(PDF) 2010 Heart burial in medieval and

(PDF) 2010 Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval central Europe. In Body Parts and Bodies Whole, pp. 119-134. Edited by Katharina Rebay-Salisbury, Marie Louise Stig Sørensen and Jessica Hughes. Studies in Funerary Archaeology 5. Oxbow Books: Oxford
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2010 Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval central Europe. In Body Parts and Bodies Whole, pp. 119-134. Edited by Katharina Rebay-Salisbury, Marie Louise Stig Sørensen and Jessica Hughes. Studies in Funerary Archaeology 5. Oxbow Books: Oxford
Estella Weiss-Krejci
October 11, 2025
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Abstract
"Between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries AD extracting the inner organs from dead bodies and burying the heart in a separate place was a hallmark of aristocratic mortuary behavior of Western Europe (present-day Great Britain and France). In the German-speaking part of the Holy Roman Empire (parts of present-day Germany and Austria) only the prince-bishops of Würzburg practiced a similar custom. In other parts of the Empire body processing and separate burial of the inner organs remained predominantly functional until the end of the middle Ages.
A tradition of evisceration for non-practical reasons as well as burial of the heart only developed during the Catholic Reformation, a religious movement, which lasted from the last session of the Council of Trent until the end of the Thirty Years’ War. The spur of renovation and new foundation that accompanied this movement had a direct impact on the distribution of body parts. As of the 1580s heart and intestines of secular and religious leaders were buried in newly founded ceremonial buildings. Between 1610 and 1630 heart burial without intestines became very common and was almost exclusively associated with Jesuit churches. As of the 1630s hearts were buried at a variety of places and involved many different religious orders. From the middle of the seventeenth century on hearts turned into votive offerings at Marian shrines for several prominent families such as the Houses of Habsburg and Wittelsbach."
Key takeaways
AI
Heart burial emerged as a significant mortuary practice during the Catholic Reformation (16th-17th centuries).
Evisceration and separate burial of inner organs were common among aristocrats, particularly in England and France.
The Würzburg prince-bishops uniquely practiced tripartite burial in the Holy Roman Empire by the 15th century.
Between 1580-1608, heart burial increasingly became symbolic, reflecting personal and familial devotion.
A total of 339 processed corpses were analyzed, indicating evolving mortuary customs across centuries.
Figures (8)
Fig. 12.1: Gravestone for the interior organs of Johann Heinrich Stattfeld, Abbot of St Lambert (d. 1639), Piber, Austria (© Estella Weiss-Krejci)
Fig. 12.2: Floor tile covering the heart and intestines of Jodo V of Portugal (d. 1750), Chapel of the Meninos de Palhava, Sao Vicente de Fora, Lisbon, Portugal (© Estella Weiss-Krejci)
Fig. 12.3: Register with 339 individuals whose corpses have been treated throughout the course of one millennium.
Fig. 12.4: Relationship between body processing, transportation of corpse and heart, heart burial and tripartition of the corpse in the Holy Roman Empire from the 10th to the 17th centuries 12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe
Fig. 12.5: Heart sepulchre of the prince-bishops of Wiirzburg at Ebrach monastery, Franconia, Germany. Engraving from Abbot Wilhelm Sélner’s Brevia Notitia’ of 1738 (Wirth 1928: Plate 24)
Fig. 12.6: Heart sepulchre of the prince-bishops of Wiirzburg at Ebrach monastery, Franconia Germany (© Estella Weiss-Krejci)
Fig. 12.7: Maria Anna’ visceral urn or heart urn (d. 1616). Engraved inscription on the lid: *Me/E*A*A* DEN 8 MARTI ANNO DOMINI 1616. Silver goblet with lid, total height 26 cm, manufactured in Augsburg 1560-1570. Current location: Mausoleum of Ferdinand IL, Graz, Austria (© Estella Weiss-Krejci)
Fig. 12.8: Loreto vault at the Augustinian church in Vienna holding the hearts of ten members of the House of Habsburg who died between 1654 and 1740; drawn and engraved by Salomon Kleiner afier 1740 (Gerbert et al. 1772: Plate CX)
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12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central
Europe

Estella Weiss-Krejci

Introduction developed out of a necessity to delay putrefaction and preserve
Born out of the idea of resurrection of the dead with their corpses for transport over long distances and extended time
own bodies, until the 19th century the ideal burial mode in periods. Simple forms of embalming, which involved applying
Christianised Europe was the deposition of the whole, ﬂeshed ointments to the body, were probably already used in the
body. Yet there were also alternative ways of thinking about and 7th century in the treatment of the corpses of Merovingian
treating the human corpse: already Augustine had criticised the kings (Bradford 1933: 21–22). More eﬃcient procedures,
doctrine of the resurrection of the ﬂesh (Frederiksen 1991) and such as the disembowelment (evisceration or exenteration)
practical interactions with the dead also stood in contrast to of corpses began to be practised in the Frankish empire in
popular sensibilities regarding the integrity of the corpse. For the 8th and 9th centuries (Schäfer 1920: 493; Arens 1958:
instance, it was quite common practice to remove bones from 43); although it only became standard practice in the Holy
the graveyards and redeposit them in charnel houses (Legner Roman Empire between the late 10th and 11th centuries,
1989: 33–42), while embalming and the extraction of the during the reign of the emperors from the Ottonian and
inner organs were also common forms of mortuary behaviour Salian dynasties (Schäfer 1920; Erlande-Brandenburg 1975;
among the upper strata of society (Brown 1981; Owens 2005: Weiss-Krejci 2005; Westerhof 2005: 37, 2008). In the 12th
204). Body processing and the division of the corpse allowed century, deﬂeshing by boiling (excarnation, also known as
for separate burial of body parts. Since individuals of political mos teutonicus) became quite common since at this time high-
importance were often subject to this practice, the political ranking warriors often died in Southern Europe and in the
quality of the body (Kantorowicz 1957; Sheper-Hughes and Holy Land. Burial in heathen and foreign territories was not
Lock 1987; Verdery 1999) became more important than the desirable and medieval aristocrats usually had burial places
individual. The physically fragmented body could serve as a assigned before death. Their dead bodies could be brought
metaphor for political and social conditions. In their ability back from the Mediterranean to Central Europe only in a
to represent diﬀerent but connected aspects, the parts of the deﬂeshed state (Schäfer 1920; Weiss-Krejci 2001: 771; 2005:
corpse together – often buried in diﬀerent territories or in 164; 2008). Despite being prohibited by the Pope in 1299
diﬀerent religious houses – conﬁrmed the integrated quality and again in 1300, both evisceration and excarnation endured
of all its elements. Each part had the potential to represent (Brown 1981), although deﬂeshing fell out of fashion in the
the dead in a special way. In this chapter I will focus on heart ﬁrst half of the 15th century. In the Middle Ages it was the
burials as a particular version of this manner of dividing the priests or monks tending the dying who often processed their
dead body into diﬀerent parts. I will discuss the development corpses, and by the 15th century doctors regularly conducted
in Central Europe but also make a few comparisons with the procedures (Dodson 1994: 73; Senfelder 1898: 26–28;
medieval England, as this area recently has been the subject Wendehorst 1978: 48).
of new work (Westerhof 2005, 2008). Originally, when bodies were processed the inner organs
Processing the corpse after death is of considerable antiquity were buried at the place of death or wherever the corpse
and was practised in many parts of the world (see Aufderheide had been treated (Weiss-Krejci 2001: 771). It is therefore
2003). In medieval Europe, the practice may have originally interesting that in the Middle Ages clear exceptions to this

