the natural gas can be transported.
38
Natural gas extracted from oil wells is called casinghead gas (whether or not truly produced up the annulus and through a casinghead outlet) or associated gas. The
natural gas industry
is extracting an increasing quantity of gas from challenging,
unconventional
resource types
sour gas
tight gas
shale gas
, and
coalbed methane
There is some disagreement on which country has the largest proven gas reserves. Sources that consider that Russia has by far the largest proven reserves include the US
Central Intelligence Agency
(47,600 km
39
and
Energy Information Administration
(47,800 km
),
40
41
as well as the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(48,700 km
).
42
Contrarily,
BP
credits Russia with only 32,900 km
43
which would place it in second, slightly behind Iran (33,100 to 33,800 km
, depending on the source).
Countries'
proven natural gas reserves
(2014), based on data from The World Factbook
It is estimated that there are about 900,000 km
of "unconventional" gas such as shale gas, of which 180,000 km
may be recoverable.
44
In turn, many studies from
MIT
Black & Veatch
and the
US Department of Energy
predict that natural gas will account for a larger portion of electricity generation and heat in the future.
45
better source needed
The world's largest gas field is the offshore
South Pars/North Dome Gas-Condensate field
, shared between Iran and Qatar. It is estimated to have 51,000 cubic kilometers (12,000 mi
) of natural gas and 50 billion barrels (7.9 billion cubic meters) of
natural gas condensates
Because natural gas is not a pure product, as the reservoir pressure drops when non-associated gas is extracted from a field under
supercritical
(pressure/temperature) conditions, the higher molecular weight components may partially condense upon isothermic depressurizing—an effect called
retrograde condensation
. The liquid thus formed may get trapped as the pores of the gas reservoir get depleted. One method to deal with this problem is to re-inject dried gas free of condensate to maintain the underground pressure and to allow re-evaporation and extraction of condensates. More frequently, the liquid condenses at the surface, and one of the tasks of the
gas plant
is to collect this condensate. The resulting liquid is called natural gas liquid (NGL) and has commercial value.
Shale gas
edit
The location of
shale gas
compared to other types of gas deposits
Main article:
Shale gas
Shale gas is natural gas produced from
shale
. Because shale's matrix permeability is too low to allow gas to flow in economical quantities, shale gas wells depend on fractures to allow the gas to flow. Early shale gas wells depended on natural fractures through which gas flowed; almost all shale gas wells today require fractures artificially created by
hydraulic fracturing
. Since 2000, shale gas has become a major source of natural gas in the United States and Canada.
46
Because of increased shale gas production the United States was in 2014 the number one natural gas producer in the world.
47
The production of shale gas in the United States has been described as a "shale gas revolution" and as "one of the landmark events in the 21st century."
48
Following the increased production in the United States, shale gas exploration is beginning in countries such as Poland, China, and South Africa.
49
50
51
Chinese geologists have identified the
Sichuan Basin
as a promising target for shale gas drilling, because of the similarity of shales to those that have proven productive in the United States. Production from the Wei-201 well is between 10,000 and 20,000 m
per day.
52
In late 2020,
China National Petroleum Corporation
claimed daily production of 20 million cubic meters of gas from its Changning-Weiyuan demonstration zone.
53
unreliable source?
Coal gas
edit
Main article:
History of manufactured fuel gases
Coal gas or Town gas
is a flammable gaseous fuel made by the destructive distillation of
coal
. It contains a variety of calorific gases including
hydrogen
carbon monoxide
methane
, and other volatile
hydrocarbons
, together with small quantities of non-calorific gases such as
carbon dioxide
and
nitrogen
, and was used in a similar way to natural gas. This is a historical technology and is not usually economically competitive with other sources of fuel gas today.
Most town "gashouses" located in the eastern US in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were simple by-product
coke
ovens that heated bituminous coal in air-tight chambers. The gas driven off from the coal was collected and distributed through networks of pipes to residences and other buildings where it was used for cooking and lighting. (Gas heating did not come into widespread use until the last half of the 20th century.) The
coal tar
(or
asphalt
) that collected in the bottoms of the gashouse ovens was often used for roofing and other waterproofing purposes, and when mixed with sand and gravel was used for paving streets.
Synthetic natural gas
edit
Synthetic natural gas
(SNG), is a fuel gas (predominantly methane, CH4) that can be produced from fossil fuels such as lignite coal, oil shale, or from biofuels or using electricity with power-to-gas system.
Gasification
process is used to generate SNG.
54
When the gasification is conducted with hydrogen in place of oxygen/air, it is called hydrogasification.
55
Renewable natural gas
edit
Renewable natural gas
(RNG), also known as biomethane, is a
renewable fuel
made from
biogas
that has been upgraded to a quality similar to
fossil
gas and has a
methane
concentration of 90% or greater.
56
Crystallized natural gas – clathrates
edit
Huge quantities of natural gas (primarily methane) exist in the form of
clathrates
under sediment on offshore continental shelves and on land in arctic regions that experience
permafrost
, such as those in
Siberia
. Hydrates require a combination of high pressure and low temperature to form.
57
citation needed
In 2013,
Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation
(JOGMEC) announced that they had recovered commercially relevant quantities of natural gas from methane hydrate.
58
Processing
edit
Main article:
Natural gas processing
Natural gas processing plant in
Aderklaa
, Lower Austria
The image below is a schematic
block flow diagram
of a typical natural gas processing plant. It shows the various unit processes used to convert raw natural gas into sales gas pipelined to the end user markets.
The block flow diagram also shows how processing of the raw natural gas yields byproduct sulfur, byproduct ethane, and
natural gas liquids
(NGL) propane, butanes and natural gasoline (denoted as
pentanes
+).
