(PDF) Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review

JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review 1 Andrew Skuse PhD 1 Dianne Rodger PhD 2 Gerry Power PhD 3 Domenic Friguglietti Mbus 1 Tait Brimacombe B Dev Studs, LLB 1. The University of Adelaide, Anthropology and Development Studies, University of Adelaide, North Terrace Adelaide 5005 Australia 2. InterMedia, 34 Bloomsbury Square, Suite 34 London, WC1A 2RL United Kingdom, 3. ABC International, ABC International Projects GPO Box 9994 Melbourne VIC 3001 Australia Corresponding Author: Andrew Skuse E-mail:

Executive summary Background A wide range of contextual and programmatic factors frame, affect and constrain communication for development (C4D) interventions undertaken in fragile or conflict affected states. For the purposes of this review, contextual factors include culture, poverty, different stages of conflict (such as latent, open or post-conflict scenarios), policy, legislation and so on, while programmatic factors include the type of intervention, formative and summative evaluation, project design and management, human and financial resources and so on. Understanding the various factors that influence C4D interventions in fragile states is important to improving practice, implementation and evaluation, as well as to the future development of methodologies and frameworks that can be utilised in conflict or crisis situations. Objective The objective of this review is to assess the contextual and programmatic factors that influence communication for development interventions in fragile states. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 1 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Types of participants Persons regardless of age, gender and ethnicity - living in fragile states. Phenomena of interest The contextual and programmatic factors that influence communication for development (C4D) interventions in fragile states. Types of studies Qualitative peer reviewed studies, expert opinion, discussion papers, project reports, policy papers, position papers and other text. Search strategy Searches were conducted for published and unpublished material (between January 2001 - September 2011), including grey literature, in the English language. Databases searched were$FDGHPLF6HDUFK3UHPLHU$IULFDQ:RPHQ¶V%LEOLRJUDSKLF'DWDEDVH$QWKURSRORJ\3OXV Bibliography of Asian Studies; Educational Resources Information Centre; Ingenta Connect; JSTOR; Scopus; and Sociological Abstracts; Communication for Social Change Consortium; DevComm (World Bank); Eldis; Search for Common Ground; The Communication Initiative; United Nations Development Programme; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization; and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. Methodological quality Each identified source was critically appraised by two independent reviewers for methodological quality and thematic relevance prior to inclusion in the review. The appraisal process employed the System for the Unified Management, Assessment and Review of Information (SUMARI) software developed by the Joanna Briggs Institute. Data collection Data was extracted using the standardised extraction tools. Data synthesis Data were categorised and synthesised using standardised SUMARI extraction tools. This involved the identification of a set of analytical findings, followed by the allocation of specific categories representative of each, i.e. digital divide. A process of aggregation followed via which these initial categories were (where possible) collated into broader synthesised findings. The results of this process are set out in the form of a series of statements that represent a wider trend informed by the data. Results A total of 239 sources were retrieved for detailed examination. 156 of these sources were excluded after review of the full paper/publication leaving 83 sources that were assessed for methodological quality using the SUMARI system. A total of 26 papers (19 qualitative papers and 7 textual/opinion pieces) were included in the review for appraisal and data extraction. A Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 2 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 further 57 papers were assessed and excluded. Following extraction, a discussion was developed that examined the relevance of the findings from a realist perspective. Conclusions This review identifies that while different initiatives can be pursued in different conflict situations, their direction and content needs to be driven by a close understanding of context, which in turn is driven by a range of influencing factors (contextual and programmatic), which in turn reflect and build upon existing C4D practice principles. While identifying influencing factors that affect C4D implementation is critical to effective practice, this systematic review also highlights a need for early, more thorough and longer-term C4D interventions within fragile states (especially those that can be characterised by latent conflict and chronic instability). Early communication intervention can help reduce tension and promote reconciliation, but also enable development and humanitarian agencies to be better placed to address situations that may escalate into open conflict. Implications for policy and practice A wide range of contextual and programmatic factors combine to both constrain and provide opportunities for C4D initiatives in fragile states. Such factors need to be recognised, negotiated and addressed by practitioners in design, implementation and evaluation in order to enhance the overall effectiveness of C4D initiatives. Implications for research The quality of the evidence base relating to C4D interventions in fragile states is relatively weak. The difficultly of conducting rigorous evaluation and research in conflict-affected contexts should not be underestimated. This highlights a need to improve our understanding of communications environments within fragile states and the related need to develop appropriate methodological frameworks and tools that enable effective mapping and the identification of appropriate communication interventions to occur. Keywords: C4D, communication for development; conflict; contextual; factors; fragile states; influence; outcomes; peacekeeping; programmatic; reduction; stability; violence. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 3 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Glossary The glossary of terms; set out below provide explanations for a range of terms that are commonly used to refer to aspects of communication for development practice. The inclusion of a glossary is designed to aid readers who may be unfamiliar with these specific terms, many of which form critical categories of analysis within this report (see discussion section). Some terms used in this report are not included in this glossary for reason of their self-explanatory nature, i.e. conflict reduction or telecommunications. Behaviour change communication (BCC): an approach that advocates and demonstrates a desired action that is achievable, i.e. a behaviour change. Brain drain: the large-scale emigration of individuals with technical skills/expertise resulting in weak capacity within certain economic and social sectors, i.e. health or media. Capacity Strengthening: strengthening of the human resource capacity of various sectors, i.e. within the media and communications sectors. This may result in increasing professionalism, independence; journalistic, production and editorial skills; and technical skills and capacity, as well as decreasing bias and self-censorship. Civic education: increasing political knowledge, participation, tolerance and national identity, as well as promoting government transparency and accountability, i.e. used extensively during post-conflict periods to promote understanding of the role and responsibilities of government and citizens.   Contextual constraints: relate to constraints to effective implementation such as the presence of conflict, poor infrastructure, lack of media coverage, lack of governmental services, and geographical remoteness. Culturally appropriate media content: is media content that is aligned to social and cultural norms and local understandings of particular population groups, i.e. it is communication that seeks to work through and with local culture and norms. Such communication tends to have a stronger level of public acceptance and a higher degree of impact. Digital and/or media literacy: the existence of skills necessary to access, use, comprehend, analyse, evaluate and create digital and/or media content. Digital divide: the existence of divides within communities that exclude certain individuals and/or groups from accessing, using and benefitting from new digital information and communication technologies such as the Internet. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 4 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Edutainment: the combination of education and entertainment to promote a particular message or set of messages, i.e. the use of radio or television drama to promote messages associated with aspects of development, conflict reduction or post-conflict reconstruction. Evaluation: a summative process or assessment that is used to gauge the effectiveness or impacts associated with development interventions such as communication for development initiatives. Evidence: the data gathered and used in support of evaluation assessments that may support/justify existing or future development interventions. Formative research: the research of community interests, knowledge and needs that occurs prior to program design and implementation and provides evidence for the rationale and relevance of specific interventions. Gender equality: refers to equality between men and women, which in development terms is often pursued through the identification of gender inequalities, i.e. in terms of access to new technologies for women, and a focus on how inequalities may be addressed through program implementation. Hate media: media and/or communication that incites conflict or violence, or vilifies an individual and/or group, i.e. radio has been used extensively, notably in Rwanda, to incite genocide and to promote inter-ethnic conflict. Information divide: refers to differences in access to information. These differences may be between men and women, different ethnicities, different socio-economic groups or may be promoted by remoteness. The information divide refers to restrictions associated with all forms of media and communication, i.e. chronically poor people may have limited access to terrestrial media such as radio leading to an information divide between them and their better-off neighbours. Local ownership: refers to community involvement and ownership over the development process premised on the notion that when individuals and communities are fully invested in and supportive of development programs stronger and more sustainable outcomes occur. Media bias: refers to the selective reporting and/or coverage of specific events or issues, i.e. many state broadcasters are overtly biased towards the activities of government figures, while providing minimum or negative coverage of political opponents. Sometimes media bias can have an ethnic dimension. Equally, some commercial media organisations may be biased towards certain sections of society. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 5 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Multi-channel communications: refers to the distribution of a particular message(s) across multiple communication channels, i.e. a combination of interpersonal communication, mass media and digital communication technologies. It is widely recognised that multi-channel communication results in the most significant social and behavioural impacts. Participation: the inclusion and/or involvement of the local population in an intervention. Typically, participation is seen as something that is positive, i.e. the inclusion and/or involvement of the local population tends to enhance the effectiveness of an intervention. However, participation can also have a negative connotation, with the inclusion and/or involvement of some individuals or groups impeding an intervention in terms of its effectiveness, i.e. attempts to stimulate local participation in conflict contexts may reflect aspects of the conflict itself with some participants actively obstructing progress. Participatory approaches: refers to the incorporation of participatory techniques and/or methods designed to encourage local participation within, and ownership over, development interventions. The application of participatory methods/approaches in communication for development interventions is most often associated with initial design, ongoing monitoring and summative assessment. Participatory media: refers to the use of certain media formats that require active audience involvement or participation, i.e. street theatre, role-playing, participatory video and social mobilisation. These formats are less reliant on the literacy levels of their target audience and empower participants with the means of media content production or the creative license to tell and perform their own stories. Participatory media, along with careful facilitation, are effective at bringing together groups that are or have been opposed to each other. Peacekeeping operations: refer to formally sanctioned interventions to protect and/or stabilise certain contexts experiencing conflict. Peacekeeping operations have numerous humanitarian and political goals, i.e. reduction of human rights abuses, conflict reduction, post-conflict transition. Resource constraints: implies a lack of technical resources and/or infrastructure needed to sustain media and communications within a given context, i.e. this may refer to a lack of transport, the non-availability of electricity supplies, or a lack of skilled human resources. State media: refers to media that is government-controlled, funded and/or run. In certain contexts, state media have a monopoly on broadcasting and are associated with biased media content. State media are often a key target within conflict situations for the relative power they have and their ability to communicate on a national basis. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 6 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Sustainability planning: refers to measures that can be adopted to ensure that programs can exist independent of external donor funding, i.e. once formal funding has ceased. This can include the development of an exit strategy for the withdrawal of donor support and transfer of responsibilities (including budgeting) to local authorities. Transfer of power: refers to a process in which governance responsibilities are transferred to local actors/leaders. This coincides with a decrease in power/governance either by peacekeeping forces or former regimes. Background Communication for Development (C4D) has constituted a discrete sub-field of development practice for 1, 2 more than 50 years. From its early association with planned modernisation and industrialisation, to its contemporary rekindling in the mid-1990s as development stakeholders began to take notice of the 3, 4 global emergence of new information and communication technologies, C4D is playing an 5 increasingly central role in the development process. This role is dominated by the potential of C4D interventions to: (i) foster public dialogue; (ii) build social inclusion and equality; and (iii) promote behavioural and social changes leading to improved development outcomes (i.e. those associated with 6 the Millennium Development Goals [MDGs], poverty reduction and realisation of human rights). Increasingly, in contexts where the physical delivery of aid becomes uncertain, C4D interventions are also being employed in support of conflict reduction, the delivery of humanitarian assistance and post-conflict reconstruction. This systematic review has examined the various contextual and programmatic factors that frame communication for development (C4D) interventions undertaken in fragile states. Our concern has not been to identify and collate the statistical impacts associated with these C4D interventions; rather it is with developing a qualitative understanding of the contextual and programmatic factors that influence the outcomes of the interventions. For the purposes of this review, contextual factors include culture, poverty, different stages of conflict (such as latent, open or post-conflict scenarios), policy, legislation and so on, while programmatic factors include the type of intervention, formative and summative evaluation, project design and management, human and financial resources and so on. Significant quantities of qualitative data and textual opinion material were found to exist relating to C4D interventions in fragile states. This material concerns topics such as: (i) media strengthening designed to improve the quality and responsibility of the mainstream media; (ii) using mass, participatory and interpersonal communication to specifically target conflict reduction; (iii) the provision of essential humanitarian information; as well as (iv) communication focusing on post-conflict recovery, electoral reform and governance issues. In order to narrow the focus of this review and sharpen its relevance, this review has only focused on the role that C4D can play in supporting broad conflict reduction, Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 7 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 stabilisation and democratisation processes or civic education within fragile states. Extensive database VHDUFKHVLQFOXGLQJ$FDGHPLF6HDUFK3UHPLHU$IULFDQ:RPHQ¶V%LEOLRJUDSKLF'DWDEDVH$QWKURSRORJ\ Plus, Bibliography of Asian Studies, Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC), Ingenta Connect, JSTOR, Scopus, and Sociological Abstracts) have identified that no previous systematic review has been undertaken that focuses on C4D in fragile states and no similar review registered with a systematic review body (i.e. Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating Centre [EPPI-Centre], Cochrane Collaboration, Campbell Collaboration and Joanna Briggs Institute [JBI]) at the time this review was registered with JBI. This review has examined both qualitative studies and textual opinion papers in order to: (i) identify a range (within the limitation of the included studies) of C4D interventions undertaken in fragile states that support processes of conflict reduction, stabilisation and democratisation; (ii) identify the contextual and programmatic factors that contribute to both their success or failure; and (iii) examine the program delivery implications for the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), as they relate to their wider humanitarian and emergency programs in support of partner governments. Understanding the factors that contribute to positive outcomes, as well as those that contribute to a failing or which significantly constrain an intervention, is critical because C4D initiatives do not always lead to positive 7 outcomes. For example, King et al. demonstrate in their synthetic review of community driven development and curriculum interventions that development programs can also impact negatively on 8 the communities that they are designed to assist if they are not carefully managed. Consequently, assessing the diverse factors associated with context, project design and management, implementation and evaluation can help donors such as AusAID to reduce the potential for C4D to create more harm than good within fragile states. Definitions of the WHUPµIUDJLOHVWDWHV¶DUHQXPHURXVKRZHYHUWKHWHUPLVW\SLFDOO\XQGHUVWRRGWRUHIOHFW the failure of states to assure security, rule of law and justice, or to provide basic services and economic opportunities. The United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID) describes fragile VWDWHVDVµWKRVHZKHUHWKHJRYHUQPHQWFDQQRWRUZLOOQRWGHOLYHUFRUHIXQFWLRQVWRWKHPDMRULW\RILWV 9 SHRSOHLQFOXGLQJWKHSRRU¶ Such contexts conventionally display a sensitivity to conflict - be it latent, open or post-conflict scenarios - or to environmental shocks (though these will not be addressed in this review). AusAID defines fragile states as countries that encounter poverty and development challenges 10 that are particularly serious and which are at a high risk of failure or increasing deterioration . They QRWH WKDW ZKLOH HDFK IUDJLOH VWDWH PD\ EH GLIIHUHQW WKH\ DOO KDYH FRPPRQ IHDWXUHV VXFK DV µZHDN JRYHUQDQFH IDLOLQJ SXEOLF LQVWLWXWLRQV LQVWDELOLW\ RU FRQIOLFW¶ DQG WKDW WKHVH IHDWXUHV LPSDFW RQ WKeir 10 growth prospects. In this respect, Brack states that insecurity challenges the achievability of sustainable development, but also that the promotion of sustainable development can play an important 11 role in the realisation of peace and security. In turn, the importance of aid programs is heightened in fragile states because it is more difficult for these states to attract foreign investment and to participate 10 in international trade. The role that C4D can play in such contexts is noted in both qualitative research literature and textual opinion, with identified interventions ranging from rapid humanitarian information provision during conflict, to building peace through conflict resolution processes and to civic education in support of electoral reform and democratisation. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 8 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Existing comprehensive reviews of the literature pertaining to C4D (that combine quantitative assessment of behavioural impacts with qualitative discussion of programmatic factors) have tended to focus on HIV-related mass communication campaigns and their impact on behaviour. These literature reviews, though not systematic in their assessment of evidence, are relevant to the present review because of their focus on the contextual and programmatic factors associated with rigorous C4D design 12,13 and implementation, factors that are closely associated with successful outcomes. Identified factors include: (i) the use of formative research to examine behavioural issues, target audiences and their media, communication and information uses and preferences; (ii) using communication or behavioural theory; (iii) audience segmentation such as by age, gender and ethnicity; (iv) targeting tailored messages at specific audience segments; (v) using popular media formats and channels to ensure wide exposure to health messages; (vi) process and impact evaluation that is both qualitatively 13 and quantitatively rigorous and which avoids inferences concerning impact. The recent literature review by Noar et al., which focuses on HIV communication, starts from the fairly 13 narrow premise of mass mediated interventions. In doing so it omits a number of core principles associated with effective C4D initiatives that this review will seek to explore in the context of C4D interventions in fragile states. These include: (i) working through multiple channels, including mass, interpersonal and participatory communication; (ii) linking to service provision; (iii) working with and through communities and community structures; (iv) building advocacy strategies, as well as policy and legislative measures to support interventions; (v) effective management and organisation (including planning, budgeting, risk assessment, ethical practice and professionalism); (vi) effective leadership and teamwork; and (vii) adequate human and financial resourcing. Accordingly, this review explores a wide range of programmatic factors that are employed in C4D interventions within fragile states, as well as the contextual factors that influence and affect those interventions. This systematic review recognises that the implementation of interventions, the collection of qualitative data and the evaluation of interventions can be extremely difficult in the context of a fragile state. Nonetheless, the synthetic review of Lloyd et al. illustrates that valuable evaluations can be attempted 14 even in situations of armed conflict. In their synthetic review of the effectiveness of measures to mitigate the experience of armed conflict on the psychosocial and cognitive development of children aged 0-8 years, Lloyd et al. argue that even though it may be hard to locate controlled studies of 14 interventions in situations of armed conflict, this does not reduce the need for their rigorous evaluation. Lloyd et al. state that in light of the jeopardy faced b\\RXQJFKLOGUHQH[SRVHGWRDUPHGFRQIOLFWWKHµOHDVW the research community and public aid agencies and Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) owe them is not to exacerbate their difficulties by ill-conceived and ill-informed, even if well-intentioned, 14 interYHQWLRQV¶ Like Lloyd et al., this systematic review is designed to assist researchers, aid agencies and NGOs to gain a more thorough understanding of the contextual and programmatic factors (as 14 outlined above) that contribute to the outcomes associated with C4D interventions. This review did not seek to systematically establish which types of interventions are more effective than others in a quantitative sense. This is because initial searches have demonstrated that little reliable quantitative data associated with C4D interventions in fragile contexts exists. Further, it is not important to establish which types of intervention are quantitatively more successful than others because C4D interventions in Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 9 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 fragile states tend to work in well-understood areas of support, i.e. journalism training, media policy and regulation, civic education, conflict reduction communications and so on. Because of this, any quantitative studies were excluded from this review. Unlike Lloyd et al., who do not include descriptive/opinion studies in their analysis, this review has 14 systematically searched a far broader range of qualitative and textual opinion sources. The available qualitative data tends to highlight impact, in both a behavioural and social sense, but is less explicit about the various factors that contribute to it. Textual opinion is more squarely focused on why C4D interventions work, what factors contribute to success and what factors constrain success. Consequently, a systematic review that combines evidence from peer reviewed qualitative research literature with textual opinion provides an opportunity to develop a balanced synthesis. Finally, though this systematic review used the Joanna Briggs Institute meta-aggregative process to assess, categorise and synthesise the available evidence, the results are interpreted in the discussion using a realist approach. This approach is designed to inform C4D options and practice in fragile states. Objective The objective of this review was to provide a synthesis of evidence on the contextual and programmatic factors that influence communication for development (C4D) interventions in fragile states. Inclusion Criteria Types of participants The review considered any relevant qualitative research and textual material that includes a focus on people - regardless of age, gender and ethnicity - living in fragile states. A full list of the fragile states included in this study is outlined below. Phenomena of interest The focus of the review was on the various contextual and programmatic factors that frame communication for development (C4D) interventions aimed at supporting broad conflict reduction, stabilisation and democratisation processes in fragile states. In this regard, the review was not overtly outcome-focused, i.e. both positive and negative outcomes and the factors that influenced these outcomes were of interest to this review. These interventions can reflect a range of different communication approaches, from mass media, to interpersonal and participatory communication. Programmatic factors address the range of human, financial, technical inputs that are associated with specific C4D project interventions (as outlined in detail in the main text). Contextual factors in this review included, but were not limited to, cultural factors such as geographic location, specific racial or gender-based interests, extent of poverty, different stages of conflict (such as latent, open or post-conflict scenarios), policy, legislation and so on. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 10 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Types of studies The qualitative component of the review considered peer reviewed qualitative studies including, but not limited to, designs such as phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, action research and feminist research. The textual component of the review considered expert opinion, discussion papers, project reports, policy papers, position papers and other text. Search Strategy The search strategy aimed to find both published and unpublished studies from the period January 2001 - September 2011. Given the specialist nature of C4D the search strategy was tailored to databases relevant to the thematic area. Initially, a three-step strategy was considered whereby the reference lists of included sources would also be searched for additional sources (i.e. snowballing). However, due to the high number of sources returned by the search this third search step was deemed unnecessary. Therefore, a two-step search strategy was utilised for both the qualitative and text/opinion component of this review. This comprised an initial limited search of Academic Search Premier followed by the analysis of the words contained in the title and abstract of results, and of the index terms used to describe articles. Searches using these identified keywords and index terms were then undertaken across the following databases: For Peer Reviewed Studies: x Academic Search Premier x $IULFDQ:RPHQ¶V%LEOLRJUDSKLF'DWDEDVH x Anthropology Plus x Bibliography of Asian Studies x Educational Resources Information Centre (ERIC) x Ingenta Connect x JSTOR x Scopus x Sociological Abstracts. )RU8QSXEOLVKHG6WXGLHVRUµ*UH\/LWHUDWXUH¶ x Communication for Social Change Consortium (CFSC) x DevComm (World Bank) x Eldis (incorporating ID21) x Search for Common Ground (SFCG) x The Communication Initiative Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 11 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 x United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) x United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) x United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Thematic keywords used included: Rights, Human Rights, Civic/Civil Rights, Democratisation, War, Peace, Humanitarian, Violence, Conflict, Mitigation, Reduction, Fragile State, Stabilisation, Governance, Policy, Legislation, Ethnic, Refugee, Gender, Inter Ethnic Reporting, Peace Reporting, Peace Building, Media Strengthening, Participation, Media, New Media, Social Media, Radio, Television, Print, Video, Interpersonal, Information, Campaign, Communication, Development, C4D, Behaviour Change, BCC, KAP and ICT4D. These keywords were sorted into the following logic grid (see Table 1) and some words were truncated to increase the sensitivity of the search (e.g. participat* returns participate and participation and so on): Table 1: Logic grid of search terms right* ³SHDFHUHSRUWLQJ´ ³KXPDQULJKW ´ ³SHDFHEXLOGLQJ´ ³FLYLFULJKW ´ ³PHGLDVWUHQJWKHQLQJ´ ³FLYLOULJKW ´ participat* democrati?* media war new peace social humanitarian radio violence television conflict print mitigation video reduction interpersonal ³IUDJLOHVWDWH ´ information stabili?* campaign governance communication Polic* development legislation C4D ethnic ³EHKDYLRUFKDQJH´³EHKDYLRXUFKDQJH´ refugee BCC gender KAP ³LQWHUHWKQLFUHSRUWLQJ´ ICT4D However, while these key words formed the basis of each search, trial and error was used to determine the optimum search strategy for each database. In particular, the nature of the sources searched for µJUH\OLWHUDWXUH¶UHTXLUHGDIOH[LEOHDSSURDFKEHFDXVHFRPSOH[VHDUFKVWULQJVGHVLJQHGIRUDFDGHPLF databases could not always be used. An example of a search used in Academic Search Premier is provided in Appendix I and a table of the results from each database is included in Appendix II. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 12 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Only studies published in English were considered for inclusion in this review, however we acknowledge the important contributions of authors writing in languages other than English; in particular, the growing body of work that assesses C4D interventions being conducted in Latin America that is reported in Spanish. Only studies published in the last ten years (January 2001-September 2011) were considered for inclusion in this review. This restriction was used to ensure that the C4D interventions discussed are contemporary and relevant to the current fragile state lists used by AusAID (see below). AusAID use a composite list of fragile states derived from both the World Bank and Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)-Development and Assistance Committee (DAC). The country names listed below were used in searches in addition to the key words identified above to provide a specific geographical focus to the search strategy. Fragile states keywords included: Afghanistan, Angola, Burma, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, 'HPRFUDWLF5HSXEOLFRI&RQJR5HSXEOLFRI&RQJR&RWHG¶,YRLUH'MLERXWL(TXDWRULDO*XLQHD(ULWUHD Ethiopia, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Haiti, Iraq, Kenya, Kiribati, Laos, Liberia, Mauritania, Nepal, Niger, Nigeria, North Korea, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Rwanda, Sao Tome & Principe, Sierra Leone, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sudan, Tajikistan, Timor-Leste (and variants Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste and East Timor), Togo, Tonga, Uganda, West Bank and Gaza, Yemen, Zimbabwe. In addition, AusAID (the funders of this systematic review project) specifically requested an additional focus on The Philippines, Indonesia and Sri Lanka (see map) as these countries are characterised by LQWHUPLWWHQWVRFLDODQGSROLWLFDOXQUHVWDQGDUHRIUHOHYDQFHWR$XV$,'¶VSURJUDPGHOLYHU\ Method of the Review Assessment of methodological quality Qualitative papers selected for retrieval were assessed by two independent reviewers for methodological validity prior to inclusion in the review using critical appraisal instruments from the Joanna Briggs Institute Qualitative Assessment and Review Instrument (JBI-QARI) (Appendix V). Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers were resolved through discussion. Textual papers selected for retrieval were assessed by two independent reviewers for authenticity prior to inclusion in the review using standardised critical appraisal instruments from the Joanna Briggs Institute Narrative, Opinion and Text Assessment and Review Instrument (JBI-NOTARI) (Appendix V). Any disagreements that arose between the reviewers were resolved through discussion. Data Collection Qualitative data were extracted from papers included in the review using the standardised data extraction tool from JBI-QARI (Appendix VI). Textual data were extracted from papers included in the review using the standardised data extraction tool from JBI-NOTARI (Appendix VI). The data extracted includes specific details about the phenomena of interest, populations, study methods and outcomes of significance to the review question. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 13 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Data Synthesis Qualitative and text/opinion findings were pooled using JBI-QARI and JBI-NOTARI respectively. Included papers were read closely before any relevant findings were extracted. Supporting statements (usually verbatim quotes drawn from the text) for each finding (in QARI) or conclusion (in NOTARI) were also extracted and then given a level of credibility according to the QARI or NOTARI analytical module criteria. These levels were: (i) Unequivocal (U) - this relates to evidence that is deemed to be beyond reasonable doubt that may include findings that are matter of fact, directly reported/observed and not open to challenge; (ii) Credible (C) - relates to evidence that can be described as interpretations, i.e. they are plausible in respect of both the data presented and theoretical framework employed; and (iii) Unsupported (US) - when the previous two categories of findings do not apply, findings can be said to be not supported by the data. Both the first reviewer (Skuse) and second reviewer (Rodger) assessed each source to identify key findings. Subsequently, these findings were examined by the first reviewer (Skuse) who utilised a thematic synthesis approach to categorise and re-categorise the evidence. Thematic synthesis is a 15 PHWKRGRORJ\ZKHUHE\ILQGLQJVDUHDQDO\VHGDQGRUJDQLVHGLQWRDQXPEHURIGRPLQDQWµWKHPHV¶ The first reviewer (Skuse) undertook this task because of his familiarity with key issues and terminology relevant to the C4D field. The scope and relevance of these themes/categories were then discussed with the second reviewer (Rodger) before they were finalised. The results of this process are set out in the form of a series of statements that represent a wider trend informed by the data. The approach taken to data synthesis within this review is atypical for a JBI systematic review due to: (i) the high number and complexity of C4D contextual and programmatic factors identified through the data extraction process; (ii) the need to furnish the funder of the review (AusAID) with a synthesis that is both specific and of relevance to program implementation in the context of C4D interventions in fragile states; and (iii) the need to establish analytical links to previous systematic literature searches (on HIV communications practice), cited in the Background section of this review, which constitute the most rigorous assessment to date of contextual and programmatic factors that affect communication for development implementation in the developing world. With these issues in mind, our approach has been to develop more detailed Level 1 finding statements than is the norm for this type of review. This ZDVGRQHLQDQDWWHPSWWRDGGVSHFLILFLW\DQGDOORZEHWWHUµUHDGDFURVV¶IURPWKHILQGLQJVWRFDWHJRULHV to syntheses. Further, few of the included studies address C4D contextual and programmatic factors directly, i.e. themes rather than direct findings tend to be elaborated in the material assessed. Because of this, the review team has developed Level 1 finding statements from the studies drawn from the available evidence presented. These findings, as previously mentioned, were then categorised (Level 2 findings) according to what makes sense in the context of the delivery of development programs more EURDGO\DQG&'LQLWLDWLYHVVSHFLILFDOO\&DWHJRULHVVXFKDVµGLJLWDOGLYLGH¶DQGµVXVWDLQDELOLW\SODQQLQJ¶ speak to well-understood issues in development practice and do not require more expansive elaboration. Finally, the Level 3 syntheses speak to the broad finding associated with each category, which is elaborated upon in further detail from within the Discussion section of this review. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 14 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Interpretation of Results of Data Synthesis Following appraisal, the extraction of findings, categorisation and synthesis of the results of this review, as outlined in the discussion section below, have been subject to an additional interpretative step. The objective of this review has been to assess the contextual and programmatic factors that affect C4D LPSOHPHQWDWLRQLQIUDJLOHVWDWHV7KHIDFWRUVLGHQWLILHGDUHQXPHURXVDQGµLGHDO-W\SLFDO¶LQWKDWQRWDOO factors could realistically be considered in every situation. While this systematic review has used the Joanna Briggs Institute meta-aggregative process to assess, categorise and synthesise the available evidence, the results have been interpreted in the discussion section using a realist approach. Pawson 16 et al. suggest that a realist approach to systematic reviews helps to deliver pragmatic illumination, rather than statements of truth, as well as contextual grounding, instead of abstraction and standardization. In applying a realist interpretation to our findings, our aim is to enhance the relevance of discussion concerning the various factors that facilitate and/or constrain effective C4D practice in fragile states. The Discussion section in this review was developed utilising the following steps: (i) a draft discussion section was developed by the first reviewer (Skuse) based on the syntheses and wider UHVXOWVHPHUJLQJIURPDSSUDLVDODQGH[WUDFWLRQLLWKLVGUDIWZDVWKHQFLUFXODWHGWRWKHUHYLHZWHDP¶V practitioner partners (Power and Friguglietti) for realist assessment; and; (iii) this assessment was integrated into the final discussion section included in this systematic review by the first reviewer (Skuse). This process was designed to facilitate the incorporation of practical feedback from 16 experienced C4D practitioners into the review process. Pawson et al. state that input from SUDFWLWLRQHUVDQGSROLF\PDNHUVLVLPSRUWDQWLQDUHDOLVWUHYLHZEHFDXVHµLWLVWKHLUTXHVWLRQVDQGWKHLU assumptions about how the world works that form the focus of analysis¶:KLOH3DZVRQHWDOGRQRW specifically identify the discussion section of a systematic review as a means through which this input can occur, we have chosen to incorporate feedback from our practitioner partners within this section. This is the most logical point at which realist interpretation can occur and the critical point at which our discussion can meaningfully dialogue with real-world experience, as well as with other examples/studies emerging from the field of C4D. Importantly, it is only at this point that additional experience and examples can be introduced without the methodological scrutiny associated with source selection and data extraction that is typically associated with systematic reviews. Results Description of studies Between 1st August 2011 and 15th September 2011 a systematic search was undertaken of the databases outlined above. The titles and abstracts of every search result that appeared to meet the inclusion criteria for the review were quickly screened for their relevance. At this initial stage two broad criteria were used for inclusion: (i) the primary geographical focus of the paper/publication was a country included on the AusAid/OECD-DAC composite list of fragile states or referred also to The Philippines, Indonesia and Sri Lanka; and (ii) the intervention or program discussed in the paper explicitly referenced C4D or established C4D approaches. These approaches involve the use of various communication mediums (i.e. radio, interpersonal communication, new ICTs, television etc.) to achieve a specific development outcome. Following this, the abstracts of the short-listed articles were Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 15 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 independently assessed by both the first reviewer (Skuse) and second reviewer (Rodger) for inclusion. Any disagreements were resolved through discussion. The full text of all included papers were then retrieved and subject to review for inclusion again by both Reviewers. At this stage, methodological quality was not considered; rather, the relevance of the source to the review question was assessed. This process involved identifying whether or not the source adequately explored the contextual and programmatic factors that influence the outcomes of C4D interventions in fragile states. This process identified 83 sources that were included for critical appraisal in this systematic review. Of these, 58 were qualitative papers (see Appendix III) and a further 25 were text/opinion sources (see Appendix IV). These studies were then critically appraised using the QARI and NOTARI tools respectively. This appraisal resulted in the inclusion of 19 qualitative studies and 7 text/opinion publications in the review. A total of 26 sources were subject to full data extraction and synthesis. The result of the search process is presented below (see Figure 1) and is followed by a narrative summary, in case-study format, of each of the included studies for which data extraction occurred. Appendix IX provides a table of included studies/publications and excluded studies/publications is presented in Appendix X. Figure 1: Number of studies found and retrieved Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 16 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Case study text (QARI) - contexts of the included studies Given the success or failure of C4D intervention depends significantly on understanding of and negotiation of contextual factors in which the intervention is delivered, the following section describes the individual contexts of each of the studies and publications included in the review. %HVW0/ 7KDNXU'µ7HOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQV3ROLF\3URFHVVLQ3RVW-Conflict Developing Countries: The case of LLEHULD¶ LQ Info: The Journal of Policy, Regulation and Strategies for telecommunications, Information and Media, Vol. 11, Issue 2, pp. 42-57. The context of this study is post-FRQIOLFW/LEHULDDQGWKHFRXQWU\¶VUHFHQWWUDQVLWLRQIURPFLYLOZDU7KH intervention explored in this study is telecommunications policy, with a particular focus on the Liberian Telecommunications Act of 2007 and the associated factors that influence the policymaking process in contexts such as this. This analysis was developed through a qualitative methodology, with data being collected from semi-structured interviews with senior government personnel, political representatives and representatives from telecommunications firm. Results indicate that unique factors influence the policy process in developing post-conflict settings. These