120 Estella Weiss-Krejci

general trend developed. The extraction of the inner organs and same location as the intestines. This practice was particularly
the separate burial of the heart and intestines was a hallmark common in the 16th and 17th centuries: for instance, two
of English and French aristocratic mortuary behaviour from peculiar 16th century church epitaphs, one from Vaihingen
the 12th century onwards. It is worth noting that the English (Petrus Trutwin, d. 1521), and the other from St Stephen’s
often quickly discarded the viscera close to the site of corpse Mainz (Count Gottfried of Dietz, d. 1522) contain small
treatment, whereas the French treated them with great respect. square niches covered by little doors. The niches may have
The English aristocracy generally favoured a double interment been the deposition places for the hearts of the deceased whose
(one for the body, the other for the heart), while French corpses were buried in the church crypts (Arens 1958: 541;
aristocracy often requested that their corpses be buried in three Seeliger-Zeiss and Schäfer 1986: 147). The heart of Empress
separate places (body, heart and entrails) (Westerhof 2008: 81). Maria Leopoldine – who died in 1649 in Vienna – was buried
With a few exceptions in the German-speaking area of the in her coﬃn at the city’s Capuchin Vault: the inscription on
Holy Roman Empire, in the Middle Ages the separate burial the urn lid tells us that the silver vessel contains her heart
of the heart was traditional only amongst the prince-bishops (Hawlik-van de Water 1993: 98, Timmermann 1996: 4).
of Würzburg. In this case, the body was divided into three I also include only those instances where the heart burial
parts: the corpse was usually sent to Würzburg cathedral, the seems to serve a symbolic rather than a functional purpose.
intestines to the castle church of Marienberg (Würzburg), Thus I would exclude the example of Emperor Frederick III,
and the heart to the monastery of Ebrach. At Würzburg this who died in 1493 in Linz. Frederick was eviscerated so that
separation fulﬁlled a symbolic purpose; whereas elsewhere in his corpse could be transported to Vienna: we know this
German-speaking Europe body processing and the separate because on the day after his death, Frederick’s son Maximilian
deposition of inner organs remained predominantly functional received reports that the corpse had been eviscerated “for
until the end of the Middle Ages. To remove the inner organs sake of perceptible exigence” (umb merklich notturﬀt willen)
for non-practical reasons and bury them in separate places ﬁrst (Lipburger 1997: 131). Another source states that the
became a frequent procedure during the late 16th century, with Emperor’s viscera were buried in the Parish Church of Linz
heart burial appearing during the 17th century. (visceribus in templo Lincio, Meyer 2000: 178). The marble
grave slab in the church mentions not only intestines but also
the heart (Intestina cubant Friderici hac Caesaris urna/Et cor).
Since the only reason to eviscerate was apparently ‘exigence’,
What is a heart burial? and since the heart was buried with the intestines in the city
In post-medieval times, body processing usually involved where the emperor had died, I hesitate to consider this a ‘true’
cutting open the thorax and the skull, but more evidence heart burial.
is needed to make the case for the Middle Ages (e.g. Mafart It is important to note in relation to my deﬁnition that it
et al. 2004). The most common Latin terms by which the is not always possible to establish whether the heart is buried
chroniclers at the time refer to body processing are condire (= with the other inner organs. Artists sometimes only depicted
to embalm), exenterare (= to exenterate), solvere visceribus (= hearts on epitaphs even when all the inner organs were
to free up the entrails), coquere carnem (= to boil the ﬂesh) buried together. We can take the example of Johann Heinrich
and extrahere ossa (= to extract the bones). The internal organs Stattfeld, Abbot of St Lambrecht (Austria) who died in Piber,
are usually called exta, viscera, intestina, praecordia or vitalia. Styria in 1639. The abbot’s inner organs were buried at Piber.
Some texts speciﬁcally refer to viscera and ﬂesh (carnes et The gravestone in Figure 12.1 only depicts a heart; however,
viscera, Knipping 1901: 160), viscera and brains (cum cerebro et the Latin inscription on the monument refers to the inner
visceribus, Schäfer 1920: 479), and inner organs and the heart organs generally (partes interiores). The abbot’s evisceration
(viscera corque and cor et vitalia, Giesey 1920: 20; Seeliger- was a necessity as the corpse had to be transported across
Zeiss 1981: 84). Hence, it is not always possible to state the mountains to St Lambrecht abbey. According to a folk
with certainty how corpses were treated (e.g. George 2006), tale a second carriage, ﬁlled with dry brushwood that could
precisely which inner organs were removed and whether the be ignited at any time, was brought along as a precautionary
removal of the inner organs (viscera, exta, vitalia) automatically measure against attacking wolves (Lasnik 1982: 269–270).
implied the removal of the heart (cor). Contemporary historic Historians and writers also eﬀace the real range of diﬀerent
sources, inscriptions on grave slabs and visual representations types of visceral depositions through their focus on the heart
on epitaphs often contain divergent information and care is (e.g. Dietz 1998). For instance, The Handbook of Ecclesiastical
needed when researching these types of burials. Art and Archaeology of the Middle Ages (Otte 1883: 351)
In my deﬁnition of a heart burial, the heart must be states that the heart of St Boniface (who was murdered by
deposited without other inner organs and in a different the Frisians in AD 754) was buried at Mainz; whereas a 14th
physical location to the corpse. I therefore exclude those century copy of an even older tombstone in the church of St
instances in which hearts were placed in separate containers John in Mainz states that [all] the inner organs (exta) were
but nevertheless buried close to the corpse or buried in the buried there (Arens 1958: 44).

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 121

Fig. 12.1: Gravestone for the interior organs of Johann Heinrich Stattfeld, Fig. 12.2: Floor tile covering the heart and intestines of João V of Portugal
Abbot of St Lambert (d. 1639), Piber, Austria (© Estella Weiss-Krejci) (d. 1750), Chapel of the Meninos de Palhavã, São Vicente de Fora, Lisbon,
Portugal (© Estella Weiss-Krejci)

This diﬃculty aside, my emphasis on the separation of A database of processed corpses
the heart from the rest of the viscera reveals some interesting In order to better demonstrate the history of separation of the
trends in heart burial practices. The distinction between the corpse and heart burial in Central Europe, I have compiled
heart and the intestines became important to certain groups of a list of individuals whose corpse was eviscerated, deﬂeshed
people at certain points in time, for example to the medieval or otherwise processed in a similar manner. The majority of
Würzburg prince-bishops, and the Habsburgs of the 17th and these are natives of the German-speaking part of the Holy
18th centuries. Even when there was no functional necessity to Roman Empire and its successor states after the dissolution in
preserve a corpse for transport or storage, some groups started 1806. The sample includes emperors, kings, queens and their
to divide the body into diﬀerent parts and bury the dead children, princes, dukes, counts, lower nobles, archbishops,
in three separate churches, sometimes shipping hearts over bishops, abbots, priests and a few commoners. A minor
hundreds of kilometres. This burial rite is notably diﬀerent fraction is made up of foreigners who died in the old Empire
from the tradition of burying heart and intestines together, and who were treated within its borders. It also includes
as was practised, for example, by the post-medieval popes of natives of the Holy Roman Empire who died abroad such
Rome (church SS Vicenzo e Anastasio, Rome), and in the post- as Crusaders and a few royal women who had married into
medieval Portuguese House of Bragança (S Vicente de Fora, foreign dynasties but whose bodies or hearts were brought
Lisbon, Fig. 12.2). I think that the absence of the development back to their homeland for burial.
of post-medieval separation of the heart from the intestines in The register in Figure 12.3 contains 339 individuals whose
these speciﬁc cases is connected to the lack of a widespread corpses have been treated in the relevant manner. The earliest
Reformation and Counter-Reformation movement or to the eviscerated individual in the sample is Holy Roman Emperor
lack of territorial fragmentation. Otto I (973); the latest is the Austrian Empress Zita who died
in 1989. In the following I will predominantly concentrate

122 Estella Weiss-Krejci

Type of body treatment Gender Age Total
Time period mos > 12 ≤ 12 treated
eviscerated teutonicus other male female years years
973−1000 2 - 1 3 - 3 - 3
1001−1100 6 - 1 6 1 7 - 7
1101−1200 6 14 2 22 - 22 - 22
1201−1300 4 6 2 11 1 12 - 12
1301−1400 8 2 1 11 - 11 - 11
1401−1500 12 - - 11 1 12 - 12
1501−1600 27 - - 25 2 27 - 27
1601−1700 88 - - 66 22 80 8 88
1701−1800 88 - - 61 27 78 10 88
1801−1900 62 - - 35 27 57 5 62
1901−1989 7 - - 4 3 7 - 7
Total 310 22 7 255 84 316 23 339
Fig. 12.3: Register with 339 individuals whose corpses have been treated throughout the course of one millennium.