59
60
61
62
Schematic flow diagram of a typical natural gas processing plant
Demand
edit
See also:
Gas depletion
The examples and perspective in this section
deal primarily with
US
and do not represent a
worldwide view
of the subject
You may
improve this section
, discuss the issue on the
talk page
, or create a new section, as appropriate.
October 2022
Learn how and when to remove this message
Natural gas extraction by countries
in cubic meters per year around 2013
As of mid-2020, natural gas production in the US had peaked three times, with current levels exceeding both previous peaks. It reached 24.1 trillion cubic feet per year in 1973, followed by a decline, and reached 24.5 trillion cubic feet in 2001. After a brief drop, withdrawals increased nearly every year since 2006 (owing to the
shale gas boom
), with 2017 production at 33.4 trillion cubic feet and 2019 production at 40.7 trillion cubic feet. After the third peak in December 2019, extraction continued to fall from March onward due to decreased demand caused by the
COVID-19 pandemic in the US
63
The
2021 global energy crisis
was driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID-19, particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia.
64
Storage and transport
edit
See also:
List of natural gas pipelines
This section needs to be
updated
. The reason given is:
change in
transport
from
Russia
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
May 2022
Polyethylene
plastic
main
being placed in a
trench
Construction close to high-pressure gas-transmission pipelines is discouraged, often with standing warning signs.
65
Because of its low density, it is not easy to store natural gas or to transport it by vehicle. Natural gas
pipelines
are impractical across oceans, since the gas needs to be cooled down and compressed, as the friction in the pipeline causes the gas to heat up. Many
existing pipelines in the US
are close to reaching their capacity, prompting some politicians representing northern states to speak of potential shortages. The large trade cost implies that natural gas markets are globally much less integrated, causing significant price differences across countries. In
Western Europe
, the gas pipeline network is already dense.
66
New pipelines are planned or under construction between Western Europe and the
Near East
or
Northern Africa
67
Whenever gas is bought or sold at custody transfer points, rules and agreements are made regarding the gas quality. These may include the maximum allowable concentration of
CO
and
. Usually sales quality gas that has been
treated to remove contamination
is traded on a "dry gas" basis and is required to be commercially free from objectionable odours, materials, and dust or other solid or liquid matter, waxes, gums and gum forming constituents, which might damage or adversely affect operation of equipment downstream of the custody transfer point.
Based on their geographic origin, H-gas (high-calorific gas) and L-gas (low-calorific gas) are to be distinguished.
68
Both types require separate transport, leading to two separate pipeline networks, e.g. in parts of Germany (with a strengthened focus and transition towards H-gas, as the L-gas reservoirs in Germany and the Netherlands are declining).
69
Liquified natural gas
edit
This section is an excerpt from
Liquefied natural gas
edit
LNG carrier
liquefied natural gas ship
at
Świnoujście LNG terminal
in Poland
The passenger ship
MS
Viking Grace
, the world's first large-scale passenger ship to be powered with liquefied natural gas
Liquefied natural gas
(LNG) is natural gas (predominantly
methane
, CH
, with some mixture of
ethane
, C
) that has been cooled to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up approximately 1/600th the volume of natural gas in the gaseous state at
standard temperature and pressure
LNG is
odorless
colorless
non-toxic
, and
non-corrosive
. Hazards include flammability after vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and
asphyxiation
. The
liquefaction
process involves removal of certain components, such as dust, carbon dioxide,
helium
, water, and heavy
hydrocarbons
, which could cause process upsets downstream. The natural gas is then
condensed
into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to approximately −162 °C (−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around 127 kPa (18 psi), which is approximately 1.25 times atmospheric pressure at sea level. The gas stream is typically separated into the liquefied petroleum fractions (
butane
and
propane
) and the lighter
ethane
and
methane
fractions. These lighter fractions of methane and ethane make up the bulk of LNG that is liquefied and stored.
Before the late 20th century natural gas was largely considered a byproduct of oil production. The development of production processes,
cryogenic storage
, and transportation made it possible to commercialize natural gas, creating a global market which now competes with other fuels. The development of LNG storage made natural gas transportation much more reliable. Unlike simple tank storage used for other fuels, natural gas previously could not be stored for extended periods due to the difficulty of preventing gas leakage. Large-scale cryogenic storage made it possible to create reliable long-term storage reserves for natural gas as well. These reserves of liquefied gas could be quickly deployed through
regasification
processes, and today are the main means for networks to handle local
peak shaving
requirements.
70
Production of LNG is an energy intensive process concentrated in a few countries, and typically requires specialized ports for handling the export of the LNG for use in other countries. As of 2023, the United States, Australia and Qatar had the most capacity for exporting LNG, and China, Japan, and South Korea were the biggest importers.
71
A 2025 report by the IEA found that more capacity would be coming on in the upcoming decade.
72
This hyper-concentration of production creates choke points in global supply chains, with the
2026 War in Iran affecting Qatar's LNG exports
, causing a ripple effect in LNG access and cost.
73
A typical LNG process
Compressed Natural gas
edit
CNG
is transported at high pressure, typically above 200
bars
(20,000 kPa; 2,900 psi). Compressors and decompression equipment are less capital intensive and may be economical in smaller unit sizes than liquefaction/regasification plants. Natural gas trucks and carriers may transport natural gas directly to end-users, or to distribution points such as pipelines.
Flaring
edit
Peoples Gas
Manlove Field
natural gas storage
area in
Newcomb Township, Champaign County, Illinois
. In the foreground (left) is one of the numerous wells for the underground storage area, with an LNG plant, and above-ground storage tanks are in the background (right).