factors include institutional context, technical and human resources, political support, international support, attributes of elites and international policy networks. The article explores questions of institutional legitimacy, particularly the Liberian telecommunications regulator, and how perceptions of these institutions strongly influenced local RSHUDWRU¶VSRVLWLRQVGXULQJWKHWHOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQVOHJLVODWLYHSURFHVV)XUWKHUPRUHGXULQJSHULRGVRI post-conflict political instability, many telecommunications operators operate under few restrictions or are self-regulated, creating resistance to new regulatory policies. The results of interviews indicate that due to the significant brain-drain associated with skilled workers fleeing the country during conflict, many institutions suffer from a lack of qualified, technical resources to adequately implement recommended policies. It was also noted that elite actors and certain ethnic groups often hold a great deal of influence to advance particular policy directions. The article concludes that a better understanding of these factors could improve the development and implementation of public policies in these settings. &RQQHOO\ & µ+RZ 'RHV WKH 6KRZ *R On?: Theatre for Development in Post-Election .HQ\D¶LQTheatre History Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 65-72. The context of this study is Kenya during the disputed election (December 2007) and the associated political and ethnic tensions and violence. This study explores a variety of Theatre for Development LQWHUYHQWLRQVLQFOXGLQJ3HRSOH¶V3RSXODU7KHDWUH337LQ1DLUREL6KLQLQJ+RPHIRUWKH&RPPXQLW\ (SHOFCO) in Kibera, and Rapid Effective Participatory Action in Community Theatre Education and 'HYHORSPHQW¶V5EPACTED) Magnet Theatre in Nakuru. These interventions each employ techniques of community theatre with the aim of addressing community concerns and promoting dialogue on issues such as HIV/AIDS, gender equality and poverty reduction. This article explores the difficulties faced by Theatre for Development practitioners working in volatile settings both during and after periods of political tensions and violence. This exploration was conducted using participant observation, personal Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 17 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 reflection and qualitative interviews ± both face-to-face and via email. The results of this exploration indicated that it is extremely difficult but very important to conduct Theatre for Development activities during and post-conflict. Theatre for Development was identified as particularly beneficial for creating bonds between members of different, often conflicting, ethnic groups as well as promoting peace and behaviour change within individuals. Some of the difficulties faced by practitioners include destruction of property, increased violence, displacement, safety concerns and restricted access to areas. However the examination noted that holding Theatre for Development interventions in non-theatre settings such as parks and markets helps overcome many socio-economic barriers to attendance. &XUWLV'($µ%URDGFDVWLQJ3HDFH $Q $QDO\VLVRI/RFDO0HGLDLQ3RVW-Conflict Peace EXLOGLQJSURMHFWVLQ5ZDQGDDQG%RVQLD¶,QCanadian Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 21, Issue 1, pp. 141-166. This study explores the dual contexts of post-conflict Rwanda and post-conflict Bosnia. The study explores a variety of interventions with a focus on the use of local media (particularly television and radio) peace building projects. In the context of Rwanda the interventions explored include Reporteurs VDQV )URQWLpU¶V DQG )RXQGDWLRQ +LURQGHOOH¶V 5DGLR $JDWDVK\D SURMHFW DQG 81(6&2¶V 626 0pGLDV programme focussing on technical support and training. In the context of Bosnia the interventions explored include the Office of the High RepresenWDWLYH¶V 2SHQ %URDGFDVWLQJ 1HWZRUN 2%1 encouraging pluralist, professional and multicultural media; the Free Elections Radio Network (FERN) providing balanced elections coverage; and a variety of smaller interventions .This article represents an analysis of how different kinds of local media interventions can affect peace building processes. This analysis is conducted through a literature review, qualitative interviews, media and policy analysis, and programme evaluation. The results of this analysis concluded that local media projects, particularly radio soap opera, can contribute to peace building, conflict resolution and reconciliation. However, the article also notes that the factors that contribute to the success of such activities need to be further evaluated. In order to be successful, peace building initiatives require an understanding of the local context and culture within which they are operating. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that if local media interventions are not viewed as impartial they are likely to be viewed with suspicion by audiences. This is demonstrated by both the OBN and FERN networks whose dominant presence in Sarajevo prevented them from making a clean break from the existing media scene in Bosnia. Local media institutions (particularly Radio Agatashya in Rwanda) in post-conflict settings often face difficulties meeting the needs of diverse groups with differing expectations. This can often result in the characterisation of these institutions as biased. (UQL - 1 µ:DU µ,QFHQGLDU\ 0HGLD¶ DQG ,QWHUQDWLRQDO +XPDQ 5LJKWV /DZ¶ ,Q Media, Culture & Society, Vol. 31, Issue 6, pp.867-886. This article explores the legality of media interventions carried out by foreign forces in post-conflict settings. This study is not situated in a specific geographic context; instead the setting of this study considers more generally a non-specific target state in a post-conflict condition. The interventions explored in this study are media interventions carried out by foreign forces within this setting and the study specifically assesses the legality of these interventions. This is done through a literature review assessing existing human rights frameworks and principles of intervention, a media analysis, and a Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 18 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 legal analysis of media interventions. Participants in this study included foreign agencies, military forces and media organisations. The study explores the cases of Cambodia, Bosnia and Kosovo to demonstrate the potential for the diverse agendas of parties involved in media interventions to stifle healthy development in the post-war media space. The study also demonstrates the possibility for PHGLD LQWHUYHQWLRQV WR YLRODWH VWDWH VRYHUHLJQW\ E\ LQWUXGLQJ XSRQ WKH WDUJHW VWDWH¶V DXWRQRP\ RU exerting influence upon this state. The study also explores the case of the interim government in post-war Iraq to demonstrate the potential for transitional governments to abuse their control over the media and in doing so, recreate the conditions that led to the intervention. It is argued that the legal basis of media interventions is, and will continue to be, debateable. However, it is argued that the more DJJUHVVLYH PHDVXUHV GXULQJ WLPHV RI FRQIOLFW LQ SDUWLFXODU WKH µXVH RI IRUFH¶ VXFK DV ERPELQJ broadcasting towers, may violate the UN Charter and other International norms. The study concludes by arguing that there should be a strong presumption against interventions and a high standard of proof demonstrating abuse. (YDQV5µ7KH7ZR)DFHVRI(PSRZHUPHQWLQ&RQIOLFW¶LQ5HVHDUFKLQ&RPSDUDWive and International Conflict, Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp. 50-64. The context of this study is post-conflict Nepal as a locale for Bhutanese refugees. The intervention explored in this study is peace-building education among these refugees, particularly through the Bhutanese Refugee Children Forum (BRCF). The BRCF is an agency-initiated participation project GHVLJQHGWRLQFUHDVHUHIXJHHFKLOGUHQ¶VFDSDFLW\IRUGHFLVLRQ-making, empowerment and awareness of their rights. This article represents an exploration of the possibilities for empowerment available to Bhutanese refugees, particularly through involvement with agency-initiated non-formal education projects, with a focus on their engagement in violent political activities. This exploration is informed by ethnographic observation, individual interviews, focus group discussions and participatory drawing and writing exercises with children who participated in the BRCF. Peace education programs have demonstrated many positive impacts including increased confidence, improved family relationships and development of new skills. However, peace education programs are limited in their effectiveness as a UHVXOW RIWKH SDUWLFLSDQWV¶VWDWXVDVUHIXJHHV DQGQRWLRQVRIGLVSODFHPHQWDQGGHQLDORIEDVLFULJKWV Furthermore, the results of this exploration indicate that that peace building education programs may have unintended consequences and it cannot be assumed that the skills and experiences gained by participating in these programs will be used to promote peace. One participant in the BRCF also participated in a Maoist cultural organisation, demonstrating that participation in peace building programs and involvement with violent political activities are not mutually exclusive. Despite the peaceful messages promoted by BRCF, some participants are willing to invoke violence as an expression of their political conviction. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 19 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 )LQNHO 6 ( 6PLWK $ ( µ&LYLF HGXFDWLRQ 3ROLWLFDO 'LVFXVVLRQ DQG WKH 6RFLDO Transmission of Democratic Knowledge and Values in a New Democracy: .HQ\D ¶ ,Q American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 55, Issue 2, pp. 417-435. The context of this study is Kenya, in the time spanning the democratic election of 2002. During this time the political culture of the country was characterised by democratic struggles, ethnic rivalries and inequalities, intolerance, distrust and low levels of citizen engagement. The intervention explored in this report is the Kenyan National Civic Education Programme (NCEP) ± a civic education programme designed to promote civic skills, democratic values and political engagement through a series of workshops, lectures, plays, puppet shows and community meetings. This intervention was conducted by nearly 80 Kenyan NGOs. This article represents an evaluation of the NCEP in regards to its ability to affect changes in knowledge, belief and behaviours. This evaluation was informed by both pre- and post-civic education survey interviews with individuals attending NCEP workshops as well as interviews with non-attendees as a control group. The article argues that exposure to adult civic education training can increase political knowledge and participation and reduce political intolerance. The article identifies four dependant variables of political cultures: (i) political knowledge, (ii) participation, (iii) tolerance, and (iv) sense of national versus tribal identity. The survey results indicated that adults who attended the civic education showed a significant increase in all four of these variables. It was also acknowledged that WKH1&(3KDGLQGLUHFWHIIHFWVLQFOXGLQJH[SRVXUHRIWKHSURJUDPPH¶VPHVVDJHWRQRQ-attendees of workshops through social discussion with attendees. The article also identifies six participatory methodologies such as small group discussions, role playing, stage plays or dramatisations, game playing, problem solving, and mock elections. Survey results indicated that attending purely lecture-based workshops, with no participatory elements, was less effective than those using open, participatory teaching methoGVLQFKDQJLQJSDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHEHOLHIVDQGEHKDYLRXUV )UHUH06µ$IWHUWKH+DWH0HGLD5HJXODWLRQLQWKH'5&%XUXQGLDQG5ZDQGD¶,QGlobal Media and Communication, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp. 327-352. The context of this study is post-conflict Central Africa, particularly the nations of Burundi, Rwanda and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). This study takes place following the end of civil wars in the region, during which time the media in the aforementioned nations became vehicles fRUµKDWHPHGLD¶ and was seen as a contributor to the violence. The study explores the role of communications regulatory bodies to support press freedom and monitor the media landscape. The specific regulatory bodies explored are Counseil National de la ComPXQLFDWLRQ &1& LQ %XUXQGL +DXWH $XWRULWp µGHV 0pGLDV (HAM) in the DRC, and High Council of the Press (HCP) in Rwanda. The article establishes that reconstructing the media sector post-conflict is a difficult task. There were particular challenges associated with achieving consensus within these regulatory bodies as members were often unwilling to sanction media outlets that supported their own political views. Furthermore, in the case of the HCP in Rwanda, it was determined that there was little independence from government and an inability to act as a decision-making body independent of government enforcement. It was acknowledged that communication regulatory bodies can play a key role in the development of a media sector that is professional and accountable. Within the contexts of Burundi, Rwanda and the DRC, the establishment and strengthening of regulatory bodies was seen as an essential element of a responsible media sector DQGDQHFHVVDU\VWHSWRSUHYHQWIXWXUHµKDWHPHGLD¶+RZHYHULWZDVQRWHGWKDt these bodies often lack Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 20 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 the resources to effectively fulfil this role. The CNC in Burundi had limited access to transport and power generators thereby limiting their ability to adequately monitor the media. Similarly, many radio stations in Burundi were reliant on foreign aid, the withdrawal of which might threaten the survival and impartiality of the media sector. *DPDJH3 +DOSLQ()µ(-6UL/DQND%ULGJLQJWKH'LJLWDO'LYLGH¶,QElectronic Library, Vol. 25, Issue 6, pp. 693-710. The context of this study is post-conflict Sri Lanka, having emerged from decades of civil war. The intervention explored in this study is e-6UL /DQND¶V 7HOHFHQWUH 'HYHORSPHQW 3URJUDPPH 7'3 designed to connect every village in Sri Lanka to the internet and thereby assist in bridging the digital divide. This article represents an examination of the impact of the TDP. Both qualitative and quantitative data for this examination was gathered from a survey of users, focus group discussions, observations, interviews and document analysis. The results indicated that a number of improvements need to be made to the telecentres in order to increase their effectiveness. The telecentres did not adequately cater for non-English speaking groups such as Sinhala and Tamil speakers and materials that were to be made available in these languages were not provided. In particular, the author found that the telecentres were poorly promoted, under-staffed and reliant on subsidies. Furthermore, some of their services were not used or valued by the community. It was discovered that only a small percentage of the total population were aware of the telecentres existence and features. Furthermore, a weekly telecast from the Sri Lankan ICT Agency was broadcast on a channel that could not be viewed in certain areas of the country and at a time that did not reach many of its desired recipients. These issues need to EHDGGUHVVHGLQRUGHUWRLPSURYHWKHVXVWDLQDELOLW\RIWKHFHQWUHVDQGWKHLULPSDFWRQWKHµGLJLWDOGLYLGH¶ .DPDO 6 µ'Hvelopment On-DLU :RPHQ¶V 5DGLR 3URGXFWLRQ LQ $IJKDQLVWDQ¶ ,Q Gender and Development, Vol. 15, Issue 3, pp. 399-411. The context of this study is Herat, Afghanistan during the post-Taliban reconstruction and associated war. The focus of this study is the ODXQFKRIDZRPHQ¶VUDGLRVWDWLRQ± Radio Sahar ± supported by the Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society (IMPACS), Canada. This station was developed with the aim of promoting strong reporting on gender issues as well as building the capacity (both broadcast and editorial) of women within the station. This study represents an investigation of the launch of Radio Sahar. Results of this study indicate concerns balancing the competing constraints of conservative Afghan culture and the objectives of IMPACS trainers. The article indicates that C4D initiatives that are designed to reduce gender inequalities, like Radio Sahar, need to produce content that is representative of their target audience. Due to time constraints and hectic work schedules, members of the radio station had little time to plan their programming and were often reliant on pre-packaged programming from donors. The pre-scripted nature of these broadcasts was very formal and educated which served to isolate many illiterate listeners and prevented spontaneous conversational dialogue that is more culturally dominant in Afghanistan. This suggests that inadequate audience research can result in programming that reflects the interests and concerns of a select number of radio station members. Self-censorship also contributed to the dominance of content favoured by Western donor agencies and programming that was more likely to be accepted by local stakeholders such as the Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 21 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 militia. It was also concluded that the use of media to promote gender equality needs to encompass PRUH WKDQ VHWWLQJ XS ZRPHQ¶V UDGLR VWDWLRQV DQG VKRXOG EH FRQFHSWXDOLVHG DV D KROLVWLF culturally-specific, long-term approach. .DUDQ.*LPHQR-'0 7DQGRF(-Uµ7KH,QWHUQHWDQG0RELOH7HFKQRORJLHVLQ Election &DPSDLJQV 7KH *$%5,(/$ :RPHQ¶V 3DUW\ 'XULQJ WKH 3KLOLSSLQH (OHFWLRQV¶ ,Q Journal of Information Technology and Politics, Vol. 6, Issue 3-4, pp. 326-339. The context of this study is the Philippines, during the 2007 mid-term election, which was conducted DJDLQVW D EDFNGURS RI YLROHQFH 7KLV VWXG\ H[SORUHV WKH *$%5,(/$ :RPHQ¶V 3DUW\ *:3 XVH RI media technologies for electoral campaigns. This exploration is conducted through a case study analysis and in-depth interviews with GWP officials. The findings of this examination indicate that new communications technologies are a cost-effective way for political parties to reach voters. The GWP successfully used a combination of traditional media and new technologies to generate support for the party and increase public engagement. However, some forms of new communications technologies are more accessible than others. For example, organisations with limited funds may have difficulty using and maintaining websites. Similarly, the cost of television advertising can be very high and offer only OLPLWHGH[SRVXUHUHVXOWLQJLQPDQ\FDPSDLJQVLQFOXGLQJ*:3¶VWXUQLQJWR<RX7XEHWRJHQHUDWHZLGHU exposure for less cost. However, it was noted that the benefit of using YouTube could have been maximised if it was used earlier in the campaign. In the Philippines campaigning via mobile phones was more effective then utilising the internet, due to the higher rate of mobile phone penetration across the country. 0LFKDX / µ$SSURDFKLQJ 2OG 3UREOHPV LQ 1HZ :D\V &RPPXnity Mobilisation as a 3ULPDU\3UHYHQWLRQ6WUDWHJ\WR&RPEDW9LROHQFH$JDLQVW:RPHQ¶,QGender and Development, Vol. 15, Issue 1, pp. 95-109. The context of this study is East Africa, with a specific focus on Tanzania and Uganda. The study focuses on the efforts of the NGO Raising Voices in regards to community mobilisation to prevent violence against women (VAW). This article represents a presentation of the lessons learnt from Raising Voices experiences in East Africa. The article proposes that community mobilisation is essential to ensure meaningful change on the issue of VAW. As VAW has been normalised by many communities, community mobilisation is necessary to ensure individuals receive community support for changing social norms and/or behaviour. It is acknowledged that campaigns designed to address individual behaviour are unlikely to succeed without addressing the socio-cultural community factors that drive that behaviour. However, while mobilising communities to prevent domestic violence holds promise, it presents many challenges. For example, in the past, Raising Voices had been unrealistic about the outcomes that could be achieved though community and institutional engagement. As such, the authors acknowledge that a focus on the end result of reducing VAW is meaningless without considering the context of relationships. Similarly sporadic engagement with a variety of sectors (such as police, religious leaders, health care workers etc) can often result in fragmentation and act as an obstacle to long-term change. There are also challenges associated with assessing the effectiveness of long-term social mobilisation campaigns due to the difficulty of linking activities to changes in community beliefs. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 22 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 0LOOHU6µ-RXUQDOLVP7UDLQLQJLQ6UL/DQND0HHWLQJWKH1HHGVRI:RUNLQJ-RXUQDOLVWV¶,Q Changing English: Studies in Culture and Education, Vol. 13, Issue 2, pp. 173-178. The context of this study is Sri Lanka, amidst the residual ethnic tensions and conflict that has damaged the journalism sector. This study focuses on a BBC World Service Trust journalism training programme - µ%ULGJLQJ WKH 'LYLGH¶ 7KLV SURJUDPPH ZDV GHVLJQHG WR LPSURYH WKH DFFXUDF\ LPSDUWLDOLW\ DQG responsibility of journalists during conflict. This article addresses the successfulness of this programme and explores the lessons to be learnt. It was noted that during the war years in Sri Lanka there was almost no interaction between Sinhala and Tamil journalists resulting in a polarised journalism industry. It was concluded that in order for journalism training interventions to be effective it is critical that work is undertaken with senior staff and owners to ensure that higher standards of journalism are encouraged and supported. Throughout the duration of the BBC programme, which had a large distance education component, it was noted that many of the face-to-face training sessions, which were successful at the time, had insufficient follow up. In order to be successful, journalism training programmes require either face-to-face training as the dominant training modality or sufficient additional face-to-face training when the dominant modality is online. 