on developments from the end of the ﬁrst millennium to the 973 and 1100 were transported from their place of death to
end of the 17th century. their place of burial. With the exception of Henry III, hearts
are never mentioned. That heart burial had not yet become a
popular practice in the 11th century also holds true beyond
the borders of the Holy Roman Empire. Though the inner
The beginning of separate burial of inner organs in organs and the heart of the Norman duke Robert Guiscard
Europe (973–1400) (d. 1085) were extracted and buried separately from the
The ﬁrst chronicler to mention the separate burial of inner corpse in Sicily (Giesey 1960: 20), the motivation for this
organs is Thietmar, bishop of Merseburg (975–1018). procedure seems rather functional. According to the Gesta
According to Thietmar, the viscera of Emperor Otto I (d. Roberti Wiscardi V, Guiscard had died in Greece. As his body
973 at Memleben) as well as those of Walthard, Archbishop was being brought back to Italy, a storm hit the ship, washing
of Magdeburg (d. 1012 at Giebichenstein) were buried at the the corpse overboard. After it had been recovered, it rapidly
places of death (Thietmar of Merseburg: II, 43 and VI, 73); started to decay. Robert’s wife therefore decided to remove the
the intestines of Emperor Otto III (d. 1002 near Viterbo) heart and entrails (viscera corque) and bury them at Otranto
were brought all the way from Italy to Augsburg in two while the rest of the body was carried to the family burial site
containers while the corpse was transported further to Aachen at Venosa (William of Apulia: V).
(Thietmar of Merseburg: IV, 51); the viscera of Thietmar’s It was in 12th century France and England that the heart
cousin, margrave Werner of Walbeck (d.1014 at Allerstedt) began to receive separate burial, not only from the corpse but
were buried at Helfta near Eisleben (Thietmar of Merseburg: also from the intestines (Bradford 1933; Brown 1981: 228;
VII,7). In all four instances the inner organs were buried earlier, Gilchrist and Sloane 2005: 160; Westerhof 2005, 2008).
and in diﬀerent locations to the corpse. In no instance does Hearts were either buried at the place of death, where the
Thietmar make any mention of the hearts. body was usually treated, or they were brought to separate,
Explicit evidence for the deposition of viscera together sometimes distant burial locations. The heart of Robert of
with the heart exists for the second part of the 11th century. Arbrissel (d. 1117) was interred at Orsan, the place of his
Emperor Henry III (d.1056) wished his entrails and heart to death (Brown 1981: 228); the heart of Pope Calixtus II (d.
be buried at his foundation in Goslar (St Simeon and Judas), 1124) was brought to the abbey of Cîteaux (Gajewski 2005:
where his daughter Mathilda rested (cor suum cum precordiis 57). The heart of St Lawrence O’Toole, archbishop of Dublin,
apud ﬁliam suam, Schäfer 1920: 481). However, Henry’s is not who died and was buried in Normandy in 1180, was buried
a true heart burial: although the Emperor’s heart and entrails at Christ Church Cathedral in Dublin, reputedly ﬁfty years
were transported to Goslar, the heart was not singled out for after his death and ﬁve years after his canonisation (Kinsella
separate burial but was buried together with the intestines. All 2003: 21). Richard ‘the Lion-Heart’ (d. 1199 at Chalus)
of the ten people in my sample who were processed between requested that his body be buried at Fontevrault and his heart

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 123

Total of persons Corpse transported / Heart ‘True’ heart burials / Tripartite burial of
Time period treated = 100% % transported /% % corpse /%
973−1000 3 3/100% - /0% - /0% - /0%
1001−1100 7 7/100% - /0% - /0% - /0%
1101−1200 22 18/82% 2/9% 2/9% 1/5%
1201−1300 12 9/75% 1/8% 2/17% - /0%
1301−1400 11 6/55% 1/9% 2/18% - /0%
1401−1500 12 9/75% 2/17% 4/33% 2/17%
1501−1600 27 16/59% 7/26% 9/33% 5/19%
1601−1700 88 26/30% 29/33% 47/53% 16/18%
Fig. 12.4: Relationship between body processing, transportation of corpse and heart, heart burial and tripartition of the corpse in the Holy Roman
Empire from the 10th to the 17th centuries

at Rouen. Meanwhile, he willed his brain, blood and viscera to Holy Roman Empire who developed a tradition of eviscerating
the treacherous town of Charroux (Brown 1981: 228; Giesey without necessity for long-distance corpse transport. I will
1960: 20; Schäfer 1920: 496). After being banned by the Pope discuss them at a later point.
in 1299 and 1300, the number of heart burials in England In the 15th century 12 corpses were processed. Nine were
declined. In France, however, the diﬃculty in gaining papal transported after death (Fig. 12.4), two records are unclear
permission made division of the corpse an even more desirable and one corpse was not transported over a long distance
practice (Brown 1981: 253; Westerhof 2008: 90). (this corpse belongs to a prince-bishop of Würzburg). The
number of processed corpses rises in the 16th century, while
the necessity for transport slightly drops. Of 27 bodies treated
in the 16th century, 16 were transported (Fig. 12.4), eight
Body processing and heart burial in the Holy Roman were not transported, while for three transport could not be
Empire from the 12th to the late 16th century determined with certainty. Five of the 27 corpses belong to
During the Middle Ages the division of the corpse was much prince-bishops of Würzburg. They were not transported over
rarer in the Holy Roman Empire than in England and France. a long distance and all ﬁve received a tripartite burial (see
According to a study by Westerhof (2008: Appendix 1) in below).
England, Scotland and in the French territories, which were
in possession of the English kings (Angevin territories), at least
88 individuals were treated between the 12th and the 14th
centuries. During the same time span only 45 individuals were Heart burials
processed in the Holy Roman Empire (Fig. 12.3). Whether The Würzburg prince-bishops aside, only a few heart burials
these numbers are due to the scarcity of surviving records or date from the period before the 17th century. These do not
reﬂect real conditions is diﬃcult to assess. Figure 12.3 shows follow a uniform pattern and were either inspired by foreign
that, at least in the 12th and 13th centuries, excarnation by inﬂuence or by the Würzburg tradition. One heart burial
boiling (mos teutonicus) was the preferred ‘German’ body dates to the 13th century (Hademar of Kuenring), one to
treatment (only 10 individuals were eviscerated whereas the 14th century (Wikbold of Holte), three date to the 15th
20 were excarnated). This practice was especially common century (James of Sierck, Nicholas of Cusa, John IV of Nassau-
amongst warriors and Crusaders (see Weiss-Krejci 2008: 178). Dillenburg) and four to the 16th (Konrad of Rietberg, Philip
Additionally, a number of other types of corpse treatments the Handsome, Margaret of Habsburg, Wilhelm Werner of
(dismemberment without boiling, roasting, unspeciﬁed) were Zimmern). Apart from the earliest possible heart burials of
also tried out (Weiss-Krejci 2005: 163). Of the 45 treated two Würzburg prince-bishops, heart burials did not occur
corpses from the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, 33 were in the 12th century. Albero, Archbishop of Trier, died in
immediately transported from their place of death to their Koblenz and was buried at Trier in 1152 eleven days after his
place of burial (Fig. 12.4). Two corpses were transported at a death (Fuchs 2006: 292). His inner organs were transported
later point in time; in two cases transport cannot be conﬁrmed. to his foundation, the Cistercian monastery Himmerod. A
The remaining eight corpses were not transported. Of these, tombstone which was still present in the 17th century makes
seven belong to prince-bishops of Würzburg. The prince- reference to his heart and intestines (Hic recondita sunt cor et
bishops of Würzburg are the only people in the medieval exta) (Schäfer 1920: 486). As was the case in the 11th century

124 Estella Weiss-Krejci

with Emperor Henry III, Albero’s corpse had to be eviscerated while his heart was transported all the way back to Germany
in order to be transported; moreover, the heart had not been and deposited before the altar in the hospital church of Cues,
separated from the intestines. which was his own foundation (Baum 1983: 421).
Count John IV of Nassau-Dillenburg died at Dillenburg
in 1475. Since the count had inherited property in the
13th century Netherlands and served in the army of the Burgundian dukes
The crusader Hademar of Kuenring (d. 1217) made a wish Philip the Good (d. 1467) and Charles the Bold (d. 1477) his
that if it were not possible to bring back his whole corpse to corpse was brought to Breda in the Netherlands. His heart
his foundation, the Cistercian monastery of Zwettl, his heart was buried at Dillenburg where he had died. The inspiration
should be brought together with his right hand (cor meum et for burial of the heart may have come from the Dukes of
dexteram manum). According to Ebro, the Abbot of Zwettl Burgundy who – as members of the French House of Valois
(1273–1304), after Hademar had died on his way back from – also practised this tradition. Although it is probable that the
the Holy Land in 1217 his servants divided his body and intestines were buried with the heart, the grave slab in the city
brought back his heart, his right hand and his excarnated bones church of Dillenburg does not make reference to the viscera.
(manum eius dexteram cum corde …, corpusque eius excoquentes The inscription reads: ‘Here lies buried his heart …’ (hie ligt
ossa, Frast 1851: 98–99). … sin herz begraben).