In the past, the natural gas which was recovered in the course of recovering
petroleum
could not be profitably sold, and was simply burned at the oil field in a process known as
flaring
. Flaring is now illegal in many countries.
74
Additionally, higher demand in the last 20–30 years has made production of gas associated with oil economically viable. As a further option, the gas is now sometimes re-
injected
into the formation for
enhanced oil recovery
by pressure maintenance as well as miscible or immiscible flooding. Conservation, re-injection, or flaring of natural gas associated with oil is primarily dependent on proximity to markets (pipelines), and regulatory restrictions.
Natural gas can be indirectly exported through the absorption in other physical output. The expansion of shale gas production in the US has caused prices to drop relative to other countries. This has caused a boom in energy intensive manufacturing sector exports, whereby the average dollar unit of US manufacturing exports has almost tripled its energy content between 1996 and 2012.
75
A "master gas system" was invented in
Saudi Arabia
in the late 1970s, ending any necessity for flaring. Satellite and nearby infra-red camera observations, however, shows that flaring
76
77
78
79
and venting
80
are still happening in some countries.
Similarly, some landfills that also discharge methane gases have been set up to capture the methane and generate electricity.
Salt domes and underground storage
edit
Natural gas is often stored underground [references about geological storage needed]inside depleted gas reservoirs from previous gas wells,
salt domes
, or in tanks as liquefied natural gas. The gas is injected in a time of low demand and extracted when demand picks up. Storage nearby end users helps to meet volatile demands, but such storage may not always be practicable.
Floating liquefied natural gas
edit
Floating liquefied natural gas
(FLNG) is an innovative technology designed to enable the development of offshore gas resources that would otherwise remain untapped due to environmental or economic factors which currently make them impractical to develop via a land-based LNG operation. FLNG technology also provides a number of environmental and economic advantages:
Environmental – Because all processing is done at the gas field, there is no requirement for long pipelines to shore, compression units to pump the gas to shore, dredging and jetty construction, and onshore construction of an LNG processing plant, which significantly reduces the environmental footprint.
81
Avoiding construction also helps preserve marine and coastal environments. In addition, environmental disturbance will be minimised during decommissioning because the facility can easily be disconnected and removed before being refurbished and re-deployed elsewhere.
Economic – Where pumping gas to shore can be prohibitively expensive, FLNG makes development economically viable. As a result, it will open up new business opportunities for countries to develop offshore gas fields that would otherwise remain stranded, such as those offshore East Africa.
82
Many gas and oil companies are considering the economic and environmental benefits of floating liquefied natural gas (FLNG). There are currently projects underway to construct five FLNG facilities.
Petronas
is close to completion on their FLNG-1
83
at
Daewoo Shipbuilding and Marine Engineering
and are underway on their FLNG-2 project
84
at
Samsung Heavy Industries
Shell Prelude
is due to start production 2017.
85
The
Browse LNG
project will commence
FEED
in 2019.
86
Uses
edit
Natural gas is primarily used in the northern hemisphere. North America and Europe are major consumers.
Often well head gases require removal of various hydrocarbon molecules contained within the gas. Some of these gases include
heptane
pentane
propane
and other hydrocarbons with molecular weights above
methane
CH
). The natural gas transmission lines extend to the natural gas processing plant or unit which removes the higher-molecular weight hydrocarbons to produce natural gas with energy content between 35–39 megajoules per cubic metre (950–1,050 British thermal units per cubic foot). The processed natural gas may then be used for residential, commercial and industrial uses.
Mid-stream natural gas
edit
Natural gas flowing in the distribution lines is called mid-stream natural gas and is often used to power engines which rotate compressors. These compressors are required in the transmission line to pressurize and repressurize the mid-stream natural gas as the gas travels. Typically, natural gas powered engines require 35–39 MJ/m
(950–1,050 BTU/ft
) natural gas to operate at the rotational name plate specifications.
87
Several methods are used to remove these higher molecular weighted gases for use by the natural gas engine. A few technologies are as follows:
Joule–Thomson skid
Cryogenic
or
chiller
system
Chemical
enzymology
system
87
Power generation
edit
This section is an excerpt from
Gas-fired power plant
edit
A natural gas plant in
Canada
Gas generates over 20% of world electricity
Share of electricity production from gas
gas-fired power plant
, sometimes referred to as gas-fired power station, natural gas power plant, or methane gas power plant, is a
thermal power station
that burns natural gas to
generate electricity
. Gas-fired power plants generate almost a quarter of
world electricity
and are significant sources of
greenhouse gas emissions
88
Most energy planning relies on gas fired plants to provide
dispatchable energy generation
to compensate for
variable renewable energy
deficits, where
hydropower
or
interconnectors
are not available. In the early 2020s
batteries
became competitive with gas
peaker plants
89
Some natural gas plants are dual fire with other kinds of fuels, such as oil, coal or hydrogen.
citation needed
Most analysts don't think natural gas turbines will be successfully converted to hydrogen as part of the
energy transition
, becoming a
stranded asset
90
91
92
93
Domestic use
edit
Manhole for domestic gas supply, London, UK
In the US, over one-third of households (>40 million homes) cook with gas.
Natural gas dispensed in a residential setting can generate temperatures in excess of 1,100 °C (2,000 °F) making it a powerful domestic cooking and heating fuel.
94
Stanford scientists estimated that gas stoves emit 0.8–1.3% of the gas they use as unburned methane and that total U.S. stove emissions are 28.1 gigagrams of methane.