0LOOLJDQ6 0\WWRQ* µ)URP0RXWKSLHFHWR3XEOLF 6HUYLFH'RQRU 6XSSRUWWR5DGLR %URDGFDVWHUVLQ1HZ'HPRFUDFLHV¶ in Development in Practice, Vol. 19, Issue 4/5, pp. 491-503. The context of this study is northern Nigeria ± the Jigawa state ± following the nations transition into democratic rule at the end of the 1990s. The study explores the Department for International Development (DFID) supported radio programme ± Radio Hannu Daya. This state-controlled radio programme aimed to provide a talk-show format whereby the views and concerns of the electorate could be broadcast as well as giving government a chance to ansZHU FRQVWLWXHQW¶V TXHVWLRQV DQG UHVSRQGWRFRQFHUQV7KLVDUWLFOHUHSUHVHQWVDFULWLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHOHVVRQVOHDUQWIURP'),'¶V support of this programme. The article concludes that engagement with state media can yield results in terms of shifting editorial practices and improving independence. Particularly in parts of rural Africa, where many communities are reliant on state broadcasters and with commercial stations seeing little point to accessing these communities as part of their target audience. However sustaining this independence remains a key challenge. State-run media in a newly democratic society can often be unprepared for the new role they are expected to fulfil and are often hampered by funding restrictions and lack of capacity. In many instances, it can take a number of years for these barriers to change however donor support targeted at Capacity Strengthening can help facilitate the process of legislative reform. However, engagement with state broadcasters can remain problematic due to continued domination by governing powers. Similarly, state broadcasters can often be slow to adapt the scope of their content to conform to democratic changes. 3DOXFN ( / µ,V ,W %HWWHU 1RW WR 7DON" *URXS 3RODUL]DWLRQ ([WHQGHG &RQWDFW DQG PersSHFWLYH 7DNLQJ LQ (DVWHU 'HPRFUDWLF 5HSXEOLF RI &RQJR¶ ,Q Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 36, Issue 9, pp. 1170-1185. This study is situated in the eastern provinces of Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) during periods of residual conflict and hostility following the official end of war in the region. This study explores and radio Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 23 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 soap opera ± Kumbuka Kesho ± and related talk-show designed to promote listener discussion about ethnic conflict and increase intergroup cooperation. This study compared the attitudes and behaviour of individuals listening to both the talk-show and soap opera against listeners of only the soap opera as a baseline. Data was collected through interviews and questionnaires with listeners from over 15 ethnic groups in order to assess whether mass media can actually encourage interpersonal discussion about conflict and the effects of such discussion. This article represents a discussion of the results of this study. Results indicated that a majority of listeners of both the talk-show and soap opera discussed the program more than listeners of only the soap opera. Similarly, listeners of the talk-show characterised their discussions as more contentious, registering a stronger intolerance towards disliked groups. This increase in negative attitudes and behaviours among talk-show listeners could have been caused by either methodological design or quality of the content of programming. These results emphasise the need for pre-testing of audience feedback and pre-setting of discussion goals to ensure that media content achieves its desired outcome. 3DOXFN(/ *UHHQ'3µ'HIHUHQFH'LVVHQWDQG'LVSXWH5HVROXWLRQ$Q([SHULPHQWDO ,QWHUYHQWLRQ 8VLQJ 0DVV 0HGLD WR &KDQJH 1RUPV DQG %HKDYLRXU LQ 5ZDQGD¶ ,Q American Political Science Review, Vol. 103, Issue 4, pp. 622-644. This study is situated in post-genocide Rwanda and represents a comparison of the relative impacts of a health (Urunana) and reconciliation (Musekewaya) radio soap opera, with a view to establishing the effects on listeners in terms of promoting independent thought through collective action. Musekewaya is a program aimed at discouraging blind obedience and reliance on direction from authorities and promoting independent thought and collective action in problem solving. This study compares the outcomes of groups listening to this radio soap opera with those listening to a different message in order to isolate the impact of the program content from the socio-cultural environment. Following from this, control groups listened to a radio soap opera (Urunana) which aims to change beliefs, norms and behaviours about reproductive health and HIV. Throughout the study, the two radio soap opera programs were presented to pairs of communities across fourteen research sites. These communities included genocide survivors, Twa communities (the pygmy minority), prison communities and the general population. The study engaged in a qualitative and quantitative assessment, through individual interviews, focus group discussions, and role-play content analysis, of changes in individual attitudes, perceived community norms and deliberative behaviours. The results of the study indicate that while two radio programs had little effect on many beliefs and attitudes, certain aspects of political culture are malleable to short-term change as a result of media programs. In particular, it was demonstrated that UDGLR VRDS RSHUD FDQ LPSDFW OLVWHQHU¶V ZLOOLQJQHVV WR H[SUHVV GLVVHQW VHOI-reliance and local responsibility for community problems as well as increasing social trust within the community. It was also demonstrated that the radio soap opera led to decreased dependency on external institutions, with participants demonstrating a desire to problem solve collectively as a community. However, these changes were not accompanied by a greater willingness to reduce social distance through interaction with other social or cultural groups. The study concludes by acknowledging the role for further study to explore the role of a variety of media across a broad range of institutional settings. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 24 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Sengupta, A., Long, E. G., Singhal, A. & Shefner-5RJHUV & / µ7KH 6DGD 6D\V µ:H :RPHQ+DYH2XU5LJKWV¶$*HQGHU$QDO\VLVRIDQ,&7,QLWLDWLYHLQ$IJKDQLVWDQ¶,QInternational Communication Gazette, vol. 69, Issue 4, pp. 335-353. This study is situated in Afghanistan during the parliamentary elections of 2005. This study explores 9RLFHIRU+XPDQLW\¶V9)+Sada initiative. As part of this initiative, 40,000 solar-powered digital audio devices were distributed, each containing 15 hours of civic education material designed to promote peace, national unity and democracy. Women were a particular focus of this initiative as a result of their lack of access to alternative communication technologies. This article represents an examination of ERWKPHQDQGZRPHQ¶VSHUFHSWLRQVRIWKHWHFKQRORJLFDOGHYLFHDQGSDWWHUQVRIXVH7KLVH[DPLQDWLRQ was formed through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The results of this study indicate that womeQ¶VDFFHVVWR,&7VLVFRQVWUDLQHGE\DYDULHW\RIIDFWRUVLQFOXGLQJWLPHFRQVWUDLQWVHFRQRPLF constraints, and illiteracy. The study demonstrates that technology is not gender neutral and in order to address rights issues, a gender analysis of ICT or C4D interventions is essential. C4D interventions that target gender inequality can help increase social mobility and SURPRWHZRPHQ¶V rights in a conservative society, particularly in regards to forced marriage and the right to education and employment. Results of the study indicated that the Sada device became a vehicle for collective listening and engagement between neighbours and communities. This was identified as a valuable avenue for promoting community dialogue and discussion. The authors conclude that the content on the Sada devices was culturally appropriate, utilising simple language and culturally sensitive material that did not seem to offend any Afghan cultural and religious beliefs. The study illustrates that C4D interventions can lead to behavioural shifts in political culture and enhance community ownership of problems requiring collective action. 7DFFKL - :DWNLQV - .HHUWKLUDQWKQH . µ3DUWLFLSDWRU\ &RQWHQW &UHDWLRQ 9RLFH &RPPXQLFDWLRQ'HYHORSPHQW¶,QDevelopment in Practice, Vol. 19, Issue 4-5, pp. 573-584. The context of this study is Sri Lanka, in the surrounding communities engaged by the Kothmale Community Centre (CMC). This study also draws on material from a number of sites across India, Indonesia and Nepal. The study explores the Sri Lanka e-Tuktuk initiative whereby an auto-rickshaw is converted into a mobile mixed-media platform containing a laptop, printer, telephone, loudspeakers and data projector. This initiative was explored as part of the Finding a Voice Research project and as such other participatory content-creation activities are also explored in this study. Through the example of the e-Tuktuk initiative, this article explores the role of content creation activities as enablers of voice in marginalised communities. The results of this exploration indicate the importance of the local cultural context for designing appropriate, relevant content. It is noted that intermediaries can play a valuable role in linking communities to technology; however it is crucial that the chosen intermediary is not going to exacerbate exclusionary relationships and community distrust. Participation needs to be encouraged at all stages of content creation to ensure meaningful engagement by beneficiaries. The study demonstrates the benefits of engaging marginalised groups as well as the usefulness of local content for generating debate around local issues. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 25 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 9ROOKDUGW-&RXWLQ06WDXE(:HLVV* 'HIODQGHU-µ'HFRQVWUXFWLQJ+DWH6SHHFK in the DRC: A PsychologicaO0HGLD6HQVLWL]DWLRQ&DPSDLJQ¶,QJournal of Hate Studies, Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp. 15-35. The context of this study is the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), particularly the use of hate speech across the mass media throughout the presidential election campaigns in 2006. This study explores the consequences and polarisation caused by this hate speech, and examines a radio program developed to counter hate speech during the election campaign. This study explores La %HQHYROHQFLMD¶V D 'XWFK 1*2¶V PHGLD FDPSDign against hate speech. This large scale media campaign, involving a combination of edutainment and individual psychological theories of behaviour change, sought to empower groups and individuals who had been targets of hate speech. The program aimed to help heal some of the trauma caused by violence as well as promote the justice process. One aspect of this large-scale program was broadcasts with a specific focus on countering hate speech. These broadcasts, four times a week on Radio Okapi, sought to counter the effects of hate speech EHIRUHWKHVHFRQGURXQGRIHOHFWLRQV7KHIRUPDWRIWKHVHEURDGFDVWVDOORZHGOLVWHQHUV¶TXHVWLRQVDERXW hate speech to be answered by La Benevolencija experts. This study explores the characteristics of hate speech ± (i) the existence of elements inciting violence, (ii) the existence of derogatory elements, DQG LLL SURPRWLRQ RI DQ LQGLYLGXDOJURXS¶V YLHZV DW WKH KDUP RI DQRWKHU¶V 7KH UHVXOWV RI WKLV VWXG\ demonstrate the increasing role played by the media in propagating ethnic hatred and divisions and exacerbating existing tensions within the community. As a result of this it becomes increasingly QHFHVVDU\WRLQFUHDVHLQGLYLGXDO¶VDELOLW\WRFULWLFDOO\H[DPLQHSROLWLFDOEURDGFDVWVDQGGHFRQVWUXFWDQ\ hate speech. By increasing public sensitisation to hate speech and teaching individuals how to recognise and resist it, steps can be taken to further promote peace and security. :KDODQ-µ7KH3RZHURI)ULHQGV7KH5HJLRQDO$VVLVWDQFH0LVVLRQWR6RORPRQ,VODQGV¶ In Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 47, Issue 5, pp. 627-637. The context of this study is the Solomon Islands, following extensive factional conflict, militia violence DQGFULPLQDODFWLYLW\7KLVVWXG\H[SORUHVWKH$XVWUDOLDQ*RYHUQPHQW¶V5HJLRQDO$VVLVWDQFH0ission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI) intervention. This intervention saw the military deployment of over 2,000 personnel to the Solomon Islands with the objective of increasing security, demobilising and disarming militia groups, ending government corruption, and restoring government services. This article explores 5$06,¶VDELOLW\WRVKDSHWKHDWWLWXGHVLQFHQWLYHVDQGLQWHUHVWVRIORFDODFWRUVWKURXJKYDULRXVSRZHUVRI coercion, inducement and legitimacy. The initial success of the RAMSI intervention was due to the immediate strengthening of the criminal justice system, which not only enabled the arrest and detention of law breakers but also acted as a powerful deterrent. The use and deployment of Pacific Islander personnel during the intervention enabled a degree of cultural familiarity, which assisted communications and helped to legitimise the intervention. The effective communication strategies (both face-to-face and through mass media) behind RAMSI also helped legitimise the intervention and demonstrated the power of a multi-channelled approach to communications. It is concluded that transparency and accountability can be enhanced in conflict interventions through effective local participation mechanisms, which help to understand the power dynamics that have the potential to derail the peace process. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 26 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Case study text (NOTARI) - the contexts of the included studies Bright, D. & Mozani, B. (2010). Final Evaluation Report: Youth and Non-Violence in Guinea, Search for Common Ground (SFCG) with support for US Agency for International Development (USAID), pp. 1-37. This study is situated in Guinea, specifically the locations of Kindia, Mamou and Kankan. The LQWHUYHQWLRQH[SORUHGLQWKLVUHSRUWLV6HDUFKIRU&RPPRQ*URXQG¶V6)&*µ<RXWKDQG1RQ-Violence in GXLQHD¶SURMHFW7KUHHW\SHVRIDFWLYLWLHVZHUHLPSOHPHQWHGDVSDUWRIWKLVSURMHFW± (i) training young people across human rights, civic duties and conflict resolution, (ii) outreach and sensitisation events such as peace festivals and theatre performances, and (iii) production of a radio magazine (Barada) and an interactive radio show to discuss topics covered in the magazine. The aim of this intervention was to promote the use of non-violent means of conflict resolution among youths. This report represents DQHYDOXDWLRQRIWKHUHOHYDQFHHIIHFWLYHQHVVDQG LPSDFWRIWKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶ project. The evaluation is informed by consideration of secondary data in the form of a review of project documents alongside primary data. This primary data includes focus group discussions with participants from youth associations, interviews with key informants and participant questionnaires. The gender ratio of the questionnaire used in the report was not balanced, with this imbalance seemingly reflected in project and activity participation. As a result of this it was concluded that the everyday living situations of women may limit their ability to participate in C4D projects. It was suggested that the low number of female participants in the project could be addressed with an explicit strategy. The results of the pre-training and post-WUDLQLQJTXHVWLRQQDLUHVLQGLFDWHGDSRVLWLYHFKDQJHLQSDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJH of human rights, civic duties and conflict resolution. There were concerns expressed about the potential of the interactive radio show format to prompt derogatory comments, after a caller in Mamou made comments about the President. However, this incident proved to be isolated, prompting the conclusion that the interactive format of the radio shows was highly valued by project participants. Throughout the evaluation process it was noted that certain elements of project documentation were missing, making it difficult for evaluators to assess the full impact of the project. Furthermore, there was a lack of data DERXWWKHLPSDFWRIWKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWRQEHQHILFLDULHV7KLVUHVXOWVLQD need for greater assessment of the benefits of the program on community members. 'DKDO-.DIOH. %KDWWDUDL.µ&KLOGUHQ$VVociated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups Program ± (YDOXDWLRQ5HSRUW¶6HDUFKIRU&RPPRQ*URXQG6)&*SS-53. This study is situated in Nepal, specifically the three districts of Surkhet, Dang and Chitwan. The intervention explored in this report is the Search for Common Ground (SFCG) and UNICEF Supported µ&KLOGUHQ $VVRFLDWHG ZLWK $UPHG )RUFHV DQG $UPHG *URXSV 3URJUDP¶ &$$)$* $V SDUW RI WKLV program, SFCG facilitated a radio program produced by children (Sunau Bolau) as well as media sensitisation, community peace building and outreach activities. Alongside the Sunau Bolau radio program, designed to give young people a platform to contribute to the peace process to produce their own radio show, SFCG also produced a radio serial drama (Nayaa Baato, Nayaa Paaila), which encourages young people to solve disputes through non-violent means. This report represents an evaluation of these programs, alongside a variety of community peace building activities, in order to assess the extent to which project outcomes and results were achieved. The tools used for this Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 27 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 evaluation include focus group discussions, key informant interviews, content analysis and case studies. The evaluation found that, while the CAAFAG did result in behaviour change, the success of the project was mitigated by a number of factors. It was noted in the evaluation that, despite being a project target area, the region of Dang had no access to the FM radio coverage. Therefore, respondents from the local community had trouble listening to Sunau Bola. Furthermore, the complex language used in the radio programs, particularly the incorporation of English terms, made it difficult for Nepali children to understand. Similarly, the format of the programs, with lengthy interview and discussions, was found to be less entertaining and appealing to the children. The results of the evaluation also indicated the importance of the timing of radio programs to adequately capture the target audience. The evaluation particularly emphasised the important role to EHSOD\HGE\FXOWXUDOO\VSHFLILF¶ORFDO¶IRUPVRIPHGLDVXFK as Dohari (a Nepali folk tradition of dialoguing through songs). This enabled potentially controversial messages to be provided to the community regarding the return and reintegration of children. Everitt, P., Williams, T., & Myers, M. (2004) Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Activities in Sierra Leone, Search For Common Ground (SFCG), Sierra Leone and Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-46. This study is situated in post-conflict Sierra Leone. The interventions explored in this report are a selection of Search for Common Ground (SFCG) projects - Talking Drum Studios (TDS), and Community Peace Building Unit (CPU) - jointly referred to throughout the report at TDS. These interventions utilise the media, alongside outreach tools, to encourage and disseminate peace building messages and promote public discussion on issues of local and national interest. These interventions DUHLPSOHPHQWHGWKURXJKDQµDOOLDQFHEXLOGLQJDSSURDFK¶ZKLFKHPSKDVLVHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIIRUJLQJ strategic partnerships with other institutions at both a local and national level. This report evaluates these interventions and explores whether broadcast and outreach messages are listened to and discussed in society and whether this contributes to or encourages changes in attitudes and behaviours. A wide range of sources are drawn upon to develop this evaluation including unstructured interviews and focus groups with stakeholders including project beneficiaries, local government, paramount chiefs, project evaluators, SFCG project staff and staff from partner organisations. The report notes that as the post-conflict situation in Sierra Leone began to change, so too did the aims of SFCG shift from a peace-buildLQJ JRDO WR D µULJKWV-EDVHG¶ DSSURDFK 7KLV GHPRQVWUDWHG WKDW &' interventions need to adapt to changes in a post-conflict setting in order to be successful. The results of this evaluation indicate that the combined use of media and outreach work is a highly effective way to engage rural, often illiterate populations while promoting peace building. It was demonstrated that radio programs, in particular, can be most useful after an isolated incident of violence to restore order and transmit accurate informaWLRQ7KHUHSRUWFRQFOXGHVWKDW6)&*¶VDFWLYLWLHVLQ6LHUUD/HRQHKDYHEHHQ KLJKO\HIIHFWLYHSDUWLFXODUO\WKHLUµDOOLDQFHEXLOGLQJ¶DSSURDFKZKLFKHQVXUHGWKDWSDUWQHUVZHUHFDUHIXOO\ chosen based on their perceived trustworthiness and impartiality. TDS successfully encouraged greater levels of inclusion and participation by community members, particularly women, children and youth. 6)&*¶VDFWLYLWLHVLQ6LHUUD /HRQHDOVR H[SRVHGFRUUXSWLRQSUDFWLFHVE\LQFUHDVLQJWUDQVSDUHQF\ DQG accountability. However, it is noted that the success of TDS has generated some problems regarding the development of a successful exit strategy. An appropriate exit strategy needs to be developed to ensure the ongoing sustainability of initiatives by increasing the capacity and confidence of community members to conduct activities independent of SFCG and TDS. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 28 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Gordon, G. (2008). A UNHCR Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Programming in the DRC: OCTOBER (2008), UNHCR and Search for Common Ground (SFCG), pp. 1-51. The context of this study is the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), particularly the areas of South Kivu and Katanga that have been plagued by ethnic tension and violence as well as large-scale displacement and repatriation. The intervention explored in this report is the UNHCR funded; Search for Common Ground (SFCG) implemented, media-RULHQWHGFRQIOLFWUHVROXWLRQSURJUDPPLQJ6)&*¶VZRUN in the DRC employs radio programming and interactive theatre to decrease conflict among repatriated refugees as well as providing communities with necessary conflict resolution tools. This report UHSUHVHQWVDQHYDOXDWLRQRI6)&*¶VSURJUDPPLQJDQDO\VLQJSURJUDPPLQJHIILFDF\WKHUROHRIPHGLD as a mode of conflict resolution and possible opportunities to re-scale current programming. The data for this evaluation was gathered through surveying SFCG participants in the territories of Uvira, Fizi, and Moba, key informant interviews with community leaders and partner organisations and ethnographic observations. It is concluded that increased communication between the UNHCR and SFCG would enhance project success and create more opportunities for collaboration. It was noted that 6)&*¶VFXUUHQWLQWHU-organisational communication practices were weak, placing a potential strain on partner relationships. The report recommended that internal standardized practices be established for inter-organisational communication. Furthermore, there is a need to narrowly define complex and ambiguous terms to reduce miscommunication. It is also indicated that a lack of baseline information and inadequate evaluation and monitoring procedures can make it difficult to assess the impacts of C4D projects. The data collected as part of this evaluation offer only a snapshot about those who listen to SFCG radio or see SFCG theatre and is only able to suggest correlation, not causation. This is due to the lack of baseline data collection and randomisation and the report suggests the development of new monitoring and evaluation procedures to overcome some of these limitations. Furthermore, the evaluation itself was carried out in relatively calm areas meaning that when programs are scaled up to more volatile contexts, there is a need to further analyse and contextualise results to determine what works in these contexts. Results suggest that SFCG had a significant impact on the ways in which people obtain information and knowledge. Listeners and viewers of SFCG programming are more likely to dismiss rumours and obtain information from the radio, local NGOs and the government. As such, the UHSRUWFRQFOXGHVWKDWWKHQHJDWLYHLPSDFWVRI6)&*¶VZRUNDUHRXWZHLJKHGE\WKHSRVLWLYHLPSDFWV *RXOH\& .DQ\DWVL4)LQDO(YDOXDWLRQRIWKH3URMHFW³6XSSRUWLQJD&RQYHUVDWLRQRQ Youth Leadership in Côte d'Ivoire´ 6HDUFK IRU Common Ground (Côte d'Ivoire) and US Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, pp. 1-65. The context of this study is Côte d'Ivoire, particularly the Administrative Regions of Vallée du Bandama, des Lacs, Moyen-cavally, Bas-Sassandra, des Savanes, 18 Montagnes and the Abidjan metropolitan DUHD7KHLQWHUYHQWLRQH[SORUHGLQWKLVUHSRUWLVWKH6)&*SURMHFWµ6XSSRUWLQJD&RQYHUVDWLRQRQ<RXWK /HDGHUVKLSLQ&{WHG ,YRLUH¶7KLVSURMHFWWDUJHWVDGLYHUVHUDQJHRI\RXWKJURXSVLQWKHDIRUementioned regions to facilitate reconciliation and social cohesion. These youths are engaged in leadership conversations through a series of participatory workshops, theatre performances and radio programs. This report represents an evaluation of this project. The data for this evaluation was collected through focus group discussions with youth leaders and beneficiaries and a survey questionnaire for youth Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 29 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 leaders and the general population. The creation of SFCG radio programs is of particular relevance in a context such as Côte d'Ivoire where political and military commanders often interrupt everyday radio broadcasts to incite hatred and cover events in a favourable way. The report notes that the broadcasting of SFCG radio programs had reduced the incidences of this behaviour occurring. The evaluation noted radio programming created important opportunities for community dialogue and cooperation through the generation of informal listening clubs to assist community members who did not speak French to understand certain programs. Also, theatre was identified as a particularly effective C4D method in rural areas with high illiteracy due to its strong visual and oral content. Furthermore, the interactive and realistic nature of the theatre performances enabled participants to reflect on their own behaviours from DQRXWVLGHU¶VSHUVSHFWLYHDQGGHYHORSDOWHUQDWHQRQ-violent ways to mitigate and resolve conflict. While WKHUHSRUWREVHUYHGDUHGXFWLRQLQYLROHQFHDQGSRVLWLYHFKDQJHVWR\RXWKV¶DWWLWXGHVDQGEHKDYLRXrs as D UHVXOW RI 6)&*¶V ZRUN LW QRWHG D QHHG IRU WKHVH ILQGLQJV WR EH FRQILUPHG GXULQJ D SUHVLGHQWLDO campaign that is likely to heighten tensions. Areas for improvement were also identified in the report. Evaluation data demonstrated that more men than women participated in the project, noting the SURMHFW¶VIDLOXUHWRWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHGLIIHUHQWXQGHUVWDQGLQJVRIFRQIOLFWDVH[SHULHQFHGE\PHQDQG women and recommending the incorporation of an explicit gender strategy to ensure gender equality across participation. Concerns were also expressed regarding the independence of the evaluation team who were largely dependent upon SFCG staff to organise meetings and focus groups and administer questionnaires. The evaluation noted that the effectiveness of different project elements were influenced by the visibility of SFCG in the region where project activities were conducted. For example, areas in which SFCG were less frequently present demonstrate less convincing results than the areas in which SFCG had been more active. The report also recommends the formation of partnerships with local authorities in order to ensure the long-term sustainability of the project. Hanson-Alp, R. (2008) Promoting Information and Voice Transparency on Elections (PIVOT): End of Programme Assessment, Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-20. The context of this study is post-FRQIOLFW6LHUUD/HRQHDQGWKHLQWHUYHQWLRQH[SORUHGLV'),'¶VHOHFWLRQ UHIRUP LQWHUYHQWLRQ NQRZQ DV µ3URPRWLQJ ,QIRUPDWLRQ DQG 9RLFH IRU 7UDQVSDUHQF\ RQ (OHFWLRQV¶ (PIVOT). The PIVOT programme acts as an umbrella structure by bringing a variety of partners, approaches and interventions together under a common goal. This common goal is to support a variety of development partners in providing opportunities for citizen engagement with political processes as well as supporting free and fair elections. Some of the projects and partners encompassed by PIVOT include the Search for Common Ground (SFCG) and BBC World Service Trust partnership to develop WKHµ'HPRFUDWLF*RYHUQDQFHLQ6LHUUD/HRQH¶SURMHFWZKLFKSURYLGHGVNLOOVWRFRPPXQLW\UDGLRVWDWLRQV and journalists; the partnerships between Fourah Bay College Department of Mass Communications DQG)RXQGDWLRQ+LURQGHOOHWRGHYHORSWKHµ6WUHQJWKHQLQJ0HGLDLQ6LHUUD/HRQH¶SURMHFWZKLFKOHGWRWKH formation of an independent news and information radio broadcast called Cotton Tree News (CTN); the partnership between the National Democratic Institute and National Elections Watch to implement the µ6WUHQJWKHQLQJ'HPRFUDWLF*RYHUQDQFHLQ6LHUUD/HRQH¶SURMHFWWRSURYLGHYRWHUHGXFDWLRQDQGYRWLQJ VXSSRUWSDUWQHUVKLSEHWZHHQ2[IDPDQGRQWKHµ3URPRWLQJD&XOWXUHRI(TXDO5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ 3$&(5 SURMHFW DLPHG DW LQFUHDVLQJ ZRPHQ¶V UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ LQ 3DUliament; and the Westminster Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 30 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 )RXQGDWLRQIRU'HPRFUDF\ZKLFKZRUNHGZLWKSROLWLFDOSDUWLHVXQGHUWKHµ3ROLWLFDO3DUW\'HYHORSPHQW 3URJUDPPH¶WREXLOGWKHFDSDFLW\RISROLWLFDOSDUWLHV7KLVUHSRUWUHSUHVHQWVDQHYDOXDWLRQRIWKH3,927 programme and was generated by a review of project documentation and interviews with project partners and stakeholders. The authors conclude that the impact of projects designed to promote civic education and participation in the lead up to elections can be maximised if planning and support starts early and delays are avoided. The evaluation noted that some PIVOT initiatives could have been more effective if implemented earlier and continued on a long-term basis. Coordinating a large project that involves multiple organisations poses numerous challenges. The evaluation notes that staff changes within partner organisations resulted in an extremely slow and ineffective start to the first year of implementation. As such, it was concluded that information sharing acts as a critical factor that influences the success of complex projects. Tagor Lubis, I. & Nainggolan SV, M. (2004) Common Ground Indonesia Full Program Evaluation Report, Common Ground Indonesia, pp. 1-40. This study is situated in Indonesia, specifically West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan and Madura. The interventions explored in this report are a selection of Common Ground (CG) projects ± Conflict Transformation Radio Programme (Metend Pangkalan), Conflict Transformation Comic Book (Gebora), and Community Based Conflict Transformation Programme. The radio show intervention was designed to promote community dialogue through a nationally broadcast soap opera about conflict resolution as well as circulate practical information about conflict resolution through the radio. The comic book intervention was designed to influence the attitudes and behaviours of teenage boys by providing practical, yet entertaining, information to youths about non-violent ways of dealing with conflict. Finally, the Community Based Conflict Transformation Programme was designed to support community and civil society to develop problem solving and conflict resolution skills and facilitate the development of joint action projects to bridge inter-ethnic, inter-racial and inter-class divides. This report evaluates these projects using a participatory approach by conducting a literature review and field observation alongside in-depth interviews, individual interviews and focus groups with project participants, project beneficiaries, local government, project evaluators and CG project staff. The results of the report indicated that the recruitment of participants for CG projects was an important issue, often creating animosity and jealousy as a result of unclear selection procedures. Furthermore, the partnerships created between CG Indonesia and local partners were often unclear, resulting in tension and dissatisfaction. This process was specifically questioned by local government in Sampang, regarding the appointment of a partner associated with a political party, which threatened the impartiality of CG and created friction within the local political context. The report notes that de-centralisation of decision-PDNLQJPHFKDQLVPVZLWKLQ&*,QGRQHVLDFRXOGLPSURYHPDQDJHPHQW¶VDELOLW\WRUHVSRQGWR local problems and overcome issues associated with poor communication between management staff and local partners. It was noted that CG Indonesia did not adequately incorporate local suggestions and ideas into their Comic Book Programme, particularly regarding the inclusion of sensitive words in a particular edition that resulted in complaints from local children and local people protesting for the edition to be withdrawn. Furthermore, the report discovered that too many activities within the same program made it difficult for CG to focus on the quality of work being delivered. This report clearly GHPRQVWUDWHVWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIORFDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQ&'SURMHFWVFRQFOXGLQJWKDWWKHLPSDFWRI&*¶V activities in Indonesia could have been strengthened if they had more effectively liaised with locals and Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 31 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 gained a better understanding of the political, cultural and economic context in which the projects were being implemented. Methodological quality QARI Approximately a third (19 out of 58) of the qualitative studies selected for assessment were included for data extraction. Many of the studies excluded lacked a defined methodology, offered limited reflection on the influence of the researcher over the subject matter or participants, as well as offering little or no insight into the ethical position adopted during the research. The most consistent methodological issue ZDV WKH DEVHQFH RI SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ YRLFHV LQ WKH UHVHDUFK PDNLQJ WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ RI ILQGLQJV ZLWK research participants/informants problematic. While a significant number of studies were excluded for reasons of methodological weakness, it must be noted that employing a systematic methodology within a context characterised by conflict is often extremely difficult and should not be wholly attributed to a weak understanding of methodologies on behalf of the researchers. Table 2: Number of qualitative studies included and excluded Number  of  studies  included Number  of  studies  excluded 19 39 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 32 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Table 3: Final assessment table. Results for the critical appraisal of included qualitative research studies using the JBI-­QARI critical appraisal checklist Citation Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q10 Connelly,  C.,  2010 U U U U U N N Y U Y Evans,  R.,  2008 Y Y Y Y Y Y U U Y Y Curtis,  D.  E.  A.,  2000 Y Y Y Y Y U N N U Y Erni,  J.  N.,  2009 Y Y Y Y Y U N N U Y Best,  M.  L.  &  Thakur,  D.,  2009 Y Y Y Y Y Y N N U Y Finkel,  S.  E.  &  Smith,  A.  E.,   Y Y Y Y Y Y U Y U Y 2011 Frère,  M.  S.,  2009 Y Y Y Y Y N N U U Y Gamage,  P.  &  Halpin,  E.  F.,   Y Y Y Y Y U U U U Y 2007 Kamal,  S.,  2007 U Y Y Y Y U U Y U Y Karan,  K.,  Gimeno,  J.  D.  M.,   Y Y Y Y Y U U Y U Y Tandoc  E.  Jr,  2009 Michau,  L.,  2007 U U U U U U N N U Y Miller,  S.,  2006 U U U U U U N U U Y Milligan,  S.  &  Mytton,  G.,  2009 U U U U U U N U U Y Paluck,  E.  L.,  2010 Y Y Y Y Y U N N Y Y Paluck,  E.  L.  &  Green,  D.  P.,   Y Y Y Y Y Y Y U Y Y 2009 Sengupta,  A.,  Long,  E.  G.,   Singhal,  A.  &  Shefner-­Rogers,   Y Y Y Y Y U U Y Y Y C.  L.,  2007 Tacchi,  J.,  Watkins,  J.  &   Y Y Y Y Y U U Y Y Y Keerthirathne,  K.,  2009 Vollhardt,  J.,  Coutin,  M.,   Staub,  E.,  Weiss,  G.  &     Y Y Y Y Y N N N U Y Deflander,  J.,  2006 Whalan,  J.,  2010 Y Y Y Y Y N N N Y Y %  YES  RESPONSES 73.68 78.95 78.95 78.95 78.95 21.05 5.26 31.58 31.58 100.0 (see  Appendix  V  for  questions  1-­10).  Y  =  yes,  N  =  no,  U  =  unclear.   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 33 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 NOTARI Just under half (7 out of 18) of the text and opinion sources selected for assessment were included for data extraction. Some of the excluded sources lacked a defined methodology, offered limited reflection on the influence of the researcher over the subject matter or participants, as well as offering little or no insight into the ethical position adopted during the research. While the methodological approach taken in many of the text and opinion sources was sound, the findings of some sources were found to be too narrow to be of wider value to this review and were excluded. While a number of included studies displayed methodological weakness, it must be noted that employing a systematic methodology within a context characterised by conflict is often extremely difficult and should not be wholly attributed to a weak understanding of methodologies on behalf of the researchers. Table 4: Number of publications included and excluded Number  of  publications  included Number  of  publications  excluded 7 18 Table 5: Final assessment table of text and opinion publications. Results for the critical appraisal of included text/opinion papers using the JBI-­NOTARI critical appraisal checklist Citation Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Q6 Q7 Bright,  D.  &  Monzani,  B.,  2010 Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A Dahal,  J.,  Kafle,  K.,  &   Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A Bhattarai,  K.,  2008 Everitt,  P.,  Williams,  T.  &   Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A Myers,  M.,  2004 Gordon,  G.,  2008 Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A Gouley,  C.  &  Kanyatsi,  Q.,   Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A 2010 Hanson-­Alp,  R.,  2008 Y Y N Y Y N/A N/A Tagor  Lubis,  I.  &  Nainggolan   Y Y Y Y Y N/A N/A SV,  M.,  2004 %  YES  RESPONSES 100.0 100.0 85.71 100.0 100.0 N/A N/A Results  for  the  critical  appraisal  of  included  text/opinion   papers  using  the  JBI-­NOTARI   Critical  Appraisal  Checklist  (see  Appendix  V  for   questions  1-­7).  Y  =  yes,  N  =  no,  N/A  =  not  applicable.   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 34 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Results of metasynthesis of qualitative research findings Meta-synthesis of studies included in the review generated 23 Synthesised Findings. These Synthesised Findings were derived from 141 Study Findings that were subsequently aggregated into 29 Categories on the basis of similarity of meaning. The Study Findings are listed by study in Appendix X. As discussed earlier in the data aggregation section, these categories were established using a thematic synthesis, i.e. one that encourages the 15 identification of common or linking themes within a body of evidence. These categories also build upon and reference those already elaborated in the 12 13 work of Myhre and Flora and Noar et al. on HIV communication and which, are used widely and understood by C4D practitioners specifically, and development practitioners broadly. These categories are further subdivided into interventions, facilitators, constraints and outcomes in the discussion section below to add further nuance to the analysis. Within the Synthesised Finding table set out below a number of sub-categories - VXFKDVµEUDLQ GUDLQ¶ZKLFKUHIHUVWRWKHORVVRIVNLOOHGKXPDQUHVRXUFHVWRPLJUDWLRQ - are subsumed within a broader finding, in this instance relating to capacity strengthening (see Glossary specific C4D terms used in this review). The findings extracted provide a rich body of evidence that gives insight into a wide range of factors that influence C4D implementation and outcomes in fragile states. These categories are further subdivided into interventions, facilitators, constraints and outcomes in the discussion section below to add further nuance to the analysis. Findings, categories and synthesised findings (qualitative research studies) Finding Category Synthesised Finding Exposure  to  the  talk-­show  appeared  to  harden  attitudes  towards  outgroups   and  decrease  tolerance,  rather  than  increase  it.  The  author  cautions  that   either  the  methodological  design  or  the  quality  of  the  media  content  could   have  influenced  this  finding,  i.e.  the  content  lacked  a  clear  behaviour  change   focus  and  offered  no  course  of  action  associated  with  conflict  reduction.  (C) Behaviour change communication (BCC) __________________________________________________________________________ C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  may  benefit  from   Behaviour  change  communication  (BCC) taking  a  behaviour  change  communication  (BCC)   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Individuals  can  only  sustain  behaviour  change  if  the  communities  around   approach,  i.e.  an  approach  that  advocates  and   them  support  and  endorse  that  change,  i.e.  social  norms  have  to  shift  for   demonstrates  an  action  that  is  achievable. change  to  be  sustainable.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Theatre  for  Development  activities  can  play  a  role  in  promoting  peace  and   changing  individual  beliefs  and  practices.  (C) Page 35 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 During  conflict  skilled  workers  may  flee  the  country  and  this  has  an  adverse   effect  on  industries  that  are  trying  to  re-­build.  In  Liberia  the  lack  of  qualified   Brain-­drain _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ personnel  had  a  direct  impact  on  data  collection  and  policy  analysis   capabilities.  (U) Developing  a  cadre  of  trained  trainers  through  a  TOT  process  in  addition  to   training  staff  within  individual  organisations  helps  to  strengthen  the  pool  of   available  professionals  to  work  across  the  entire  sector.  (C) Capacity strengthening __________________________________________________________________________ Capacity  strengthening  of  the  media  and   Journalism  training  must  be  systematic  with:  (i)  follow  up  if  face-­to-­face   communications  sectors  in  post-­conflict  contexts   training  dominates;;  or  (ii)  additional  face-­to  face  training  if  the  dominant   can  help  strengthen  professionalism  and  reduce   mode  of  delivery  is  online  learning.  (C) bias  and  self-­censorship. __________________________________________________________________________ Skills  and  capacity  strengthening _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Legislative  reform  of  the  media  alone  will  not  necessarily  deliver  change   unless  it  is  supported  by  meaningful  capacity  development.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Radio  Sahar  members  self-­censored  their  content  in  order  to  avoid  scrutiny   from  male  political  and  religious  leaders.  This  self-­censorship  hindered  the   VWDWLRQ¶VDELOLW\WRDGGUHVVJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVLQ$IJKDQLVWDQEHFDXVH potentially  controversial  topics  were  avoided.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Adults  who  attended  the  civic  education  showed  a  significant  increase  in  all   four  dependent  variables  identified  by  the  authors:  Political  knowledge,   Political  participation,  Political  tolerance  and,  National  versus  tribal   identification.  (U) Civic education Civic  education  can  increase  political  knowledge,   __________________________________________________________________________ Civic  education participation,  tolerance,  national  identification  and   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Although  civic  education  training  has  positive  effects  it  is  important  to   help  to  reduce  violence,  as  well  as  increase   recognise  that  the  impact  of  programs  like  NCEP  are  constrained  by  other   government  transparency  and  accountability. factors  that  also  influence  the  success  of  democratic  transitions.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Following  a  democratiFUHJLPHFKDQJHFLWL]HQV¶QHHGWROHDUQDERXWWKH Page 36 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 norms  and  values  that  inform  the  democratic  political  system  and  to  acquire   QHZµFLYLFFRPSHWHQFLHVDQGDWWLWXGHV¶)LQNHODQG6PLWKS While  this  process  was  initially  thought  to  involve  slow  changes  over  time  in   SHRSOH¶VNQRZOHGJHEHOLHIVDQGEHKDYLRXUVPRUHUHFHQWVWXGLHVVXJJHVW that  these  changes  can  happen  relatively  quickly.  Nonetheless,  there  are   more  direct  ways  to  promote  democratic  values.  The  most  effective  way  to   directly  educate  citizens  in  new  democracies  may  be  through  civic  education   programs.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ In  a  post-­conflict  setting  the  legitimacy  of  the  new  government  is  often   questioned  and  this  can  result  in  a  lack  of  support  for  government  policies   and  regulatory  bodies.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  cost  of  airing  television  commercials  on  national  television  is  prohibitive.   Political  advertisements  that  are  hosted  on  YouTube  can  generate   widespread  political  exposure  for  less  financial  cost.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  effectiveness  of  Internet  based  political  campaigns  can  be  increased  if   the  medium  is  used  early  in  the  campaign.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  ethnic  violence  that  broke  out  after  the  2007  Kenyan  election  may  have   been  worse  if  the  2002  NCEP  program  and  a  2007  civic  education  program   had  not  been  implemented.