14th century 16th century
When Wikbold of Holte, archbishop of Cologne, died in Soest Konrad of Rietberg, bishop of Osnabrück and Münster, died
in 1304, his body was buried in the same city, his corpse at at Rietberg Castle in Bevergern on February 9, 1508. It was
St Patrocli and his heart with the Franciscans (Kohl 1982: his wish that his corpse be buried at Münster cathedral (where
425). In his lifetime, Wikbold, at that time Dean of Cologne the funeral took place on 20 February 1508) and that his heart
cathedral and provost at St Mary at Aachen, had helped the was buried at Osnabrück (Kohl 2003: 527; Wehking 1988:
English king Edward I to form an alliance with the German 82–83). Konrad’s partition of the corpse reﬂects his wish to
king Adolf of Nassau. In return for this service, Wikbold be present at both of his bishop’s sees after his death.
received beneﬁces at Dublin cathedral, and in 1294 King Among members of the Habsburg family who resided
Edward made him his secretary (familiaris et secretaries) and in German-speaking Europe, evisceration still remained
paid 20,000 pounds sterling for his services (Kohl 1982: 424). predominantly functional and associated with transport of the
Wikbold’s ‘English style’ separation of the heart may have been corpse. Meanwhile, the hearts of the Habsburgs of Western
inspired by his relation with the English king. The hearts of Europe received special attention. The hearts of Philip the
King Edward’s mother Eleanor of Provence (d. 1291) and his Handsome (d. 1506 in Burgos) and his sister Margaret (d.
brother (d. 1296) were buried with the London Franciscans; 1530 in Mechelen) were both transported to Bruge in Flanders.
the heart of his ﬁrst wife Eleanor of Castile (d. 1290) and son However, as children of Mary of Burgundy and grandchildren
Alphonso (d. 1284) were buried with the London Dominicans of the Duke of Burgundy, Charles the Bold, this is probably
(Bradford 1933: 90; Westerhof 2005: 42). better understood in the context of the Burgundian burial
rites.
Wilhelm Werner, Count of Zimmern, died in 1575.
15th century After his death his corpse was buried at the family crypt at
James of Sierck, Archbishop of Trier, who died in Pfalzel Messkirch and his heart was inserted into a leaden capsule
in 1456 is – with the exception of the prince-bishops of and buried under the stair in front of the altar of the chapel
Würzburg – the only individual from medieval Central Europe at Herrenzimmern castle (Rottweil district). In 1645, while
who wished to be buried at three separate places. According the Thirty Years’ War was still raging, the heart capsule was
to his testament he wanted his corpse to be buried at Trier transferred to the Capuchin monastery of Rottweil. After the
cathedral, his intestines at the Benedictine monastery of dissolution of the monastery, the heart was incorporated into
Mettlach, where his father was buried, and his heart at Metz the Fürstenberg collections at Donaueschingen (Seeliger-Zeiss
cathedral (Fuchs 2006: 513; Heyen 1972: 121; Schmid 2000: 1986: 221–223). Zimmern was a scholar and author of several
191). Sierck had travelled widely and maintained contacts chronicles, including the chronicle of the prince-bishops of
throughout Europe; his idea for burial may have been inspired Würzburg. His idea to separately bury his heart at his castle
either by the Würzburg tradition or by French and English was probably inspired by his research and the Würzburg
acquaintances. Sierck was acquainted with Nicholas of Cusa, tradition of heart burial.
Bishop of Brixen (Pauly 1980: 433). Cusanus, who like Sierck
had tried to impose many reforms during his lifetime, died in
Todi, Italy in 1464. His body was brought to Rome for burial,

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 125

The separation of the corpse among the prince-bishops was actually buried with the shield and helmet of his family,
of Würzburg because the line of Scherenberg had died out with him
It is unclear at what point tripartite burial was ﬁrst practised (Wendehorst 1978: 49). After the deceased prince-bishop had
among the prince-bishops of Würzburg; neither is it clear been laid to rest in the cathedral, his heart was brought to
why this rite became customary. The medieval burial rites of Ebrach abbey. This ﬁnal transfer was performed by the servant
the prince-bishops of Würzburg are known through several who had been in charge of holding the bishop’s head during
sources: the earliest source is a cartulary that dates to the the funeral: the heart was delivered on a carriage drawn by
reign of Prince-Bishop Rudolf of Scherenberg (1466–1495) four horses (miniature in Fries: 131v; Merzbacher 1952: 505;
(Merzbacher 1952: 501–505). A late 16th century copy of Brückner 1966: 33).
the Würzburg chronicle by Lorenz Fries (1489–1550), and a
detailed description of the funeral of Prince-Bishop Melchior
Zobel of Giebelstadt, who was murdered in 1558 (Brückner The origins of tripartition of the corpse among the
1966: 31–33), leave no doubt that separate heart burial and prince-bishops of Würzburg
burial of the corpse in three places was a regular custom among
the prince-bishops of Würzburg at least by the 15th and 16th Burial of the heart at Ebrach abbey
centuries. Fries argues that the funeral pomp associated with Ebrach is the oldest Cistercian foundation in Franconia and the
the burial of the prince-bishops of Würzburg and tripartition ﬁrst on the east side of the Rhine River. It was settled in 1127
of the corpse originated in the 12th century during the rule by monk Adam from the abbey of Morimund in Burgundy
of Prince-Bishop Embricho (1127–1146) (Rausch 1992: 361). and consecrated by Prince-Bishop Embricho of Würzburg in
His book contains a brief description and two miniatures 1134. Although some sources claim that Embricho (d. 1146)
that relate to the burial of the prince-bishops (Fries: 131v, was embalmed and transported to Würzburg after he had
151r). The 15th century cartulary and the funeral report of died in Aquileia on his way back from Constantinople (corpus
Melchior Zobel of Giebelstadt describe what happened at the eius aromatibus conditum, Wendehorst 1962: 150), the fate
death of a Würzburg prince-bishop in much greater detail. In of his inner organs is not known. According to the bishop’s
short, the prince-bishops of Würzburg resided at Marienberg chronicle compiled in 1550 by Count Wilhelm Werner of
castle, which is located outside the Würzburg centre on the Zimmern, the tradition of heart burial at Ebrach started with
left bank of the Main river; it is also the place where they the death of Embricho’s successor, Prince-Bishop Siegfrid of
usually died. After evisceration of a corpse at Marienberg Truhendingen (d. 1150) (Kloos 1980: 6; Wendehorst 1962:
castle, the intestines were mixed with lime and inserted into a 154–155; Zimmern 1952). Siegfrid’s heart burial at Ebrach is
container. This container was then buried at the castle church also mentioned on a commemorative plaque at Ebrach, which
(Brückner 1966: 31; Fries: 131v; Merzbacher 1952: 501). dates to the end of the 15th century. A similar plaque, dating
Since it was a characteristic of the Würzburg burial ritual to from the same period, states that the heart of Prince-Bishop
display the corpse in a seated position, it had to be embalmed Reginhard of Abenberg (1171–1186) was buried at Ebrach,
and impaled with a rod. The heart was also embalmed and while his intestines were buried at Marienberg castle and his
inserted into a glass jar. It was present throughout the funeral corpse at Würzburg cathedral (Kloos 1980: 39). However,
ceremony (Merzbacher 1952: 502). In order to avoid the head John Nibling’s chronicle (c. 1524) claims that the earliest
of the seated corpse from slumping down, an old servant had heart burial at Ebrach was that of Berthold II of Sternberg,
to hold it upright throughout the funeral (Brückner 1966: who consecrated the abbey church in 1286 and died in 1287
32). This servant was carried around with the corpse on the (Kloos 1980: 6; Wendehorst 1969: 26–28). Berthold’s heart
bier (miniature in Fries: 151r). The embalmed corpse was sepulchre is located behind the main altar at Ebrach. Its main
transported ﬁrst from Marienberg castle to the monastery of feature consists of two larger than life-sized ﬁgures of bishops,
the Scots where it remained for one night. This monastery, each holding a heart and a crozier and armed with a sword
located on the left bank of the Main river between Marienberg (Fig. 12.5 and 6). The inscription was probably painted in
castle and the centre of Würzburg had been founded during the 17th century, and is almost a word for word copy of a
Embricho’s reign (Wendehorst 1962: 146). On the next day medieval version: it states that Berthold’s heart was buried at
the corpse was carried over the bridge – the stone bridge was this place (cor iacet hac/fossa). We can therefore assume that
also built under Embricho (Wendehorst 1962: 148) – to the one of the ﬁgures on the monument represents Berthold.
right side of the Main to the Würzburg cathedral and placed We get no clues as to the identity of the other sculpted
on top of the baptismal font. One day later, after a third bishop; however, another (now lost) inscription from Ebrach
ceremony at the monastery of Neumünster, the corpse was suggests that it represents Berthold’s successor, Manegold of
buried at the cathedral. During the ﬁnal deposition the oﬃce Neuenburg (d. 1303) (Kloos 1980: 7–10; Wendehorst 1969:
bearers of the town (usually the judges) cast their wands into 35). The date of this monument is highly controversial. The
the grave (Merzbacher 1952: 504). Rudolf II of Scherenberg statues were probably removed from medieval tombs in the