In much of the developed world it is supplied through pipes to homes, where it is used for many purposes including ranges and ovens,
heating
cooling
, outdoor and portable
grills
, and
central heating
95
Heaters in homes and other buildings may include boilers,
furnaces
, and
water heaters
. Both North America and Europe are major consumers of natural gas.
Domestic appliances, furnaces, and boilers use low pressure, usually with a standard pressure around 1.7 kilopascals (0.25 psi) over atmospheric pressure. The pressures in the supply lines vary, either the standard utilization pressure (UP) mentioned above or elevated pressure (EP), which may be anywhere from 7 to 800 kilopascals (1 to 120 psi) over atmospheric pressure. Systems using EP have a
regulator
at the service entrance to step down to UP.
96
Natural gas piping systems inside buildings are often designed with pressures of 14 to 34 kilopascals (2 to 5 psi), and have downstream pressure regulators to reduce pressure as needed. In the United States the maximum allowable operating pressure for natural gas piping systems within a building is based on NFPA 54: National Fuel Gas Code,
97
except when approved by the Public Safety Authority or when insurance companies have more stringent requirements.
Generally, natural gas system pressures are not allowed to exceed 5 psi (34 kPa) unless all of the following conditions are met:
The AHJ will allow a higher pressure.
The distribution pipe is welded. (Note: 2. Some jurisdictions may also require that welded joints be radiographed to verify continuity).
The pipes are closed for protection and placed in a ventilated area that does not allow gas accumulation.
The pipe is installed in the areas used for industrial processes, research, storage or mechanical equipment rooms.
Generally, a maximum liquefied petroleum gas pressure of 20 psi (140 kPa) is allowed, provided the building is constructed in accordance with NFPA 58: Liquefied Petroleum Gas Code, Chapter 7.
98
A seismic earthquake valve operating at a pressure of 55 psig (3.7 bar) can stop the flow of natural gas into the site wide natural gas distribution piping network (that runs (outdoors underground, above building roofs, and or within the upper supports of a canopy roof). Seismic earthquake valves are designed for use at a maximum of 60 psig.
99
100
In Australia, natural gas is transported from gas processing facilities to regulator stations via transmission pipelines. Gas is then regulated down to distributed pressures and the gas is distributed around a gas network via gas mains. Small branches from the network, called services, connect individual domestic dwellings, or multi-dwelling buildings to the network. The networks typically range in pressures from 7 kPa (low pressure) to 515 kPa (high pressure). Gas is then regulated down to 1.1 kPa or 2.75 kPa, before being metered and passed to the consumer for domestic use.
101
Natural gas mains are made from a variety of materials: historically cast iron, though more modern mains are made from steel or polyethylene.
In some states in the USA, natural gas can be supplied by independent natural gas wholesalers/suppliers using existing pipeline owners' infrastructure through
Natural Gas Choice
programs.
LPG (
liquefied petroleum gas
) typically fuels outdoor and portable
grills
. Although,
compressed natural gas
(CNG) is sparsely available for similar applications in the US in
rural
areas underserved by the existing pipeline system and distribution network of the less expensive and more abundant LPG (liquefied petroleum gas).
Natural gas bus in
Salamanca
, Spain
Transportation
edit
Honda Civic GX
, a natural gas-powered automobile sold in North America from 1998 to 2015
CNG is a cleaner and also cheaper alternative to other
automobile
fuels such as
gasoline
(petrol).
102
By the end of 2014, there were over 20 million
natural gas vehicles
worldwide, led by
Iran
(3.5 million),
China
(3.3 million),
Pakistan
(2.8 million),
Argentina
(2.5 million),
India
(1.8 million), and
Brazil
(1.8 million).
103
The
energy efficiency
is generally equal to that of gasoline engines, but lower compared with modern diesel engines. Gasoline/petrol vehicles converted to run on natural gas suffer because of the low
compression ratio
of their engines, resulting in a cropping of delivered power while running on natural gas (10–15%). CNG-specific engines, however, use a higher compression ratio due to this fuel's higher
octane number
of 120–130.
104
Besides use in road vehicles, CNG can also be used in aircraft.
105
Compressed natural gas has been used in some aircraft like the
Aviat Aircraft
Husky 200 CNG
106
and the Chromarat VX-1 KittyHawk
107
LNG is also being used in aircraft.
Russian
aircraft manufacturer
Tupolev
for instance is running a development program to produce LNG- and
hydrogen
-powered aircraft.
108
The program has been running since the mid-1970s, and seeks to develop LNG and hydrogen variants of the
Tu-204
and
Tu-334
passenger aircraft, and also the
Tu-330
cargo aircraft. Depending on the current market price for jet fuel and LNG, the consumption cost advantage for LNG-powered aircraft is approximately 18.96%, along with a 53.72% reduction to
carbon monoxide
hydrocarbon
and
nitrogen oxide
emissions.
109
The advantages of liquid methane as a jet engine fuel are that it has more
specific energy
than the standard
kerosene
mixes do and that its low temperature can help cool the air which the engine compresses for greater volumetric efficiency, in effect replacing an
intercooler
. Alternatively, it can be used to lower the temperature of the exhaust.
citation needed
Fertilizers
edit
See also:
2007–2008 world food price crisis
Natural gas is a major feedstock for the production of
ammonia
, via the
Haber process
, for use in
fertilizer
production.
95
110
The development of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer has significantly supported global
population growth
— it has been estimated that almost half the people on the Earth are currently fed as a result of synthetic nitrogen fertilizer use.