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  media  content  (which  was  relevant  to  both  men  and  women)  contained   on  the  Sada  device  had  an  impact  on  women¶s  understanding  of  their  rights,   though  it  is  noted  that  open  discussion  of  women¶s  rights  is  still  constrained   by  the  conservative  cultural  context.  Nonetheless,  there  is  evidence  of  the   media  content  empowering  women  and  increasing  their  confidence  to  act   over  rights  denial  or  abuse.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  NCEP  civic  education  program  had  widespread  indirect  effects.  Many   Kenyans  who  did  not  attend  the  programs  were  exposed  to  the  civic   education  messages  through  discussions  with  attendees  in  their  social   network.  Although  the  authors  estimate  that  14%  of  the  Kenyan  population   attended  the  training,  they  state  that  approximately  40  to  50%  were  exposed   to  the  program  messages  in  some  way.  This  had  a  measurable  statistical   impact  on  all  of  the  dependant  variables  except  political  participation.  (U) Page 37 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Ensuring  the  safety  of  journalists  is  an  important  component  of  an  effective   local  media  peace-­building  strategy.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ In  a  post-­conflict  setting  the  legitimacy  of  the  new  government  is  often   questioned  and  this  can  result  in  a  lack  of  support  for  government  policies   and  regulatory  bodies.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Media/information  interventions  may  violate  state  sovereignty.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Peace  education  programs  for  young  people  can  also  have  positive  impacts   on  the  broader  community.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  deployment  of  Pacific  Islander  personnel  helped  to  legitimise  the   intervention  and  helped  to  ensure  that  communications  between  RAMSI  and   the  general  public  were  effective.  (C) Conflict  reduction/peacekeeping  operations _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ The  development  of  effective  communication  strategies  helped  to  support   the  legitimacy  of  the  RAMSI  intervention.  Communication  occurred   face-­to-­face  in  the  context  of  ceremonies  to  destroy  weapons,  national  radio   Conflict reduction/peacekeeping operations broadcasting,  through  newly  established  police  posts,  press  conferences   Multi-­channel  communications  that  link  to  the   and  public  meetings.  This  supports  the  notion  that  multi-­channel   provision  of  services  (i.e.  weapons  collection)  can   communications  is  effective  and  that  interventions  can  be  more  effective  if   be  effective  in  peacekeeping  or  stabilisation  efforts,   the  general  public  is  clear  about  how  they  work  and  the  ways  in  which  they   especially  where  a  strong  security  presence   exercise  power.  (C) enhances  public  confidence  in  the  abandonment  of   __________________________________________________________________________ violence. The  RAMSI  intervention's  potential  to  be  effective  was  enhanced  by  the   large-­scale  deployment  of  military  personnel  which  had  a  substantial   'coercive'  effect  and  removed  the  impetus  for  local  people  to  'self-­defend',   abandon  personal  weapons  and  thereby  created  better  public  security.  (U) During  periods  of  political  instability  and/or  violence  people  often  operate   with  minimal  governance.  This  can  create  problems  post-­conflict  because   people  who  are  accustomed  to  self-­regulation  or  minimal  regulation  may   resist  change.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Public  perceptions  of  RAMSI  eroded  as  the  intervention  sought  to  bolster   Transfer  of  power _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ local  leadership  and  reduce  its  own  influence.  This  has  lead  to  claims  that   RAMSI  is  a  foreign  policy  tool  of  the  Australian  Government,  rather  than  a   helping  hand.  In  turn  this  highlights  the  challenge  associated  with  long-­term   peace-­building  and  in  the  transfer  of  power  to  local  actors.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Page 38 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 The  legal  basis  of  media/information  interventions  is  debatable.  In  particular,   LQWHUYHQWLRQVWKDWXWLOLVHPHDVXUHVWKDWFRXOGEHGHILQHGDVDµXVHRIIRUFH¶ such  as  bombing  broadcasting  towers  may  violate  the  UN  Charter  and  other   international  norms  (Erni  2009,  p.  872).  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  RAMSI  intervention's  potential  to  be  effective  was  enhanced  by  the   large-­scale  deployment  of  military  personnel  which  had  a  substantial   'coercive'  effect  and  removed  the  impetus  for  local  people  to  'self-­defend',   abandon  personal  weapons  and  thereby  created  better  public  security.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  use  of  mass  media  (i.e.  C4D  interventions)  can  be  an  important  tool  in   promoting  how  institutions  are  understood  by  the  public,  how  they  work  and   how  they  can  be  challenged  to  improve.  Further  studies  are  required  to   verify  the  role  media  plays  in  this  dynamic.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Unilateral  conflict  reduction  and  peace-­building  initiatives  may  stand  a   greater  chance  of  success  because  they  are  easier  to  coordinate  and   support.  (C) Although  civic  education  training  has  positive  effects  it  is  important  to   recognise  that  the  impact  of  programs  like  NCEP  are  constrained  by  other   factors  that  also  influence  the  success  of  democratic  transitions.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Ensuring  the  safety  of  journalists  is  an  important  component  of  an  effective   Contextual constraints local  media  peace-­building  strategy.  (C) Contextual  factors  including  conflict,  ethnicity,  poor   __________________________________________________________________________ Contextual  constraints infrastructure,  lack  of  media  coverage,  gender   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ The  Sada  device  became  a  focus  for  collective  listening  and  engagement   inequality  and  so  on  may  constrain  the   around  the  content  contained  on  the  device.  In  simple  media  contexts  or   effectiveness  of  C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states. contexts  constrained  by  a  lack  of  electricity  or  mainstream  media,  such   devices  could  have  a  potentially  important  role  to  play  in  bringing  information   about  civic  and  human  rights,  and  in  starting  dialogue  in  information  poor   environments.  (C) Some  of  the  women  at  Radio  Sahar  initially  hid  their  inclusion  of  religious   Culturally appropriate media content programming  from  Kamal  because  they  assumed  that  she  would  disapprove   Culturally  appropriate  media  content,  content  that   _________________________________________________________________________ Culturally  appropriate  media  content links  to  social  and  cultural  norms  and  local   __________________________________________________________ of  the  content.  Her  role  as  an  employee  of  a  secular  funding  body  (IMPACS)   led  them  to  believe  that  she  would  inform  the  donor  agency  of  their   understandings  of  conflict  dynamics  will  tend  to   have  a  greater  impact. Page 39 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 religion-­inspired  programming  which  may  lead  to  their  funding  being  cut.   This  demonstrates  that  the  perceived  interests  and  aims  of  donor  agencies   can  influence  the  actions  of  C4D  participants.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  pre-­scripted  nature  of  Radio  Sahar  content  meant  that  illiterate  people   were  excluded  from  the  production  process.  The  reliance  on  written  scripts   also  meant  that  the  radio  content  and  presentation  style  was  formal  and   official  rather  than  conversational.  This  focus  on  the  written  word  rather  than   WKHµRUDOFXOWXUHPRUHGRPLQDQWLQ$IJKDQLVWDQ¶.DPDOSOLPLWHG the  appeal  of  the  program  to  Afghan  women  who  were  not  highly  educated.   (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Time  restraints  can  mean  that  members  of  radio  stations  have  very  little  time   to  plan  their  programming  schedule  and  produce  their  own  content.  This  can   lead  to  a  heavy  reliance  on  pre-­packaged  programming  created  by  donor   agencies,  which  may  not  be  representative  of  the  target  audience.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Women  found  the  information  contained  on  the  Sada  device  to  be  culturally   appropriate,  easy  to  understand  and  were  enjoyable  (being  listened  to  many   times)  as  the  content  used  simple  language  and  a  variety  of  genres  (jokes,   drama,  etc.).  The  device  was  also  found  to  be  easy  to  use  and  cost  effective   as  it  required  no  batteries  (due  to  the  solar  power).  (C) Community  access  to  and  effective  use  of  ICTs  requires  a  systematic   approach  to  building  digital  literacy  amongst  stakeholders.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ In  contexts  in  which  conflict  is  occurring  enhancing  media  literacy  (i.e.  the   ability  to  critically  assess  media  content  for  its  truth  and  voracity)  can  play  an   important  role  in  countering  hate  speech.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Digital and/or media literacy Poor  publicity  and  awareness  programs  have  contributed  to  the  small   C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  need  to  assess  the   number  of  telecentre  users.  The  current  promotion  and  awareness  strategy   Digital  and/or  media  literacy _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ degree  of  digital  and/or  media  literacy  present   utilises  a  medium  (a  television  channel)  that  is  not  accessible  in  many  parts   within  context  before  engaging  in  implementation. of  the  country  and  is  therefore,  not  very  effective.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ When  considering  the  use  of  intermediaries  used  to  link  ICT  initiatives  to   poor  and  marginalised  communities  it  is  essential  that  power  dynamics  and   the  potential  for  them  to  exacerbate  exclusion  is  considered.  An   intermediary  that  is  not  trusted  by  the  community  will  result  in  poor  uptake  of   the  ICT  initiative  by  the  community.  (C) Page 40 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 A  clear  digital  divide  exists  in  Sri  Lanka,  with  access  to  ICT  being  very   unequal.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ An  evaluation  of  the  telecentres  set  up  as  part  of  the  Sri  Lankan   JRYHUQPHQWV¶7HOHFHQWUH'HYHORSPHQW3URJUDP7'3UHYHDOHGWKDW percent  of  telecentre  users  are  under  35  years  of  age  and  no  older  people   used  the  service.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Conventional  understandings  of  the  process  by  which  public  policy  is   developed  and  implemented  in  nations  like  the  US  may  not  apply  to   developing  countries,  and  in  particular  to  post-­conflict  developing  countries.   (U) __________________________________________________________________________ ICT4D  projects  need  to  identify  and  solve  the  needs  of  their  target   population.  Interventions  that  are  poorly  designed,  implemented  and   promoted  will  not  achieve  their  desired  outcomes  and  the  money  spent  to   fund  them  will  have  been  wasted.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Digital divide Many  people  were  unaware  of  the  telecentres  and  did  not  use  the  services   Digital  divides  exist  within  communities  that  may   offered  by  them.  (C) exclude  the  very  young,  the  old,  women,  ethnic,   __________________________________________________________________________ Digital  divide _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ linguistic  and  religious  minorities,  the  remote  and   Many  telecentres  are  situated  in  remote  locations,  are  inadequately  staffed   the  poor  from  accessing  and  using  new  digital   and  are  poorly  maintained.  These  factors  contribute  to  their  limited  use  and   information  and  communication  technologies. lack  of  functionality.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ New  communications  technologies  are  not  effective  if  they  are  inaccessible.   Members  of  the  GABRIELA  party  thought  that  their  mobile  phone  electoral   campaign  was  more  effective  than  their  use  of  the  Internet  because  mobile   phones  have  a  higher  penetration  rate  in  the  Philippines.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Political  parties  with  limited  funds  may  be  unable  to  adequately  maintain  and   promote  a  website.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Poor  publicity  and  awareness  programs  have  contributed  to  the  small   number  of  telecentre  users.  The  current  promotion  and  awareness  strategy   utilises  a  medium  (a  television  channel)  that  is  not  accessible  in  many  parts   of  the  country  and  is  therefore,  not  very  effective.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Telecentres  lose  customers  to  competitors  who  can  offer  the  same  services   for  lower  prices.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Page 41 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 The  Sada  device  became  a  focus  for  collective  listening  and  engagement   around  the  content  contained  on  the  device.  In  simple  media  contexts  or   contexts  constrained  by  a  lack  of  electricity  or  mainstream  media,  such   devices  could  have  a  potentially  important  role  to  play  in  bringing  information   about  civic  and  human  rights,  and  in  starting  dialogue  in  information  poor   environments.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  telecentres  do  not  adequately  cater  for  non-­English  speaking  groups   such  as  Sinhala  and  Tamil  speakers.  Off-­line  computer  based  training   materials  that  were  going  to  be  made  available  to  the  telecentres  by  the   ICTA  in  Sinhala,  Tamil  and  English  were  not  provided.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ When  considering  the  use  of  intermediaries  used  to  link  ICT  initiatives  to   poor  and  marginalised  communities  it  is  essential  that  power  dynamics  and   the  potential  for  them  to  exacerbate  exclusion  is  considered.  An   intermediary  that  is  not  trusted  by  the  community  will  result  in  poor  uptake  of   the  ICT  initiative  by  the  community.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Where  information  and  communication  technologies  are  socially   constructed  as  'male',  such  as  in  Afghanistan,  thought  needs  to  be  put  in  to   how  the  design  or  styling  of  the  ICTs  can  enhance  the  potential  for   ownership  and  use  by  women.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Women's  access  to  ICTs  is  constrained  by  a  range  of  contextual  and  cultural   factors,  including  demands  on  their  time  and  economic  constraints.  In  the   context  of  Afghanistan  illiteracy  also  constrains  access  to  information.  (C) Conflict  and  reconciliation  focused  edutainment  (as  role-­played  from  a   partial  radio  script)  can  lead  to  a  reduction  in  dependency  on  external   institutions  and  bodies  (NGOs  and  government)  and  an  increase  in  social   action.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Edutainment In  the  short-­term,  radio  soap  opera  can  improve  the  ability  of  individuals  and   The  use  of  edutainment  (programs  that  mix   communities  to  express  dissent,  increase  self-­reliance  and  collective  action   Edutainment education  with  entertainment)  in  fragile  states  is   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ in  post-­conflict  societies.  (C) effective  because  it  helps  to  increase  social  action   __________________________________________________________________________ and  self-­reliance. Local  media,  in  particular  radio  soap  operas,  can  be  used  to  directly  promote   conflict  resolution  and  reconciliation.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Radio  soap  opera  that  focuses  on  social  and  political  conflict  can  help  to   Page 42 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 increase  social  trust  within  discrete  social  and  cultural  groups,  but  may  do   little  to  close  the  social  distance  between  groups  affected  by  conflict.  This  is   especially  relevant  to  conflict  characterised  by  ethnic  cleansing  or  genocide.   (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  introduction  of  a  talk-­show  format  to  state  media,  one  that  addresses   the  role  of  government  and  its  service  delivery,  helped  to  increase  openness   and  accountability  and  allowed  for  greater  diversity  of  voices  to  be  heard.   (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Assessing  the  effectiveness  of  long-­term  social  mobilisation  campaigns  is   challenging  because  it  is  often  difficult  to  link  activities  to  changes  in   community  held  beliefs.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Evaluations  of  civic  education  programs  need  to  consider  both  direct  and   indirect  effects.  Studies  that  solely  focus  on  those  who  attended  the   programs  fail  to  consider  the  indirect  ways  that  information  and  ideas   promoted  in  the  education  programs  can  influence  non-­attendees  (e.g.   through  discussion  with  peers).  (U) Evaluation _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ Internal  evaluations  of  local  media  peace-­building  projects  may  be   unreliable  and  this  makes  it  difficult  to  accurately  assess  the  impacts  of   Evaluation and Evidence these  projects.  (C) Evaluation  constraints  are  evident  in  fragile  states,   __________________________________________________________________________ which  means  the  evidence  base  associated  with   Short  term  evaluations  of  local  media  peace-­building  projects  may  not   C4D  interventions  that  focus  on  peace-­building  and   capture  long-­term  changes  in  behaviour  or  beliefs.  (C) conflict  reduction  is  weak. __________________________________________________________________________ Despite  the  increasing  number  of  civic  education  interventions,  there  is  a   lack  of  evidence  demonstrating  the  effectiveness  of  these  programs.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Donor  agencies  are  increasingly  utilising  local  media  projects  to  promote   Evidence _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ peace-­building.  However,  there  is  a  lack  of  research  that  examines  the   effectiveness  of  these  projects  and  their  contribution  to  peace-­building   strategies.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Page 43 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 The  format  of  C4D  and  the  need  for  pretesting  audience  feedback  prior  to   broadcast  are  essential  to  ensuring  that  content  achieves  the  desired  effect.   The  lack  of  clear  goals  associated  with  the  discussions  mean  that  testing   outcomes  is  problematic  and  points  to  need  for  clear  objectives,  goals  and   impact  indicators.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ There  is  a  lack  of  studies  that  consider  how  the  cultural  context  of   post-­conflict  countries  influences  the  policy  process.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ When  donors  implement  local  peace-­building  projects  they  must  make   difficult  decisions  about  which  outcomes  they  will  prioritise  and  what  the   implications  of  that  choice  will  be.  Every  strategy  has  strengths  and   weaknesses  and  donors  should  carefully  consider  these  when  developing   local  media  peace-­building  projects.  (U) C4D  interventions  that  target  gender  inequality  can  positively  affect  social   norms  regarding  the  social  mobility,  roles  and  rights  of  women  in   conservative  society.  This  was  found  to  be  especially  significant  in  the  areas   of  early  and  forced  marriage  and  the  right  to  education  and  employment.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Civic  education  targeted  at  women  through  Sada  lead  to  an  increase  in   knowledge  of  civics  and  in  electoral  participation.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Creating  opportunities  for  women  to  participate  in  the  media  sector  will  not   necessarily  change  their  unequal  social  status.  C4D  interventions  that   Gender equality effectively  promote  gender  equality  should  be  holistic,  culturally  and  socially   C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  that  target  aspects  of   specific  and  part  of  a  long  term  vision.  (C) Gender  equality gender  equality  can  positively  affect   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ collectively-­held  social  norms  leading  to  increased   Radio  Sahar  members  self-­censored  their  content  in  order  to  avoid  scrutiny   empowerment,  such  as  electoral  participation. from  male  political  and  religious  leaders.  This  self-­censorship  hindered  the   VWDWLRQ¶VDELOLW\WRDGGUHVVJHQGHr  inequalities  in  Afghanistan  because   potentially  controversial  topics  were  avoided.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  media  content  (which  was  relevant  to  both  men  and  women)  contained   on  the  Sada  device  had  an  impact  on  women's  understanding  of  their  rights,   though  it  is  noted  that  open  discussion  of  women's  rights  is  still  constrained   by  the  conservative  cultural  context.  Nonetheless,  there  is  evidence  of  the   media  content  empowering  women  and  increasing  their  confidence  to  act   over  rights  denial  or  abuse.  (C) Page 44 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 __________________________________________________________________________ Undertaking  gender  analysis  in  the  context  of  ICT  or  C4D  interventions  is   critical  if  equity  and  rights  issues  are  to  be  addressed  and  in  particular,  the   empowerment  of  women  is  to  be  realised.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Where  information  and  communication  technologies  are  socially   constructed  as  'male',  such  as  in  Afghanistan,  thought  needs  to  be  put  in  to   how  the  design  or  styling  of  the  ICTs  can  enhance  the  potential  for   ownership  and  use  by  women.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Women's  access  to  ICTs  is  constrained  by  a  range  of  contextual  and  cultural   factors,  including  demands  on  their  time  and  economic  constraints.  In  the   context  of  Afghanistan  illiteracy  also  constrains  access  to  information.  (C) Amongst  mass  media,  radio  broadcasting  has  played  a  central  and  historic   role  in  generating  conflict  and  instability  across  the  developing  world,  but   especially  in  Africa,  over  the  past  twenty  years.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Developing  a  comprehensive  understanding  of  conflict  is  critical  to  the   deployment  of  counter  hate  speech  strategies  and  campaigns  that  empower   and  support  groups  affected  by  violence.  Hate  speech  builds  on   stereotypes,  societal  beliefs  and  cultural  preconceptions  which  need  to  be   understood  before  hate  speech  can  be  effectively  countered.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ International  actors  and  donor  agencies  are  divided  about  how,  when  and  if   Hate media hate  media  should  be  prevented  post-­conflict.  Thus,  while  some  scholars   C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  need  to  consider  the   argue  that  controlling  hate  media  is  a  necessary  step  in  the  peace-­building   role  of  hate  media  and  speech  and  its  role  in  inciting   Hate  media _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ process,  others  raise  concerns  about  the  implications  of  media  regulation,   violence,  conflict  and  genocide.  Radio  has   censorship  and  international  interference.  (U) historically  been  the  principal  channel  for  hate   __________________________________________________________________________ speech. Over  the  past  15  years  the  media  has  played  a  central  role  in  exacerbating   ethnic  and  political  tensions  and  inciting  violence  and  hatred  in  the  Central   African  nations  of  Rwanda,  Burundi  and  the  Democratic  Republic  of  Congo   (DRC).  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ The  central  characteristics  of  hate  speech  have  been  identified  and  focus   on:  (i)  instigating  elements;;  (ii)  derogatory  elements  and;;  (iii)  strategies   designed  to  promote  self-­interest  or  political  gain  while  causing  harm  to   others.  The  implication  of  the  availability  of  such  characteristics  is  the   potential  to  undertake  discourse  and  textual  analysis  of  media  text  to   Page 45 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 analyse  the  extent  to  which  they  promote  hate.  (C) There  is  a  strong  correlation  between  poverty  and:  (i)  a  lack  of  electricity  (i.e.   power  does  not  extend  to  poor  remote  areas);;  (ii)  illiteracy;;  (iii)  poor  access   to  television  and  print  media.  In  turn  this  places  a  particular  emphasis  on   radio  as  a  medium  capable  of  reaching  the  poor.  (C) Information divide __________________________________________________________________________ Information  divide Information  divides  and  inequalities  are  evident  in   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ When  considering  the  use  of  intermediaries  used  to  link  ICT  initiatives  to   any  context  or  community. poor  and  marginalised  communities  it  is  essential  that  power  dynamics  and   the  potential  for  them  to  exacerbate  exclusion  is  considered.  An   intermediary  that  is  not  trusted  by  the  community  will  result  in  poor  uptake  of   the  ICT  initiative  by  the  community.  (C) High  levels  of  partisanship  in  media  play  a  key  role  in  dividing  the  wider   journalism  community,  especially  when  it  is  divided  along  ethnic  lines.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ If  local  media  peace-­building  projects  are  not  seen  to  be  impartial,  they  can   be  viewed  with  suspicion.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ In  a  post-­conflict  setting  media  outlets,  such  as  radio  stations,  are  often   unable  to  meet  the  needs  of  diverse  groups  who  have  different  expectations.   This  can  result  in  their  characterisation  as  biased  or  illegitimate,  which   threatens  their  ability  to  promote  peace-­building.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Media bias Internal  divisions  within  communications  regulatory  bodies  can  lead  to   _________________________________________________________________________ Media  bias Media  bias  is  a  fundamental  problem  affecting  both   __________________________________________________________ conflicts  and  ineffective  regulation  as  members  with  diverse  political   pre-­conflict,  conflict  and  post-­conflict  states. affiliations  seek  to  serve  their  own  political  interests.  Members  can  be   unwilling  to  sanction  media  outlets  that  support  their  own  political  views,   even  when  these  outlets  are  producing  extremist  propaganda.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ State  media  can  be  slow  (or  unwilling)  to  reflect  democratic  changes  in  their   media  content  in  transition/post-­conflict  societies.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ State-­run  media  are  often  ill-­prepared  and  equipped  for  the  public-­service   role  that  they  are  expected  to  take  in  democratic  society.  Funding  deficits   and  a  lack  of  capacity  hamper  the  effectiveness  of  the  support  they  can  offer   during  democratic  transition,  i.e.  in  post-­conflict  states.  (C) Page 46 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 __________________________________________________________________________ The  diverse  agendas  of  the  parties  involved  in  media/information   interventions  can  create  rifts  that  hinder  the  success  of  the  media  reforms.   (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  establishment  and  strengthening  of  communications  regulatory  bodies   in  the  DRC,  Rwanda  and  Burundi  was  intended  to  facilitate  the  development   of  a  more  accountable  and  democratic  media  sector.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  Rwandan  communication  regulatory  body,  the  High  Council  of  the   Press  (HCP),  is  not  a  decision-­making  body  and  relies  on  the  government  to   enforce  their  recommendations.  This  means  that  the  HCP  has  very  little   power  and  is  not  independent  from  government  influence.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Transitional  governments  in  post-­conflict  societies  may  abuse  their  ability  to   control  the  media  and  begin  to  recreate  the  conditions  that  led  to  the   intervention.  (U) Listeners  who  listened  to  both  the  talk-­show  and  soap  opera  discussed  the   soap  opera  more  than  those  who  only  listened  to  the  soap  opera.  This   suggests  that  multiple-­media  broadcasting  similar  content  can  have  a   compound  effect,  i.e.  increase  potential  impact.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ New  communications  technologies  can  be  used  in  conjunction  with   traditional  media  to  increase  public  engagement  and  generate  political   support  during  election  campaigns.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Multi-­channel communication Stand  alone  awareness  campaigns  designed  to  address  and  change   In  fragile  states  C4D  initiatives  are  more  effective  if   practices  around  violence  are  unlikely  to  succeed  without  a  more  systematic   Multi-­channel  communication they  utilise  multiple  communication  channels  (i.e.   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ approach  to  addressing  the  social  and  cultural  factors  that  drive  violence.   interpersonal,  participatory,  traditional  mass  media,   (C) new  ICTs). __________________________________________________________________________ The  development  of  effective  communication  strategies  helped  to  support   the  legitimacy  of  the  RAMSI  intervention.  Communication  occurred   face-­to-­face  in  the  context  of  ceremonies  to  destroy  weapons,  national  radio   broadcasting,  through  newly  established  police  posts,  press  conferences   and  public  meetings.  This  supports  the  notion  that  multi-­channel   communications  is  effective  and  that  interventions  can  be  more  effective  if   the  general  public  is  clear  about  how  they  work  and  the  ways  in  which  they   exercise  power.  (C) Page 47 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 A  lack  of  local  involvement  in  the  development  and  implementation  of  local   media  projects  can  reduce  their  effectiveness.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ BRCF  staff  teach  young  people  that  they  can  play  an  active  role  in  improving   WKHLUFRPPXQLW\'HVSLWHWKH%5&)¶VHPphasis  on  peace  education,  some   BRCF  participants  see  political  involvement,  sometimes  involving  violence,   as  a  viable  way  to  make  these  improvements.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Participation  (negative) __________________________________________________________________________ Participation  in  peace-­building  programs,  such  as  the  Bhutanese  Refugee   Children  Forum  (BRCF),  and  involvement  in  violent  political  activities,  such   as  Maoist  political  activities,  are  not  mutually  exclusive.  (U) µ _________________________________________________________________________ The  impact  of  peace  education  programs  designed  to  encourage   Participation non-­YLROHQFHWKURXJKµHPSRZHUPHQW¶QHHGWREHHPSLULFDOO\H[DPLQHG,W Local  participation  in  C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states   cannot  be  assumed  that  the  skills  and  experiences  gained  through   can  help  increase  community  ownership  over   __________________________________________________________ participation  in  these  projects  will  necessarily  be  used  to  promote  peace.  (U) conflict-­related  problems  and  help  generate  greater   impact. Impacts  were  found  to  be  greatest  in  areas  that  were  deemed  to  be  more   secure  and  progressive  that  others.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Participation  in  Theatre  for  Development  can  create  bonds  between   members  of  different  ethnic  groups.  (C) Participation  (positive) __________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ Young  people  who  participated  in  the  BRCF  reported  many  positive  impacts   including;;  increased  confidence  and  personal  freedom,  improved  family   relationships,  and  the  development  of  new  skills  that  could  potentially  earn   them  money.  (U) Civic  education  programs  that  utilise  open,  participatory  teaching  methods   PRUHHIIHFWLYHO\FKDQJHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHEHOLHIVDQGEHKDYLRXUWKDQ Participatory approaches those  that  do  not.  The  authors  group  various  participatory  methods  into  six   C4D  initiatives  that  use  participatory   categories:  small  group  discussions,  role  playing,  stage  plays  or   approaches/methods  are  more  effective  at   dramatisations,  game  playing,  problem  solving  and  developing  proposals,   Participatory  approaches changing  knowledge,  beliefs  and  behaviour   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ and  mock  elections.  (U) because  they  have  a  better  chance  of   __________________________________________________________________________ understanding  and  getting  to  the  root  causes  of   Community  mobilisation  can  provide  an  alternative  to  media-­based   conflict  and  violence. campaigns.  Because  they  are  more  responsive  and  participatory  they  have   Page 48 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 better  chance  of  addressing  the  root  causes  of  violence.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ ICT  access  and  content  creation  by  the  poor  can  be  characterised  by   exclusion,  leading  to  voicelessness.  Using  participatory  research   techniques,  trusted  local  intermediaries  and  relevant  combinations  of  ICTs,   initiatives  can  be  optimised  to  promote  inclusion  and  voice.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ When  the  policy  process  is  not  inclusive  and  participatory  this  can  hinder  the   effectiveness  of  the  policy.  (C) Outbreaks  of  political  and/or  ethnic  violence  make  it  very  difficult  for  Theatre   for  Development  programs  to  continue.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Participatory  media  content  creation  does  not  necessarily  lead  to  either   voice  or  empowerment.  There  must  be  an  audience  for  a  voice  to  be  heard,   therefore  in  consideration  of  such  interventions  as  they  might  relate  to   conflict  reduction,  it  is  important  that  an  emphasis  is  placed  on  participatory   dialogue  and  sharing,  i.e.  using  media  to  bridge  the  gap  between  opposing   Participatory media sides  and  to  build  trust  and  ultimately  dialogue.  (C) Participatory  media  (such  as  street  theatre,  role   __________________________________________________________________________ playing,  video,  social  mobilisation,  local  media   Participatory  media _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Social  mobilisation  efforts  should  be  realistic  about  what  can  be  achieved   genres)  can  be  effective  in  stimulating  community   and  engage  across  communities  and  the  institutions  that  support  them   dialogue  and  in  reaching  marginalised  groups   systematically  and  over  the  long-­term  if  change  is  to  occur.  (C) (especially  those  who  may  be  illiterate). __________________________________________________________________________ Theatre  for  Development  activities  can  play  a  role  in  promoting  peace  and   changing  individual  beliefs  and  practices.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Theatre  for  Development  interventions  held  in  non-­theatre  settings  such  as   parks  and  markets  can  reach  disadvantaged  audiences  that  may  be  unable   or  unwilling  to  attend  performances  in  traditional  theatre  venues.  (C) Effective  civil  society  engagement  with  state  broadcasters  remains   problematic  in  many  contexts  (due  to  domination  by  governing  powers),  in   State media turn  this  can  hamper  the  diversity  of  media  voices  available.  (C) State  media  have  a  key  role  to  play  in  reaching   State  media _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ remote  and  poor  populations,  often  through  radio   The  rural  poor  are  especially  reliant  on  state  broadcasting  and  many   broadcasting. commercial  outlets  see  little  point  in  trying  to  reach  such  audiences.  (C) Page 49 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Donor  supported  C4D  interventions  may  struggle  to  be  sustainable  when   external  funding  is  no  longer  available.  Developing  realistic  sustainability   and  phase-­out  strategies  are  important  to  ensuring  local  ownership  of   initiatives  in  the  long-­run.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Local  media  projects  in  post-­conflict  settings  face  great  challenges  and  will   Sustainability planning not  necessarily  result  in  immediate  short-­term  changes.  (C) C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  are  heavily  reliant  on   __________________________________________________________________________ Sustainability  planning external  donor  funding  and  need  to  consider   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Many  radio  stations  in  Burundi  are  reliant  on  foreign  aid  and  the  withdrawal   sustainability  planning  and  exit  strategies  in  a  more   of  this  aid  may  threaten  their  survival  and  the  impartiality  of  the  media   systematic  way. sector.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Telecentre  operators  are  heavily  reliant  on  government  subsidies  and   therefore,  the  sustainability  of  the  telecentres  is  questionable.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ International  support  played  a  key  role  in  facilitating  the  creation  and   delivery  of  government  policy  in  the  Liberian  telecommunications  sector.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ New  communications  technologies  are  not  effective  if  they  are  inaccessible.   Members  of  the  GABRIELA  party  thought  that  their  mobile  phone  electoral   Telecommunications campaign  was  more  effective  than  their  use  of  the  Internet  because  mobile   Telecommunications  can  play  an  important  role  in   phones  have  a  higher  penetration  rate  in  the  Philippines.  (C) Telecommunications C4D  interventions  in  fragile  states  because  they   _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________ often  have  high  penetration  rates  (but  services  may   Telecentre  operators  are  heavily  reliant  on  government  subsidies  and   be  prone  to  disruption  during  periods  of  conflict). therefore,  the  sustainability  of  the  telecentres  is  questionable.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Telecentres  lose  customers  to  competitors  who  can  offer  the  same  services   for  lower  prices.  (C) 0HPEHUVRI5DGLR6DKDUKDGOLPLWHGDFFHVVWRGDWDDERXWZRPHQ¶VUDGLR Understanding the cultural context listening  habits.  Therefore,  they  made  decisions  about  program  content   Developing  a  detailed  understanding  of  the  cultural   based  on  their  own  life  experiences  and  social  networks.  However,  their  own   context  of  fragile  states,  why  conflict  occurs,  how  it   Formative  research _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ perspectives  and  needs  were  not  reflective  of  the  majority  of  the  Afghan   is  reduced  and  how  best  to  communicate  with  the   female  population.  C4D  initiatives  need  to  consider  whether  or  not  the   public,  is  essential  if  C4D  initiatives  are  to  be   cultural,  social  and  economic  backgrounds  of  participants  such  as  radio   effective. Page 50 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 hosts  and  producers,  are  representative  of  the  broader  target  population.   (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Outbreaks  of  violence  in  fragile  states  can  create  security  threats  that   UHVWULFWUHVHDUFKHU¶VDFFHVVWRSDUWLFXODUUHJLRQV8 __________________________________________________________________________ Undertaking  gender  analysis  in  the  context  of  ICT  or  C4D  interventions  is   critical  if  equity  and  rights  issues  are  to  be  addressed  and  in  particular,  the   empowerment  of  women  is  to  be  realised.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ When  working  in  culturally  conservative  contexts  access  to  primary   stakeholders  may  be  constrained  and  consideration  should  be  given  of  how   such  constraints  can  be  mitigated.  (C) Broader  factors  that  influence  the  success  of  peace-­building  also  play  a  role   in  determining  the  effectiveness  of  local  media  peace-­building  projects.   Peace  building  projects  are  more  likely  to  succeed  if  they  promote   indigenous  participation  and  understand  the  cultural  and  local  context  in   which  they  operate.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Certain  ethnic  groups  may  have  greater  influence  on  governmental  policy   and  be  more  likely  to  hold  positions  of  power.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Conflict  reduction  and  peace-­building  interventions  may  be  hampered  in   contexts  where  weak  investment  in  research  constrains  understanding  of   Understanding the cultural context (cont.) the  socio-­cultural  dynamics  or  politico-­economic  dimensions  of  conflict.   Ongoing  examination  of  the  relationships  between  peace  operation  and   Understanding  local  culture _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ local  people  can  help  to  ensure  effective  operations.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ In  post-­conflict  settings  elite  actors  play  a  greater  role  in  policy  processes   than  in  stable  nations.  This  can  result  in  policies  that  represent  the  interests   of  elite  actors  and  not  the  general  public.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ 6WUXFWXUDOIDFWRUVVXFKDVSRYHUW\SROLWLFDOLQVWDELOLW\DQGWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶ refugee  status  limit  the  effectiveness  of  peace  education  projects  designed   WRµHPSRZHU¶\RXQJSHRSOHLQUHIXJHHFDPSV& __________________________________________________________________________ The  disparities  between  international  child  rights  norms  promoted  by  the   BRCF  and  Bhutanese  sociocultural  values  can  create  conflicts.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Page 51 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 A  lack  of  resources  can  reduce  the  ability  of  communications  regulatory   Understanding the institutional context bodies  to  function  effectively.  In  Burundi,  the  members  of  the  CNC  (Conseil   Understanding  the  institutions  that  support  or   _________________________________________________________________________ Resource  constraints constrain  the  effectiveness  of  C4D  initiatives  in   __________________________________________________________ National  de  la  Communication)  had  limited  access  to  transport  and  no   generator  and  this  significantly  affected  their  ability  to  monitor  the  media.  (U) fragile  states  is  a  critically  important  determinant  to   effectiveness. Page 52 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 C4D  initiatives  need  to  consider  the  wider  institutional  setting  when  building   capacity  and  skills  and  not  just  focus  on  stand  alone  initiatives.  