126 Estella Weiss-Krejci

Fig. 12.5: Heart sepulchre of the prince-bishops of Würzburg at Ebrach
monastery, Franconia, Germany. Engraving from Abbot Wilhelm Sölner’s Fig. 12.6: Heart sepulchre of the prince-bishops of Würzburg at Ebrach
‘Brevia Notitia’ of 1738 (Wirth 1928: Plate 24) monastery, Franconia Germany (© Estella Weiss-Krejci)

17th century. Wiemer (1992: 34) dates the statues to c. 1300, who had died earlier. These are Albert II of Hohenlohe, d.
while Wendehorst (1969: 28) prefers a date of the early 14th 1372; Gerhard of Schwarzburg, d. 1400 and Rudolf II of
century. According to Mayer they constitute 17th century Scherenberg, d. 1495. Their visceral slabs are not contemporary
copies of medieval ﬁgures (Kloos 1980: 7). to their deaths, but probably date to the reign of Julius Echter
Between the two ﬁgures there is a vertical row of six niches (d. 1617) (Borchardt et al. 1988: 55, 75, 163). The corpses
(Fig. 12.5 and 6). The top two hold the hearts of Melchior of these three prince-bishops were buried in the Würzburg
Zobel of Giebelstadt (d. 1558) and Friedrich of Wirsberg (d. cathedral. Although their hearts were most likely buried at
1573) while the lower four niches are empty. A now-missing Ebrach, evidence for them has disappeared.
copper plaque, probably made in the late 16th or early 17th
century, explained that the missing heart urns were removed
by the monks and buried in a secure place in order to protect Tripartite burial
them from desecration (Fig. 12.5). Their present whereabouts It is possible that tripartite burial was not yet a regular
are unknown. practice among the prince bishops of Würzburg in the 12th
and 13th centuries and that in those early days the heart did
not play such an important role. Prince-Bishop Gottfried of
Burial of the intestines at Marienberg castle Spitzenberg, who died in 1190 during the third Crusade in
Unfortunately, no record for the intestines of any of these Antioch, did not ask for the return of his heart to Würzburg,
early prince-bishops exists. At the castle church of Marienberg, but rather his hand. Unfortunately it was lost on the way
twenty slabs commemorate bishops whose viscera were buried (Borchardt et al. 1988: 12). Again, not the heart but the right
there between the 14th and the 18th centuries. While the bulk arm of Würzburg Prince-Bishop Otto I. of Lobdeburg (d.
of these ‘visceral monuments’ belong to prince-bishops who 1223 probably in Würzburg) was transported to the monastery
died in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries (respectively ﬁve, six of Auhausen, the burial place of the House of Lobdeburg
and six prince-bishops), only three belong to prince-bishops (Wendehorst 1962: 209).

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 127

It is most likely that tripartite burial including burial of out of 88 people were buried at three separate places in the 17th
the heart became standardised at a later point in time, in century. Heart burial and tripartite burial became especially
the 14th or even in the 15th century when the cartulary was popular in the House of Habsburg (14 heart burials at Graz
written. By the time Lorenz Fries wrote his chronicle in the and Vienna including 10 tripartite burials), and heart burial
16th century, this form of burial had become uniform. All ﬁve remained a dominant feature of the mortuary treatment of the
prince-bishops who died during the 16th century (Lorenz of prince-bishops of Würzburg (four heart burials at Würzburg
Bibra, d. 1519; Conrad II of Thüngen, d. 1540; Conrad of and one at Mainz), but it was also practised by a variety of
Bibra, d. 1544; Melchior Zobel of Giebelstadt , d. 1558 and other groups such as the House of Wittelsbach (three heart
Friedrich of Wirsberg, d. 1573) had their intestines buried at burials at Altötting), the archbishops of Mainz and Trier, the
the Marienberg castle church, their bodies at the Würzburg bishops of Gurk, Salzburg and Regensburg, the princes of
cathedral and their hearts at Ebrach. All corpses were buried Nassau-Hadamar and the dukes of Palatinate-Neuburg.
between two and four days after death. Almost four decades ago Michel (1971: 123–125) proposed
While the custom of burying the viscera at Marienberg that the development of post-medieval heart burial has to be
castle continued until the 18th century, the tradition of heart understood in the context of the foundation of new religious
burial at Ebrach came to an end in 1573 (Wirth 1928: 287). orders, especially the Jesuits, during the Catholic Reformation.
Friedrich of Wirsberg’s successor Julius Echter of Mespelbrunn This period, better known as the Counter Reformation, was
(d. 1617), a strong advocate of the Catholic Reformation (see a powerful religious time whose beginnings can roughly be
below), donated his heart to the University of Würzburg. equated with the pontiﬁcate of Pope Pius IV in 1560, and
This institution was his foundation and was under the care which lasted until the close of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.
of the Jesuits, whom he had promoted during his lifetime. It was characterised by a tremendous political and social
At Echter’s heart burial a funeral speech was delivered by the crisis, but also by artistic and ideological innovation. Before
Dutch Jesuit Maximilian van der Sandt, which, like all the discussing heart burials and their relation to the Counter
other funeral speeches for Echter, was later printed (Michel Reformation in greater detail I would like to brieﬂy outline
1971: 125; Rausch 1992: 365–366). Contrary to the older its major characteristics.
Würzburg tradition, Echter was not buried in a seated but in
a reclining position and carried down from the castle in a tin
coﬃn instead of on a bier (Rausch 1992: 362, 367). Since it
was not necessary to hold the head of the deceased prince- The Catholic Reformation
bishop, nobody could claim the right to bring the heart to In the second half of the 16th century the south of Europe
Ebrach. was Roman Catholic and the north Protestant, but in France
and in the Holy Roman Empire both Roman Catholic and
Protestants (Lutheran and Reformed) existed. The signing
of the peace of Augsburg in 1555 had oﬃcially recognised
The development of post-medieval heart burial: from the Lutheran Church and granted the princes the right to
the Catholic Reformation to the end of the 17th determine the religion of their subjects. With the exception
century of the ducal House of Wittelsbach of Bavaria and the Imperial
While a total of 27 people were processed in the 16th century, House of Habsburg, the majority of Germany’s secular imperial
this number more than triples in the 17th century (88 persons) princes and the free cities had accepted the Reformation.
(Fig. 12.3). At the same time, the necessity for evisceration Emperor Maximilian II (d. 1576) and his successor Rudolf
drops. Only 26 eviscerated corpses were transported from II (d. 1612) were ideologically moderate, but the other
their place of death to their place of burial (Fig. 12.4). 50 members of the House of Habsburg were not. Maximilian II’s
were not transported and 12 cases could not be determined younger brothers, archdukes Ferdinand of the Tyrol (d. 1595)
with certainty. A quarter of the corpses processed in the 17th and Charles II of Inner Austria (d. 1590) who ruled in the
century belong to women (n=22) and for the ﬁrst time the hereditary lands, were strong advocates of the Catholic cause
interior organs of children were separately buried as well (n=8) as outlined in the last session of Trent (1562–1563). With the
(Fig. 12.3). In the House of Habsburg a fourteen-year-old support of Pope Gregory XIII, the brothers pushed ahead the
(Johann Karl from the Inner Austrian line, buried at Graz) was Counter Reformation, together with Charles’ brother-in-law,
eviscerated in 1619 and the two-year-old Maria Eleonora from Albert V of Bavaria from the House of Wittelsbach (d. 1579).
the Tyrolean line was eviscerated in 1629 (Weiss-Krejci 2008: The Pope supported the Jesuits, who had led the work of re-
184). While in the 16th century separate burial and transport education wherever they had been able to establish themselves.
of the heart had been rare, in the 17th century the hearts of For example, Archduke Charles II of Inner Austria brought the
47 individuals were separately buried without intestines (Fig. Society of Jesus to Graz, the capital of Inner Austria, which was
12.4). Tripartite burial was basically non-existent in the 16th a prominent centre of the Lutheran church and had a Lutheran
century (not counting the prince bishops of Würzburg), but 16 school. The Jesuits ﬁrst provided a college and school and in