111
112
Hydrogen
edit
See also:
Industrial gas
Natural gas can be used to produce
hydrogen
, with one common method being the
hydrogen reformer
. Hydrogen has many applications: it is a primary feedstock for the
chemical industry
, a hydrogenating agent, an important commodity for oil refineries, and the fuel source in
hydrogen vehicles
Animal and fish feed
edit
Protein rich animal and fish feed is produced by feeding natural gas to
Methylococcus capsulatus
bacteria on commercial scale.
113
114
115
Olefins(alkenes)
edit
Natural gas components(alkanes) can be converted into
olefins(alkenes)
or other
chemical synthesis
. Ethane by oxidative dehydrogenation converts to ethylene, which can be further converted to
ethylene oxide
ethylene glycol
acetaldehyde
or other olefins. Propane by oxidative hydrogenation converts to propylene or can be oxidized to acrylic acid and
acrylonitrile
Other
edit
Natural gas is also used in the manufacture of
fabrics
glass
steel
plastics
paint
synthetic oil
, and other products.
116
Fuel for industrial heating and
desiccation
processes.
Raw material for large-scale fuel production using
gas-to-liquid
(GTL) process (e.g. to produce sulphur-and aromatic-free diesel with low-emission combustion).
Health effects
edit
Cooking with natural gas contributes to poor
indoor air quality
and can lead to severe respiratory diseases such as
asthma
117
118
Environmental effects
edit
Deaths caused by use of fossil fuels such as natural gas (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of
wind energy
nuclear energy
or
solar energy
(rectangles barely visible in chart).
119
See also:
Environmental impact of the energy industry
Greenhouse effect and natural gas release
edit
See also:
Greenhouse effect
Atmospheric methane
Gas venting
, and
Fugitive gas emissions
The warming influence (called
radiative forcing
) of long-lived greenhouse gases has increased substantially in the last 40 years, with carbon dioxide and methane being the dominant drivers of global warming.
120
Natural gas is a growing contributor to
climate change
121
122
123
Both the gas itself (specifically methane) and
carbon dioxide
, which is released when natural gas is burned, are
greenhouse gases
124
125
Human activity is responsible for about 60% of all
methane emissions
and for most of the resulting increase in atmospheric methane.
126
127
128
Natural gas is intentionally released or is otherwise known to leak during the extraction, storage, transportation, and distribution of
fossil fuels
. Globally, methane accounts for an estimated 33% of anthropogenic
greenhouse gas warming
13
The decomposition of municipal solid waste (a source of
landfill gas
) and wastewater account for an additional 18% of such emissions. These estimates include substantial uncertainties
129
which should be reduced in the near future with improved
satellite
measurements, such as those planned for
MethaneSAT
125
After release to the atmosphere, methane is removed by gradual oxidation to carbon dioxide and water by hydroxyl radicals (
OH
) formed in the troposphere or stratosphere, giving the overall chemical reaction
CH
+ 2
CO
+ 2
130
131
While the lifetime of atmospheric methane is relatively short when compared to carbon dioxide,
132
with a
half-life
of about 7 years, it is more efficient at trapping heat in the atmosphere, so that a given quantity of methane has 84 times the
global-warming potential
of carbon dioxide over a 20-year period and 28 times over a 100-year period. Natural gas is thus a potent greenhouse gas due to the strong
radiative forcing
of methane in the short term, and the continuing effects of carbon dioxide in the longer term.
128
Targeted efforts to reduce warming quickly by reducing anthropogenic methane emissions is a
climate change mitigation
strategy supported by the
Global Methane Initiative
13
Greenhouse gas emissions
edit
Growth and acceleration of emissions, and resulting atmospheric concentration
Methane emissions from fossil fuels, industrial and agricultural practices have increased since the industrial revolution.
133
Trendline of year-over-year increases demonstrates the persistent growth of methane emissions since the 1950s.
133
About 60% of current methane emissions are human-caused, contributing to the growth of methane gas in the atmosphere.
134
When refined and burned, natural gas can produce 25–30% less carbon dioxide per
joule
delivered than oil, and 40–45% less than coal.
135
It can also produce potentially fewer toxic
pollutants
than other hydrocarbon fuels.
135
136
However, compared to other major fossil fuels, natural gas causes more emissions in relative terms during the production and transportation of the fuel, meaning that the life cycle greenhouse gas emissions are about 50% higher than the direct emissions from the site of consumption.
137
138
Some policy context's include gas as a "
bridge fuel
" based on the mistaken assumption that lower emissions at burning, means lower overall environmental impact.
139
140
141
142
In terms of the warming effect over 100 years, natural gas production and use comprises about one fifth of human
greenhouse gas emissions
, and this contribution is growing rapidly. Globally, natural gas use emitted about 7.8 billion tons of
CO
in 2020 (including flaring), while coal and oil use emitted 14.4 and 12 billion tons, respectively.
143
The IEA estimates the energy sector (oil, natural gas, coal and bioenergy) to be responsible for about 40% of human methane emissions.
144
According to the
IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
, natural gas consumption grew by 15% between 2015 and 2019, compared to a 5% increase in oil and oil product consumption.
145
The continued financing and construction of new gas
pipelines
indicates that huge emissions of fossil greenhouse gases could be locked-in for 40 to 50 years into the future.
146
In the U.S. state of
Texas
alone, five new long-distance gas pipelines have been under construction, with the first entering service in 2019,
147
and the others scheduled to come online during 2020–2022.
148
: 23
Installation bans
edit
To reduce its greenhouse emissions, the
Netherlands
is subsidizing a transition away from natural gas for all homes in the country by 2050. In
Amsterdam
, no new residential gas accounts have been allowed since 2018, and all homes in the city are expected to be converted by 2040 to use the excess heat from adjacent industrial buildings and operations.
149
Some cities in the United States have started prohibiting gas hookups for new houses, with state laws passed and under consideration to either require electrification or prohibit local requirements.
150
New gas appliance hookups are banned in
New York State
151
and the
Australian Capital Territory
152
Additionally, the state of
Victoria
in Australia has implemented a ban on new natural gas hookups starting from January 1, 2024, as part of its gas substitution roadmap.
153
This followed campaigning which resulted in a prohibition on onshore gas exploration and production in Victoria in 2014. This was partially lifted in 2021 but a constitutional ban remains on fracking.
154
The UK government is also experimenting with alternative home heating technologies to meet its climate goals.
155
To preserve their businesses, natural gas utilities in the United States have been lobbying for laws preventing local electrification ordinances, and are promoting
renewable natural gas
and
hydrogen fuel
156
Other pollutants
edit
Although natural gas produces far lower amounts of
sulfur dioxide
and
nitrogen oxides
(NOx) than other fossil fuels,
136
NO
from burning natural gas in homes can be a health hazard.
157
Radionuclides
edit
Natural gas extraction also produces radioactive isotopes of
polonium
(Po-210),
lead
(Pb-210) and
radon
(Rn-220). Radon is a gas with initial activity from 5 to 200,000
becquerels
per cubic meter of gas. It decays rapidly to Pb-210 which can build up as a thin film in gas extraction equipment.
158
Safety concerns
edit
A pipeline odorant injection station
Natural gas extraction presents specific occupational health and safety challenges for the workforce involved.
159
160
Production
edit
Some gas fields yield
sour gas
containing
hydrogen sulfide
), a
toxic
compound when inhaled.
Amine gas treating
, an industrial scale process which removes
acidic
gaseous
components, is often used to remove hydrogen sulfide from natural gas.
161
Extraction of natural gas (or oil) leads to decrease in pressure in the
reservoir
. Such decrease in pressure in turn may result in
subsidence
— sinking of the ground above. Subsidence may affect ecosystems, waterways, sewer and water supply systems, foundations, and so on.
162
Fracking
edit
Main article:
Environmental impact of hydraulic fracturing
Releasing natural gas from subsurface porous rock formations may be accomplished by a process called
hydraulic fracturing
or "fracking". Since the first commercial hydraulic fracturing operation in 1949, approximately one million wells have been hydraulically fractured in the United States.
163
The production of natural gas from hydraulically fractured wells has used the technological developments of directional and horizontal drilling, which improved access to natural gas in tight rock formations.
164
Strong growth in the production of unconventional gas from hydraulically fractured wells occurred between 2000 and 2012.
165
In hydraulic fracturing, well operators force water mixed with a variety of chemicals through the wellbore casing into the rock. The high pressure water breaks up or "fracks" the rock, which releases gas from the rock formation. Sand and other particles are added to the water as a
proppant
to keep the fractures in the rock open, thus enabling the gas to flow into the casing and then to the surface. Chemicals are added to the fluid to perform such functions as reducing friction and inhibiting corrosion. After the "frack", oil or gas is extracted and 30–70% of the frack fluid, i.e. the mixture of water, chemicals, sand, etc., flows back to the surface. Many gas-bearing formations also contain water, which will flow up the wellbore to the surface along with the gas, in both hydraulically fractured and non-hydraulically fractured wells. This
produced water
often has a high content of salt and other dissolved minerals that occur in the formation.
166
The volume of water used to hydraulically fracture wells varies according to the hydraulic fracturing technique. In the United States, the average volume of water used per hydraulic fracture has been reported as nearly 7,375 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells prior to 1953, nearly 197,000 gallons for vertical oil and gas wells between 2000 and 2010, and nearly 3 million gallons for horizontal gas wells between 2000 and 2010.
167
Determining which fracking technique is appropriate for well productivity depends largely on the properties of the reservoir rock from which to extract oil or gas. If the rock is characterized by low-permeability – which refers to its ability to let substances, i.e. gas, pass through it, then the rock may be considered a source of
tight gas
168
Fracking for shale gas, which is currently also known as a source of
unconventional gas
, involves drilling a borehole vertically until it reaches a lateral shale rock formation, at which point the drill turns to follow the rock for hundreds or thousands of feet horizontally.
169
In contrast, conventional oil and gas sources are characterized by higher rock permeability, which naturally enables the flow of oil or gas into the wellbore with less intensive hydraulic fracturing techniques than the production of tight gas has required.
170
171
The decades in development of drilling technology for conventional and
unconventional oil
and gas production have not only improved access to natural gas in low-permeability reservoir rocks, but also posed significant adverse impacts on environmental and public health.
172
173
174
175
The US EPA has acknowledged that toxic, carcinogenic chemicals, i.e. benzene and ethylbenzene, have been used as gelling agents in water and chemical mixtures for high volume horizontal fracturing (HVHF).
176
Following the hydraulic fracture in HVHF, the water, chemicals, and frack fluid that return to the well's surface, called flowback or produced water, may contain radioactive materials, heavy metals, natural salts, and hydrocarbons which exist naturally in shale rock formations.
177
Fracking chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals, and salts that are removed from the HVHF well by well operators are so difficult to remove from the water they are mixed with, and would so heavily
pollute
the
water cycle
, that most of the flowback is either recycled into other fracking operations or injected into deep underground wells, eliminating the water that HVHF required from the hydrologic cycle.