128 Estella Weiss-Krejci

1586 a university. Albert V of Bavaria ﬁnanced a Jesuit college (intestina, viscera, pulmones et cetera vitalia) were buried in
at the University of Ingolstadt. Ferdinand, son of Charles II the Jesuit church (Michel 1971: 125). Archbishop Lothar of
of Inner Austria, who later became Emperor Ferdinand II, Metternich (d. 1623 in Koblenz) was also buried at the Trier
was trained at Ingolstadt University and his advisers were cathedral. Only his heart was buried with the Jesuits.
also Jesuit-trained, and mostly from the Spanish Netherlands.
Already by 1600 the archdukes and dukes from the Houses of
Habsburg and Wittelsbach had whittled away at the position of The electors and archbishops of Mainz
Protestant churches, closed most of their schools and abolished To my knowledge, the intestines of only one archbishop
Protestant ministries (MacCulloch 2003: 449–457). of Mainz received separate burial in the period before the
The Counter Reformation advocates in the Habsburg Catholic Reformation (the heart is not mentioned). Adolf
family were determined to end the moderate policy of the of Nassau died in 1190 at Heiligenstadt. His intestines were
Habsburg emperors. After the death of the childless Habsburg buried at Heiligenstadt and his corpse was transported to
Emperor Mathias, the ultra-catholic Ferdinand acceded to the Mainz. At Mainz, the division of the corpse is deﬁnitely
throne as Ferdinand II in 1619. At that time the Thirty Years’ associated with the Catholic Reformation. When the Mainz
War had already begun. The end of this devastating war, which castle was renovated after its destruction by Margrave Albert
had started as a conﬂict between Protestants and Catholics and Alcibiades in 1552, Daniel Brendel of Homburg, the elector
eventually involved most of Europe’s powers, oﬃcially marks and archbishop of Mainz, commissioned the new castle
the end of the Counter Reformation. Education and military church St Gangolph, consecrating it in 1581. After his death
force were not the only strategies applied in the process of at Aschaﬀenburg in 1582, both his corpse and inner organs
the Catholic Reformation. The reformers also made a variety were transported to Mainz. While his corpse was buried at
of eﬀorts to increase people’s spirituality and to emphasise Mainz cathedral, his heart and viscera (cor autem cum reliquis
that the Catholic Church represented the traditional norm in visceribus) were buried at St Gangolph (Arens 1958: 605). His
German religion. In the last part of the 16th century the bones successor archbishop Wolfgang of Dalberg, (d. 1601) who
of saints were brought out of hiding and shrines desecrated by died at Aschaﬀenburg and was buried at Mainz cathedral, was
the Protestants were restored. A central feature of the Jesuit also eviscerated (Brück 1971: 151) but there is no evidence
campaign was devotion to Mary and revival of Marian shrines that his intestines were left at St Gangolph. Brendel’s example
(MacCulloch 2003: 456). was followed by three of his successors who lived and died
As already observed by Michel (1971: 123), the spur of during the Catholic Reformation. The intestines, heart and
renovation and new foundation that accompanied the Catholic brain (exta, cor, cerebrum) of Archbishop of Mainz Johann
Reformation had a direct impact on the distribution of body Adam of Bicken (d. 1604 at Aschaﬀenburg), the intestines,
parts. The newly founded orders, in this case the Jesuits and heart, tongue and brain (exta, cor, lingua, cerebrum) of Georg
the Capuchins, beneﬁted from the patronage of the Catholic Friedrich Greiﬀenklau (Archbishop of Mainz and Bishop of
rulers and competed with others over their postmortem Worms, d. 1629 at Mainz), and the heart and brain (cor et
remains. Since traditional burial places could not always be cerebrum) of Archbishop of Mainz Anselm Kasimir Wambold
given up so rapidly, from the 1580s onwards there was a Umstadt (d. 1647 at Frankfurt) were all buried at St Gangolph
strong increase in burial of inner organs at newly founded (Arens 1958: 641, 667, 674). Only Johannes Schweikard of
religious buildings. Kronberg (d. 1626) diverged from this pattern. His heart was
buried without intestines at his foundation, the Jesuit church
of Aschaﬀenburg (Michel 1971: 122).

The separation of the corpse during the Counter
Reformation The imperial House of Habsburg
Although in the House of Habsburg separation of the corpse
The electors and archbishops of Trier and separate burial of inner organs in diﬀerent places had
Two known examples of medieval evisceration among the been practised since the Middle Ages (e.g. Emperor Frederick
archbishops of Trier have already been mentioned (Albero d. III, see above), it was usually associated with transport of
1152 and James of Sierck d. 1456). The earliest burial of heart the corpse. Separation of the inner organs for non-practical
and intestines that seems to directly relate to the Catholic reasons and separate burial of inner organs only developed in
Reformation is that of Archbishop of Trier, Jakob of Eltz who the 16th century among the children of Mary of Burgundy
died at Trier in 1581 and who was deposited at Trier cathedral, and Maximilian I (Philip the Fair and Margaret, see above).
in accordance with the old tradition. His intestines, however, In Austria, the earliest evidence for separation of the inner
were buried with the Trier Jesuits. The next archbishop, Johann organs from the corpse and the separation of hearts from
of Schönberg, died in 1599 and was also buried in the Trier the intestines comes from Graz. These practices developed
cathedral. As was the case with his predecessor, his inner organs gradually, but are clearly associated with the Jesuits and the

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 129

and intestines. The earliest secure heart burial in Graz is that
of Emperor Ferdinand II (died in Vienna in 1637). His heart
was not buried with the Jesuits but in his mother’s coﬃn at
the monastery of the Poor Clares (Gerbert et al. 1772).