178
Historically low gas prices have delayed the
nuclear renaissance
, as well as the development of
solar thermal energy
179
Added odor
edit
In its native state, natural gas is colorless and almost
odorless
. In the US, the
New London School explosion
that occurred in 1937 in Texas caused a push for legislation requiring the addition of an odorant to assist consumers in detecting
leaks
. An
odorizer
with an unpleasant smell, such as
thiophane
or
tert-butylthiol
(t-butyl mercaptan) may be added. Situations have occurred in which an odorant cannot be properly detected by an observer with a normal sense of smell despite being detectable by analytical instruments. This is caused by odor masking, when one odor overpowers the sensation of another. As of 2011, the industry is conducting research on the causes of odor masking.
180
needs update
Risk of explosion
edit
Gas network emergency vehicle responding to a major fire in
Kyiv
Ukraine
Explosions caused by natural
gas leaks
occur a few times each year. Individual homes, small businesses and other structures are most frequently affected when an internal leak builds up gas inside the structure. Leaks often result from excavation work, such as when contractors dig and strike pipelines, sometimes without knowing any damage resulted. Frequently, the blast is powerful enough to significantly damage a building but leave it standing. In these cases, the people inside tend to have minor to moderate injuries. Occasionally, the gas can collect in high enough quantities to cause a deadly explosion, destroying one or more buildings in the process. Many building codes now forbid the installation of gas pipes inside cavity walls or below floor boards to mitigate against this risk. Gas usually dissipates readily outdoors, but can sometimes collect in dangerous quantities if
flow rates are high enough
181
However, considering the tens of millions of structures that use the fuel, the individual risk from using natural gas is low.
Risk of carbon monoxide inhalation
edit
Natural gas heating systems may cause
carbon monoxide poisoning
if unvented or poorly vented. Improvements in natural gas furnace designs have greatly reduced CO poisoning concerns.
Detectors
are also available that warn of carbon monoxide or explosive gases such as methane and propane.
182
Energy content, statistics, and pricing
edit
Main article:
Natural gas prices
See also:
Billion cubic metres of natural gas
This section needs to be
updated
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
October 2022
The U.S. and Russia have been the predominant producers of natural gas.
183
Quantities of natural gas are measured in
standard cubic meters
(cubic meter of gas at temperature 15 °C (59 °F) and pressure 101.325 kPa (14.6959 psi)) or
standard cubic feet
(cubic foot of gas at temperature 60.0 °F and pressure 14.73 psi (101.6 kPa)), 1 standard cubic meter = 35.301 standard cubic feet. The
gross heat of combustion
of commercial quality natural gas is around 39 MJ/m
(0.31 kWh/ft
), but this can vary by several percent. This is about 50 to 54 MJ/kg depending on the density.
184
185
For comparison, the
heat of combustion
of pure methane is 37.7 MJ per standard cubic metre, or 55.5 MJ/kg.
Except in the European Union, the U.S., and Canada, natural gas is sold in gigajoule retail units. LNG (liquefied natural gas) and LPG (
liquefied petroleum gas
) are traded in metric tonnes (1,000 kg) or million BTU as spot deliveries. Long term natural gas distribution contracts are signed in cubic meters, and LNG contracts are in metric tonnes. The LNG and LPG is transported by specialized
transport ships
, as the gas is liquified at
cryogenic
temperatures. The specification of each LNG/LPG cargo will usually contain the energy content, but this information is in general not available to the public. The European Union aimed to cut its
gas dependency on Russia
by two-thirds in 2022.
186
In August 2015, possibly the largest natural gas discovery in history was made and notified by an Italian gas company ENI. The energy company indicated that it has unearthed a
"supergiant" gas field
in the Mediterranean Sea covering about 40 square miles (100 km
). This was named the
Zohr
gas field and could hold a potential 30 trillion cubic feet (8.5
10
11
cubic meters) of natural gas. ENI said that the energy is about 5.5 billion barrels of oil equivalent [BOE] (3.4
10
10
GJ). The Zohr field was found in the deep waters off the northern coast of Egypt and ENI claims that it will be the largest ever in the Mediterranean and even the world.
187
With 15 countries accounting for 84% of the worldwide extraction, access to natural gas has become an important issue in international politics, and countries vie for control of pipelines.
188
In the first decade of the 21st century,
Gazprom
, the state-owned energy company in Russia, engaged in disputes with
Ukraine
and
Belarus
over the price of natural gas, which have created concerns that gas deliveries to parts of Europe could be cut off for political reasons.
189
The United States is preparing to export natural gas.
190
European Union
edit
Gas prices for end users vary greatly across the
EU
191
A single European energy market, one of the key objectives of the EU, should level the prices of gas in all EU member states. Moreover, it would help to resolve supply and
global warming
issues,
192
as well as strengthen relations with other Mediterranean countries and foster investments in the region.
193
During the
prelude to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
Qatar
was asked by the US to supply emergency gas to the EU in case of supply disruptions.
194
United States
edit
In
US units
, one standard cubic foot (28 L) of natural gas produces around 1,028
British thermal units
(1,085 kJ). The actual heating value when the water formed does not condense is the
net heat of combustion
and can be as much as 10% less.
195
In the United States, retail sales are often in units of
therms
(th); 1 therm = 100,000 BTU. Gas sales to domestic consumers are often in units of 100
standard cubic feet
(scf).
Gas meters
measure the volume of gas used, and this is converted to therms by multiplying the volume by the energy content of the gas used during that period, which varies slightly over time. The typical annual consumption of a single family residence is 1,000 therms or one
Residential Customer Equivalent
(RCE). Wholesale transactions are generally done in
decatherms
(Dth), thousand decatherms (MDth), or million decatherms (MMDth). A million decatherms is a trillion BTU, roughly a billion cubic feet of natural gas.
The price of natural gas varies greatly depending on location and type of consumer. The typical caloric value of natural gas is roughly 1,000 BTU per cubic foot, depending on gas composition. Natural gas in the United States is traded as a
futures contract
on the
New York Mercantile Exchange
. Each contract is for 10,000 million BTU or 10 billion BTU (10,551 GJ). Thus, if the price of gas is $10/million BTU on the NYMEX, the contract is worth $100,000.
Canada
edit
This section
does not
cite
any
sources
Please help
improve this section
by
adding citations to reliable sources
. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed
October 2022
Learn how and when to remove this message
Canada uses
metric
measure for internal trade of
petrochemical products
. Consequently, natural gas is sold by the gigajoule (GJ), cubic meter (m
) or thousand cubic meters (E3m3). Distribution infrastructure and meters almost always meter volume (cubic foot or cubic meter). Some jurisdictions, such as Saskatchewan, sell gas by volume only. Other jurisdictions, such as Alberta, sell gas by energy content (GJ). In these areas, almost all meters for residential and small commercial customers measure volume (m
or ft
), and billing statements include a multiplier to convert the volume to the energy content of the local gas supply.
gigajoule
(GJ) is a measure approximately equal to 80 litres (0.5 barrels) of oil, or 28 m
or 1,000 ft
or 1 million BTUs of gas. The energy content of gas supply in Canada can vary from 37 to 43 MJ/m
(990 to 1,150 BTU/cu ft) depending on gas supply and processing between the wellhead and the customer.
Adsorbed natural gas (ANG)
edit
Natural gas may be stored by adsorbing it to the porous solids called sorbents. The optimal condition for methane storage is at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Pressures up to 4 MPa (about 40 times atmospheric pressure) will yield greater storage capacity. The most common sorbent used for ANG is activated carbon (AC), primarily in three forms: Activated Carbon Fiber (ACF), Powdered Activated Carbon (PAC), and activated carbon monolith.
196
See also
edit
Energy portal
Renewable energy portal
Associated petroleum gas
Energy transition
Gas/oil ratio
Liquefied natural gas
Natural gas by country
Peak gas
Power-to-gas
Renewable natural gas
Strategic natural gas reserve
World energy supply and consumption
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26989604
"Data and Statistics Overview"
United States Department of Transport Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration
. Retrieved
22 July
2021
US Consumer Product Safety Commission,
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, September 2014.
"International / DATA / Natural Gas / Download options / Export CSV (table)"
. U.S. Energy Information Administration
. Retrieved
16 October
2024
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: deprecated archival service (
link
"Gas Density, Molecular Weight and Density"
(PDF)
teknopoli
Range calculated from
Robert Perry and Cecil Chilton, ed. (1973).
Chemical Engineers' Handbook
. pp.
9–
12.
"EU unveils plan to reduce Russia energy dependency"
DW.COM
. 8 February 2022
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2022
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"Natural gas discovery could be largest ever"
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"The Contours of the New Cold War"
. IMI
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Further reading
edit
Blanchard, Charles (2021).
The Extraction State: A History of Natural Gas in America
. Pittsburgh:
University of Pittsburgh Press
ISBN
978-0-8229-6676-0
online
Campos, Adriana Fiorotti, et al. "A review of Brazilian natural gas industry: Challenges and strategies."
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
75 (2017): 1207-1216.
Castaneda, Christopher James.
Regulated enterprise: natural gas pipelines and northeastern markets, 1938-1954
(Ohio State University Press, 1993).
Castaneda, Christopher J., et al.
Gas pipelines and the emergence of America's regulatory state: a history of Panhandle Eastern Corporation, 1928-1993
(Cambridge University Press, 2003).
Castaneda, Christopher J. "History of Natural Gas" in
Encyclopedia of Energy
(2004). 4: 207–218. doi:10.1016/B0-12-176480-X/00042-5
Castaneda, Christopher. "History beneath the surface: natural gas pipelines and the National Historic Preservation Act."
The Public Historian
26.1 (2004): 105-122.
Chengzao, Jia, Zhang Yongfeng, and Zhao Xia. "Prospects of and challenges to natural gas industry development in China."
Natural Gas Industry B
1.1 (2014): 1-13.
online
Emiliozzi, Simone, et al. "The European energy crisis and the consequences for the global natural gas market."
The Energy Journal
46.1 (2025): 119-145.
online
Jacobson, Mark Z. (2023). "What doesn't work".
No Miracles Needed: How Today's Technology Can Save Our Climate and Clean Our Air
. New York: Cambridge University Press.
ISBN
978-1-009-24954-6
, the chapter contains a concise history of Natural Gas
{{
cite book
}}
: CS1 maint: postscript (
link
Li, Luguang. "Development of natural gas industry in China: Review and prospect."
Natural Gas Industry B
9.2 (2022): 187-196.
online
Mathias, Melissa Cristina, and Alexandre Szklo. "Lessons learned from Brazilian natural gas industry reform."
Energy Policy
35.12 (2007): 6478-6490.
Penna, Anthony N.
A History of Energy Flows: from human labor to renewable power
(Routledge, 2019.
Pratt, Joseph A., Tyler Priest, and Christopher J. Castaneda.
Offshore pioneers: Brown & Root and the history of offshore oil and gas
(Elsevier, 1997)
online
Purwanto, Widodo Wahyu, et al. "Status and outlook of natural gas industry development in Indonesia."
Journal of Natural Gas Science and Engineering
29 (2016): 55-65.
online
Xiao, Renrong, et al. "Liquefied natural gas trade network changes and its mechanism in the context of the Russia–Ukraine conflict."
Journal of Transport Geography
123 (2025): 104101.
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