Heart burial
These examples show that between 1580 and 1608 hearts
and intestines were usually buried together at both Trier
and Graz (Eltz 1581 and Schönberg 1599 in Trier, Charles
of Inner Austria 1590 and Maria of Bavaria 1608 in Graz),
whereas hearts were separated from the intestines only later
(Metternich 1623 in Trier, Ferdinand II 1637 in Graz). The
archbishops of Mainz do not follow this pattern exactly. Hearts
and intestines of Greiﬀenklau (1629) and Wambold Umstadt
(1647) are buried together; only Kronberg’s heart (1626) is
buried separately. So far I have not found a single example from
German-speaking Europe where a heart was buried without
other inner organs between 1580 and 1600.
A tradition of heart burial during the Counter Reformation
only developed at the beginning of the 17th century. Strangely
enough the earliest heart burial of the 17th century is neither
an archbishop nor a person from the Houses of Wittelsbach
or Habsburg. The earliest heart is not buried with the Jesuits
but with the Franciscans. It belongs to Eitel Friedrich IV of
Hohenzollern-Hechingen (d. 1605) and was buried at St
Luzen in Hechingen/Swabia. Eitel Friedrich’s heart burial
is easily understood if one considers his lineage. His wife
Sybilla was the daughter of the historian Froben Christoph,
count of Zimmern, who was the nephew of Wilhelm Werner
of Zimmern, chronicler of the Würzberg prince-bishops,
whose heart had also been buried separately in 1575 (see
above). The Zimmern family possibly inspired the developing
tradition of heart burial. Eitel Friedrich’s heart epitaph carries
Fig. 12.7: Maria Anna’s visceral urn or heart urn (d. 1616). Engraved the inscription ’Ubi thesaurus meus, ibi cor meum’ (where my
inscription on the lid: •M•Æ•A•A• DEN 8 MARTI ANNO DOMINI treasure is, there is my heart, modiﬁed from Luke 12:34 ‘for
1616. Silver goblet with lid, total height 26 cm, manufactured in where your treasure is there will your heart be’). This biblical
Augsburg 1560−1570. Current location: Mausoleum of Ferdinand II, passage was also cited by the Jesuit Maximilian van der Sandt
Graz, Austria (© Estella Weiss-Krejci) in his speech on the occasion of the heart burial of Würzburg
Prince-Bishop Julius Echter in 1617 (see above). On the other
hand, Michel (1971: 124) has drawn a connection between
Counter Reformation. When Charles of Inner Austria died the development of heart burial and the assassination of the
in 1590 his heart and intestines were buried with the Jesuits French king Henri IV in 1610. Before ascending to the throne
of Graz. His corpse was transported to Seckau. The heart of France, Henri was a Huguenot and had been involved in
and intestines of his wife Maria of Bavaria (d. 1608) were the War of Religion. After his coronation he had converted
also buried with the Jesuits. She was not transported, but her to Catholicism, but had then granted religious liberty to the
corpse was buried in Graz with the Poor Clares. Also buried Protestants. Henri’s heart is the ﬁrst in France that was buried
with the Jesuits were the inner organs of her son Maximilian at a Jesuit location, the Paris College La Flèche. The deposition
Ernst (d. 1616), and her daughter-in-law Maria Anna, the was a bombastic political spectacle in which the heart was put
ﬁrst wife of Ferdinand II (d. 1616) (Fig. 12.7) and Johann on a carriage and seen by a lot of people. The orations for and
Karl (d. 1619), son of Ferdinand II. Unfortunately the urns burial of the heart suggest that it was considered even more
(which are located at Ferdinand II’s mausoleum in Graz) give important than the corpse. Both the assassination and the
the name of the deceased but not the contents: it is therefore heart burial certainly had repercussions in the Holy Roman
impossible to tell whether they contained only hearts or hearts Empire (Michel 1971: 124).

130 Estella Weiss-Krejci

Whether the strong focus on the heart in the 17th was that of Elisabeth of Lorraine, wife of elector Maximilian I
century constitutes a German development or was brought of Bavaria. She had died in Ranshofen in 1635, where her
over from France is hard to say. However, for a short period intestines were buried. While her corpse was buried with the
after Henri IV’s heart burial in Paris, hearts seem to cluster Jesuits in Munich, her heart was brought to Altötting (Albrecht
in Jesuit churches in the Holy Roman Empire. I have already 1998: 899; Pritz 1857: 417). In 1651 Maximilian of Bavaria’s
mentioned Echter from Würzburg (1617), Metternich from heart followed; his corpse was buried with the Jesuits in
Trier (1622) and the archbishop of Mainz, Kronberg, whose Munich and his intestines were buried in Ingolstadt (Albrecht
heart was buried at Aschaﬀ enburg (1626). Other examples 1998: 1106). Altötting served as heart burial shrine for the
include Charles of Austria, the posthumous son of Charles II House of Wittelsbach until 1954. The heart of Count Tilley
of Inner Austria. He was prince-bishop of Wrocław and was also buried at Altötting. He was the victor of the Counter
bishop of Brixen and died during a visit to Philip IV’s court Reformation Battle on the White Mountain in Bohemia,
in Madrid in 1624. While his corpse was buried at El which annihilated the Bohemian Protestants. Tilley had died
Escorial, his heart was sent all the way to his Jesuit in 1632 and in 1637 Tilley’s nephew was given permission to
foundation at Nysa in Silesia (today Poland). Th e heart of bury Tilley’s heart (Michel 1971: 122).
Melchior Khlesl, the Cardinal of Vienna, was buried with The Habsburgs of Vienna followed a similar practice.
the Jesuits at Wiener Neustadt in 1630 (Kerschbaumer Though the hearts of Empress Eleonore Gonzaga, second wife
1865: 365). Like all the others, whose hearts were separately of Ferdinand II (d. 1655) and Ferdinand III (d. 1657) were
buried with the Jesuits between 1617 and 1630, Khlesl was a still buried at Graz, King Ferdinand IV (d. 1654) started the
strong advocate of the Counter Reformation. He had been Viennese tradition of tripartite deposition of the corpse (Fig.
converted to Catholicism by the Jesuits during his childhood 12.8). On his deathbed he dedicated his heart to the Virgin
and later on led 23,000 pilgrims to the Upper Styrian Shrine of Loreto at the Augustinian church in Vienna. His intestines
of Mariazell in 1599 (MacCulloch 2003: 454–455). were buried at St Stephen’s cathedral and his corpse at the
After 1630 heart burial becomes more widespread, but Capuchin Vault in Vienna (Hawlik-van de Water 1993).
less frequent at Jesuit sites. Of the ten people in my database Because almost all adult members of the Habsburg family
who were eviscerated between 1631 and the end of the Thirty followed this new pattern, diverging wishes soon started to
Years’ War in 1648, seven received a heart burial, but none create problems. When Empress Claudia Felicitas (d. 1676)
were buried with the Jesuits. The remaining three individuals decided that her body should be buried with the Dominicans
whose hearts were buried together with the intestines were also beside her mother Anna of Medici, the Capuchin monks who
not buried with the Jesuits. In comparison, of 13 eviscerated felt deprived of her body demanded her heart.
individuals who died between 1617 and 1630, six received In the 18th century heart burial reached its peak in the
heart burial, all at Jesuit churches. One reason why the Jesuits House of Habsburg. Whereas in the 17th century exceptions
lost interest in burial of the heart may have been that they were had sometimes been granted to small children whose intestines
ﬁnally successful in burying corpses at their institutions. The and hearts were buried together at St Stephen’s (Weiss-Krejci
Jesuit church St Michael in Munich became the burial place of 2008: 184), after 1741 no hearts and intestines were buried
the Wittelsbach family. This ﬁrst major Jesuit church-building together any longer. Intestines were exclusively deposited at St
project in Central Europe was founded in 1583 by Bavarian Stephen’s and hearts in the Augustinian church. The tradition
Duke William V (d. 1626) and consecrated in 1597. The Jesuit of the heart burial at the Augustinian church only came to
church in Innsbruck was founded by Leopold V (d. 1632) and an end in 1878.
built during the Thirty Years’ War. It received the bodies of the Separation of the corpse remained of enormous importance
Tyrolean branch of the House of Habsburg. Another reason in the Holy Roman Empire throughout the 18th century but
why fewer hearts were buried with the Jesuits after 1630 may became more sporadic in the second part of the 19th and
be that there was much more competition with other Counter during the 20th centuries (Fig. 12.3). In the 18th century
Reformation orders over body parts. One of the strongest burial places for interior organs were often invented. There are
motives, however, is that in the Houses of Wittelsbach and stories about King Rudolf I’s heart in Tulln (d. 1291) (Lein
Habsburg hearts became associated with places of Marian 1978: 7–8) and Emperor Maximilian I’s heart in Bruge (d.
veneration and turned into votive-like oﬀerings, a development 1519). An epitaph (certainly fake) in the monastery Rheinau
which naturally was in the Jesuits’ interest. was made for the viscera of Duke Hartmann (d. 1281), a son
of King Rudolf I (Gut 1999: 101).

Heart shrines in the Houses of Wittelsbach and
Habsburg Discussion and Conclusions
The medieval Black Madonna shrine at Altötting had been In popular opinion the heart is a powerful natural symbol and
revived by the Jesuits in 1570. The ﬁrst heart to be buried there it is for this reason that it plays a particular role in mortuary

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 131

Fig. 12.8: Loreto vault at the Augustinian church in Vienna holding the hearts of ten members of the House of Habsburg who died between 1654 and
1740; drawn and engraved by Salomon Kleiner after 1740 (Gerbert et al. 1772: Plate CX)

rituals throughout the world (e.g Dietz 1998). However, as moment of spiritual and political crisis. A comparison of the
I have shown in this paper, heart burial was not a dominant development of heart burial in German-speaking Europe with
practice in medieval Central Europe. The preference given Western Europe proves that meanings that are associated with
to heart burial in Central Europe is mainly a post-medieval symbols are predominantly embedded in the social and not
phenomenon and developed during the Catholic Reformation in the natural world (Kehoe 1979).
when heart symbolism gained special importance in a speciﬁc The reasons for separate burial of body parts in medieval

132 Estella Weiss-Krejci

Western Europe and its detachment from any necessity in from the German-speaking region to ask for his heart to
terms of bodily preservation are manifold. In a recent study, be transported back from a Crusade. In his case the heart
Westerhof (2008: 82–86) reaches the conclusion that heart was transported together with the right hand. In two other
burials in England are predominantly related to ancestral and instances, involving two prince-bishops of Würzburg, a hand
individual benefaction and patronage. Almost all such burials and an arm were transported. This also strongly contrasts with
occur at a site favoured during the individual’s life. There England where, according to Westerhof (2008: 88), not one
was also a trend for donating hearts to the newer religious aristocratic body was dismembered for the separate inhumation
orders which advocated personal spirituality – in 13th century of arms or legs. It seems that for the English the heart was
England these were the Dominicans and Franciscans – while so important because it represented humanity’s inner being.
the older orders such as Benedictines and Augustinians received Among medieval German-speaking people – especially the
the bulk of the bodies. The burial of a founder in their own prince-bishops who represented both secular and religious
monastery often created a bond between that place and powers – other body parts such as bones or arms could also
successive generation of the founder’s lineage, who continued fulﬁl that function.
the patronage of the original foundations as well as endowing In contrast to medieval Europe, separation of the corpse
their own monasteries (see also Bradford 1933: 14). in post-medieval Europe was more than just a means of
The trend of burying hearts with the newer orders duplicating the body. The heart took over additional functions
also existed in medieval Central Europe (mainly with the by transforming into an artefact which was used to promote
Cistercians and in one instance with the Franciscans). ritual action. Through the burial of the heart and its associated
However, to understand fully the proliferation of medieval funeral orations and theatre plays – in 1653 two Jesuit plays
divisions of the corpse in Western Europe it is necessary to were performed upon the heart burial of Prince Johann Ludwig
take into account the social aspects. English heart burial can of Nassau-Hadamar (Michel 1971: 136–139) – a new heart
be considered as a kind of fashion. Since the transportation symbolism was propagated. Michel (1971: 139) has pointed
of the corpse was almost always a marker of social distinction to the fact that post-medieval heart burial is connected to the
(see also Weiss-Krejci 2004; 2005: 170) it is no wonder that emerging cult of the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. The
procedures associated with transportation and delayed burial, Sacred Heart of Jesus was the symbol of love in the speeches of
such as evisceration and separate burial of the inner organs, Francis of Sales (1567–1622), one of the major contributors to
eventually developed into symbols of high status, even when restoring the reputation of French Catholicism (MacCulloch
transport was not necessary. The division of the corpse was a 2003: 476). It became a metaphor for the divine, and after
costly procedure. In order to show oﬀ their wealth, English sanctioned by the visions of Marguerite Marie Alacoque
people from a more modest background who gained roles in in 1673–1675, a widely popular object of devotion. The
local government and administration also started to request continuous association of noble hearts with sacred symbols,
separate burial (Westerhof 2008). The reason why this form of with the body of Jesus and the Virgin, eventually turned
mortuary behaviour spread more rapidly among the English Catholic European monarchs of the 17th century into sacred
than in Central Europe may be explained by the fact that in persons too.
medieval England separation of the corpse was a tradition In both Central and Western Europe in the Middle Ages
which involved both genders, whereas in the Holy Roman duplication of the body was the reason for separation. By
Empire it was often practised by unmarried men without physically fragmenting corpses, high-ranking individuals
legitimate oﬀspring. Of the 88 individuals from Westerhof ’s could express loyalty to more than one site (Binski 1996:
sample (Westerhof 2008: Appendix 1), 73 were male and 15 63) and comply with a range of political, religious and social
were female. In the Holy Roman Empire treatment of the demands (Westerhof 2008). Although the heart was sometimes
corpse was mostly a male aﬀair (44 males, 1 female) (Fig. 12.3). considered as more important than the intestines, all body
In contrast to England where even children had their inner parts could stand for a person. On the other hand, separation
organs buried separately (Westerhof 2008: 42), medieval body of the corpse and heart burial in 17th century Catholic Europe
processing in Central Europe was restricted to adults. had a diﬀerent quality. Although the division of the corpse in
Apart from these social diﬀerences, I believe that there were post-medieval Central Europe repeats some of the trends of
also diverging ideologies concerning the body. Embalming medieval Western Europe (for example, the body was divided
was the preferred option of body treatment among medieval up among the various new Counter Reformation orders;
English aristocrats from the 12th to the 14th centuries separate burial of the inner organs became common among
(Westerhof 2008: 79), whereas excarnation by boiling (mos women and children [Fig. 12.3]; the heart was favoured over
teutonicus) was the preferred ‘German’ body treatment the intestines) the heart turns into something more than just
during the same time period (Fig. 12.3). Requests for the a representative of a person. It becomes a political artefact,
transportation of hearts to or from the Holy Land were quite which was used to renew spirituality and promote new types
popular among the English (Bradford 1933: 42). In contrast, of religious beliefs.
Hademar of Kuenring was to my knowledge the only person

12. Heart burial in medieval and early post-medieval Central Europe 133

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Seeliger-Zeiss, A. 1981. Die Inschriften des Großkreises Karlsruhe. Die Westerhof, D. 2008. Death and the Noble Body in Medieval England.
Deutschen Inschriften 20, Heidelberger Reihe 7. Munich: Alfred Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer Inc.
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Landkreises Ludwigsburg. Die Deutschen Inschriften 25, Heidelberger Steiner.
Reihe 9. Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert. William of Apulia. Gesta Roberti Wiscardi V. http://www.intratext.
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Estella Weiss-Krejci
Austrian Academy of Sciences, Adjunct
Principal Investigator HERA-DEEPDEAD project
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My Crown Is in My Heart, Not on My Head: Heart Burial in England, France, and the Holy Roman Empire From Medieval Times to the Present
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Heart burial is a funerary practice that has been performed since the early medieval period. However, relatively little scholarship has been published on it in English. Heart burial began as a pragmatic way to preserve a body, but it became a meaningful tradition in Western Europe during the medieval and early modern periods. In an anthropological context, the ritual served the needs of elites and the societies they governed. Elites used heart burial not only to preserve their bodies, but to express devotion, stabilize the social order and advocate legitimacy, and even gain heaven. Heart burial assisted the elite Christian, his or her family, and society pass through the liminal period of death. Over the centuries, heart burial evolved to remain relevant. The practice is extant to the present day, though the motivations behind it are very different from those of the medieval and early modern periods.
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Procedures and Frequencies of Embalming and Heart Extractions in Modern Period in Brittany. Contribution to the Evolution of Ritual Funerary in Europe
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The evolution of funeral practices from the Middle Ages through the Modern era in Europe is generally seen as a process of secularization. The study, through imaging and autopsy, of two mummies, five lead urns containing hearts, and more than six hundred skeletons of nobles and clergymen from a Renaissance convent in Brittany has led us to reject this view. In addition to exceptional embalming, we observed instances in which hearts alone had been extracted, a phenomenon that had never before been described, and brains alone as well, and instances in which each spouse's heart had been placed on the other's coffin. In some identified cases we were able to establish links between the religious attitudes of given individuals and either ancient Medieval practices or more modern ones generated by the Council of Trent. All of these practices, which were a function of social status, were rooted in religion. They offer no evidence of secularization whatsoever.
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This paper was presented at the Consortium on the Revolutionary Era, 1750-1850, Fort Worth, Texas, February 2013. It was the result of a master's thesis research trip funded by the University of North Texas. In October 2013, it was chosen for publication in the Selected Papers Collection. Heart burial is most often associated with the medieval period. Although there were periodic cessations, heart burial persisted in the royal houses of Europe through to the modern day. The motivations for heart burial evolved over time to survive, though certain elements remain salient in the twenty-first century.
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2005 Excarnation, evisceration, and exhumation in medieval and post-medieval Europe. In Interacting with the Dead: Perspectives on Mortuary Archaeology for the New Millennium, pp. 155-172. Edited by Gordon Rakita, Jane Buikstra, Lane Beck and Sloan Williams. University Press of Florida: Gainesville
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