Attention   should  be  paid  to  complimentary  activities  that  help  improve  the   organisation/institutional  context  for  media  freedoms.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ Central  Government  organisations  may  be  unable  to  enforce  their  policies  in   locations  where  war  lords  or  local  militia  have  strong  power  bases.  Donor   agencies  cannot  solely  rely  on  government  support  in  these  situations.  The   success  of  C4D  initiatives  in  these  contexts  may  be  dependent  on  the   backing  of  key  political  and/or  military  figures.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ &RPPXQLFDWLRQVUHJXODWRU\ERGLHV&5%¶VDUHXQDEOHWRHIIHFWLYHO\ regulate  the  media  sector  when  their  legitimacy  is  not  recognised  and  the   media  outlets  they  seek  to  control  have  more  resources,  popular  support   Understanding  the  institutional  context Understanding the institutional context (cont.) _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ and  power  than  themselves.  (U) __________________________________________________________________________ Communications  regulatory  bodies  can  play  a  vital  role  in  the  peace  process   in  post-­conflict  countries  where  the  media  has  contributed  to  the  violence.   However,  their  influence  is  often  mitigated  by  their  lack  of  power,  minimal   resources,  the  unwillingness  of  governments  to  concede  control  of  the   media  and  the  ethnic,  national  and  political  divisions  that  still  exist  in   post-­conflict  settings.  (C) __________________________________________________________________________ The  use  of  mass  media  (i.e.  C4D  interventions)  can  be  an  important  tool  in   promoting  how  institutions  are  understood  by  the  public,  how  they  work  and   how  they  can  be  challenged  to  improve.  Further  studies  are  required  to   verify  the  role  media  plays  in  this  dynamic.  (C) Insert page break Page 53 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Results of metasynthesis of textual data based on opinion Meta-synthesis of text and opinion sources included in the review generated 20 Synthesised Findings. These Synthesised Findings were derived from 100 Publication Conclusions that were subsequently aggregated into 23 Categories. The Publication Conclusions are listed in Appendix IX. As discussed earlier in the data aggregation section, these categories were established using a thematic analysis, i.e. one that encourages the 15 identification of common or linking themes within a body of evidence. These categories also build upon and reference those already elaborated in the 12 13 work of Myhre and Flora and Noar et al. on HIV communication and which, are used widely and understood by C4D practitioners specifically, and development practitioners broadly. These categories are further subdivided into interventions, facilitators, constraints and outcomes in the discussion section below to add further nuance to the analysis (a Glossary of specific C4D terms used in this review is provided at the beginning of this report). Conclusions, categories and synthesised findings (text and opinion) Conclusions Category Synthesised Finding No  one  reported  any  major  violent  incidents  in  the  three  cities  where   WKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶ZDVFRQGXFWHGDQGDOO people  interviewed  noted  positive  changes  in  youth  behaviour,   including  increased  mediation  skills.  This  is  significant  given  that   there  was  a  violent  protest  and  massacre  in  the  city  of  Conakry  in   2010.  Some  project  participants  in  Mamou  reported  that  they   received  rallying  calls  from  their  peers  in  Conakry,  which  they   Behaviour change communication (BCC) rejected  because  of  their  involvement  in  the  Youth  and   C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  may  benefit   Non-­Violence  project.  (C) from  taking  a  behaviour  change   ________________________________________________ Behaviour  change  communication  (BCC) ______________________________________ communication  (BCC)  approach,  i.e.  an   ________________________________________________ approach  that  advocates  and  demonstrates   6)&*¶VZRUNLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHGLGUHVXOWLQDUHGXFWLRQLQYLROHQFH an  action  that  is  achievable. and  positive  changes  in  youths'  attitudes  and  behaviours.  However,   these  findings  need  to  be  confirmed  during  a  presidential  election   campaign  where  tensions  are  likely  to  increase.  (C) ________________________________________________ 7KHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWLQVSLUHGVRPH participants  to  organise  their  own  conflict  resolution  initiatives  and   Page 54 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 other  activities.  This  suggests  that  the  project  effectively   empowered  and  equipped  young  people  to  continue  non-­violence   education.  (C) Given  the  cost  of  establishing  CTN,  a  more  sustainable  option  may   have  been  to  build  up  the  capacities  of  an  existing  radio  station   rather  than  creating  a  new  independent  news  agency.  (C) ________________________________________________ Capacity strengthening The  maintenance  of  satellite  equipment  can  be  a  frustrating  burden   Capacity  strengthening  of  the  media  and   ________________________________________________ in  a  country  like  Sierra  Leone  where  replacement  parts  are   Skills  and  capacity  strengthening ______________________________________ communications  sectors  in  post-­conflict   unavailable  and  there  are  limited  technicians.  (C) contexts  can  help  strengthen  professionalism   ________________________________________________ and  reduce  bias  and  self-­censorship. When  donors  provide  equipment,  funding  and/or  deliver  training   this  can  create  tensions  between  those  who  receive  the  benefits   and  those  who  do  not.  (C) 3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFW LQFUHDVHG\RXWKV¶NQRZOHGJHRIKXPDQULJKWVFLYLFGXWLHVDQG conflict  resolution.  (C) ________________________________________________ Radio  stations  can  help  to  reduce  practices  such  as  the  intimidation   of  female  election  candidates  by  broadcasting  discussion  programs   Civic education WKDWSURPRWHZRPHQ¶VHOHFWRUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGE\SURYLGLQJ Civic  education  can  increase  political   knowledge,  participation,  tolerance,  national   information  about  the  harassment  of  female  candidates.  (C) ________________________________________________ Civic  education ______________________________________ identification  and  help  to  reduce  violence,  as   ________________________________________________ well  as  increase  government  transparency   6)&*¶VDFWLYLWLHVLQ6LHUUD/HRQHLQFUHDVHGDFFRXQWDELOLW\DQG and  accountability. transparency  by;;  exposing  corruption  practices,  holding   government  officials  and  public  figures  to  account,  and  fostering   improved  civil/police  relationships,  which  promoted  the  reporting  of   crimes.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 55 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 De-­centralisation  would  improve  Common  Ground  (CG)   ,QGRQHVLD¶VDELOLW\WRUHVSRQGWRORFDOSUREOHPV$WWKHPRPHQW local  partners  are  reliant  on  CG  management  who  are  based  in   Jakarta.  Poor  communication  between  CG  staff  in  Jakarta  and  local   partners  acerbates  this  issue.  (C) ________________________________________________ Poor  infrastructure,  such  as  roads,  and  short  project  time  frames   can  contribute  to  the  over-­representation  of  urban  district   participants  in  radio  programming.  (C) ________________________________________________ SFCG  staff  are  unaware  of  the  geographic  dimensions  of  their  radio   programming  coverage.  Establishing  the  potential  overlaps  and   holes  in  radio  coverage  is  essential  if  SFCG  want  to  continue  to   expand  and  improve  their  radio  programming.  (C) Contextual constraints ________________________________________________ Contextual   factors  including  conflict,  ethnicity,   poor  infrastructure,  lack  of  media  coverage,   7KHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHµ3URPRWLQJD&XOWXUHRI(TXDO ________________________________________________ Contextual  constraints ______________________________________ gender  inequality  and  so  on  may  constrain   RepreVHQWDWLRQ¶3$&(5SURMHFWZDVKLQGHUHGE\VWDIIFKDQJHV the  effectiveness  of  C4D  initiatives  in  fragile   within  the  partner  organisations  (Oxfam  and  50/50),  and  a  lack  of   states. clear  project  goals.  These  factors  contributed  to  the  slow   implementation  of  the  project  and  its  limited  impact  in  its  first  year.   (C) ________________________________________________ The  evaluation  of  the  impact  of  SFCG  programming  was  conducted   in  relatively  peaceful  areas,  Uvira,  Fizi  and  Moba.  When  these   programs  are  implemented  in  more  volatile  areas  they  will  need  to   be  assessed  to  determine  what  works  in  these  contexts.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  implementation  of  C4D  projects  that  utilise  radio  can  be   hampered  by  a  lack  of  resources,  equipment  and  poor   infrastructure.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 56 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 A  weakness  of  CTN  (Cotton  Tree  News)  radio  programming  was  a   lack  of  local  language  programs.  This  led  some  listeners  to  critique   the  station  for  only  representing  Freetown  and  being  inaccessible.   (C) ________________________________________________ Common  Ground  (CG)  Indonesia  did  not  adequately  incorporate   local  suggestions  and  ideas  into  their  comic  book  programme.  CG   LQFOXGHGWKHSKUDVHµGDVDU0DGXUD"¶LQWKHcomic  which  generated   complaints  from  local  children  and  resulted  in  several  local  people   protesting  the  edition  arguing  that  it  should  be  withdrawn.  In  a   pre-­release  workshop  session  in  Pontianak  the  sensitive  nature  of   the  wording  had  been  raised  but  this  issue  was  not  adequately   addressed  by  CG.  (C) ________________________________________________ &XOWXUDOO\VSHFLILFRUµORFDO¶PHGLDIRUPVVXFKDV'RKRUL>D1HSDOL folk  tradition  of  dialoguing  through  songs]  can  be  an  effective  way  to   deliver  C4D  messages  and  promote  community  participation.  (C) Culturally appropriate media content ________________________________________________ Culturally  appropriate  media  content,  content   People  prefer  radio  and  theatre  content  that  is  produced  by  local   ________________________________________________ Culturally  appropriate  media  content ______________________________________ that  links  to  social  and  cultural  norms  and   local  understandings  of  conflict  dynamics  will   staff  and  locally  selected  journalists.  In  communities  marked  by   tend  to  have  a  greater  impact. conflict  and  ethnic  tension,  where  people  can  be  very  suspicious  of   µRXWVLGHUV¶VLJQLILFDQWDPRXQWVRIPHGLDFRQWHQWVKRXOGEH  locally   produced.  (C) ________________________________________________ Radio  programs  that  are  not  broadcast  in  local  languages  can  have   unforeseen  positive  impacts.  In  some  villages,  informal  listening   clubs  emerged  that  helped  community  members  who  did  not  speak   French  to  understand  the  programs.  Summaries  and  translations  of   programs  were  created  and  shared  amongst  the  villages.  These   activities  created  important  opportunities  for  community  dialogue   and  cooperation.  (C) ________________________________________________ Radio  programs  that  incorporate  local  content  and  involve  local   participants  in  their  production  are  more  popular  than  centrally   produced  and  disseminated  programs.  (C) Page 57 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 ________________________________________________ Radio  programs  that  use  lengthy  interviews  and  discussions  may   not  be  entertaining  for  children.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  incorporation  of  English  terms  and  the  use  of  formal  and   complex  language  in  radio  programs  made  the  programs  more   difficult  for  Nepali  children  to  understand  and  less  appealing.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  maintenance  of  satellite  equipment  can  be  a  frustrating  burden   in  a  country  like  Sierra  Leone  where  replacement  parts  are   Digital divide unavailable  and  there  are  limited  technicians.  (C) Digital  divides  exist  within  communities  that   ________________________________________________ may  exclude  the  very  young,  the  old,  women,   When  donors  provide  equipment,  funding  and/or  deliver  training   ________________________________________________ Digital  divide ______________________________________ ethnic,  linguistic  and  religious  minorities,  the   remote  and  the  poor  from  accessing  and   this  can  create  tensions  between  those  who  receive  the  benefits   using  new  digital  information  and   and  those  who  do  not.  (C) communication  technologies. ________________________________________________ Radio  programs  that  use  lengthy  interviews  and  discussions  may   not  be  entertaining  for  children.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  interactive  radio  format  involves  the  risk  that  callers  will  make   Edutainment derogatory  comments  live  on  air  that  incite  violence  and  hatred.   The  use  of  edutainment  (programs  that  mix   Only  one  such  incident  occXUUHGGXULQJWKHµ<RXWKDQG Non-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHEHQHILWVRI ________________________________________________ Edutainment ______________________________________ education  with  entertainment)  in  fragile  states   is  effective  because  it  helps  to  increase  social   interactive  radio  outweigh  the  risks.  (C) action  and  self-­reliance. ________________________________________________ The  radio  programs  (Barada  magazine  and  interactive  shows)  were   highly  valued  by  the  project  participants,  community  leaders  and   the  radio  stations.  In  particular,  respondents  indicated  that  they   Page 58 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 enjoyed  the  responsibility  of  facilitating  the  discussion  in  the   interactive  show,  a  format  that  encouraged  listeners  to  call  in  to   discuss  a  particular  topic.  (C) A  lack  of  baseline  data  and  prior  randomisation  means  that   collected  statistical  data  intended  to  measure  the  impact  of  SFCG   programming  in  the  DRC  can  only  be  used  to  suggest  correlation   not  causation.  This  limitation  could  be  avoided  through  the   implementation  of  new  evaluation  and  monitoring  procedures.  (C) ________________________________________________ If  questionnaires  are  not  conducted  correctly  they  may  be   incomplete  or  inaccurate.  This  can  lead  to  their  exclusion  from  the   study  and  can  create  information  gaps.  (C) ________________________________________________ Key  terms  need  to  be  clearly  defined  and  very  specific  to  avoid   miscommunication,  ambiguity  and  inappropriate  impact   expectations.  (C) Evaluation and Evidence ________________________________________________ Evaluation  constraints  are  evident  in  fragile   states,  which  means  the  evidence  base   Key  terms  used  by  SFCG,  such  as  'Youth'  were  not  adequately   ________________________________________________ Evaluation ______________________________________ associated  with  C4D  interventions  that  focus   defined.  (C) on  peace-­building  and  conflict  reduction  is   ________________________________________________ weak. Missing  project  documentation  or  records  that  are  not  standardised   can  make  it  difficult  for  evaluators  to  assess  the  full  impact  of  a  C4D   project.  (C) ________________________________________________ Outcomes  or  recommendations  made  in  dialogue  forums  or   community  workshops  need  to  be  followed  up.  (C) ________________________________________________ 6)&*¶VZRUNLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHGLGUHVXOWLQDUHGXFWLRQLQYLROHQFH and  positive  changes  in  youths'  attitudes  and  behaviours.  However,   these  findings  need  to  be  confirmed  during  a  presidential  election   campaign  where  tensions  are  likely  to  increase.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 59 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Short  evaluation  time  frames  can  limit  the  amount  of  data  that  can   be  gathered  and  can  result  in  information  gaps.  (C) ________________________________________________ Survey  datDLOOXVWUDWHVWKDW6)&*¶VWKHDWUHSURJUDPPLQJZDVPXFK PRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHDQHJDWLYHLPSDFWRQYLHZHU¶VWROHUDQFHOHYHOV ZKHUHDV6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJZDVPRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHD SRVLWLYHRUQRLPSDFWRQOLVWHQHU¶VWROHUDQFHOHYHOV7KLVLOOXVWUDWHV that  different  media  forms  may  have  varying  impacts  that  need  to  be   accounted  for  during  project  design.  Given  the  negative  impacts  of   theatre,  SFCG  must  carefully  examine  the  content  of  its  theatre   programming  and  continue  to  evaluate  its  effectiveness.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  availability  of  project  materials  such  as  posters  and  cassettes   and  the  organisation  of  project  activities  can  vary  widely  across   districts.  The  effectiveness  of  C4D  interventions  may  differ  greatly   depending  on  the  activities  and  materials  available  in  each  location,   as  such,  generalisations  about  the  impact  of  projects  at  the  national   level  may  be  unreliable.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  bias  towards  publishing  positive  project  data  means  that   information  about  what  does  not  work  is  not  always  shared.  This   can  result  in  a  limited  understanding  of  the  factors  that  influence   project  success  and  the  re-­creation  of  poor  programming.  (C) ________________________________________________ 7KHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHµ3URPRWLQJD&XOWXUHRI(TXDO 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ¶3$&(5SURMHFWZDVKLQGHUHGE\VWDIIFKDQJHV within  the  partner  organisations  (Oxfam  and  50/50),  and  a  lack  of   clear  project  goals.  These  factors  contributed  to  the  slow   implementation  of  the  project  and  its  limited  impact  in  its  first  year.   (C) ________________________________________________ The  evaluation  of  the  impact  of  SFCG  programming  was  conducted   in  relatively  peaceful  areas,  Uvira,  Fizi  and  Moba.  When  these   programs  are  implemented  in  more  volatile  areas  they  will  need  to   be  assessed  to  determine  what  works  in  these  contexts.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 60 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 The  evaluators  were  reliant  on  SFCG  staff  to  organise  meetings   and  focus  groups,  and  administer  questionnaires.  While  this   increased  the  involvement  of  SFCG  staff  in  the  evaluation  process  it   also  reduced  the  ability  of  the  evaluation  team  to  act  independently.   (C) ________________________________________________ The  impact  of  C4D  projects  can  be  more  effectively  gauged  if   monitoring  systems  are  developed  that  are  tailored  to  the  specific   project.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  project  had  less  impact  in  areas  where  SFCG  were  not  as   DFWLYH7KHYLVLELOLW\RI6)&*LQHDFKUHJLRQLQIOXHQFHVWKHSURMHFW¶V effectiveness  in  that  area.  (C) ________________________________________________ There  is  a  ODFNRIGDWDDERXWWKHLPSDFWRIWKHµ<RXWKDQG Non-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWRQEHQHILFLDULHV7KHEHQHILWVRI the  program  for  community  members  in  project  locations  need  to  be   more  consistently  measured.  (C) A  lack  of  baseline  data  and  prior  randomisation  means  that   collected  statistical  data  intended  to  measure  the  impact  of  SFCG   programming  in  the  DRC  can  only  be  used  to  suggest  correlation   not  causation.  This  limitation  could  be  avoided  through  the   implementation  of  new  evaluation  and  monitoring  procedures.  (C) ________________________________________________ Key  terms  need  to  be  clearly  defined  and  very  specific  to  avoid   miscommunication,  ambiguity  and  inappropriate  impact   ________________________________________________ expectations.  (C) Evidence ______________________________________ Evaluation and Evidence (cont.) ________________________________________________ Key  terms  used  by  SFCG,  such  as  'Youth'  were  not  adequately   defined.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  bias  towards  publishing  positive  project  data  means  that   information  about  what  does  not  work  is  not  always  shared.  This   can  result  in  a  limited  understanding  of  the  factors  that  influence   Page 61 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 project  success  and  the  re-­creation  of  poor  programming.  (C) ________________________________________________ More  men  participated  in  the  project  than  women.  Factors  that  may   make  it  difficult  for  women  to  attend  project  events  such  as  their   daily  household  tasks  were  not  considered  in  the  project  design.  A   more  explicit  gender  strategy  that  considers  the  specific  needs  of   young  women  is  required  if  SFCG  wants  to  ensure  their  greater   participation.  (C) ________________________________________________ Radio  stations  can  help  to  reduce  practices  such  as  the  intimidation   of  female  election  candidates  by  broadcasting  discussion  programs   WKDWSURPRWHZRPHQ¶VHOHFtoral  participation  and  by  providing   information  about  the  harassment  of  female  candidates.  (C) ________________________________________________ Gender equality TDS  programs  have  encouraged  greater  levels  of  inclusion  and   C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  that  target   aspects  of  gender  equality  can  positively   participation  by  all  community  members  in  local  decision  making,  in   ________________________________________________ Gender  equality ______________________________________ affect  collectively-­held  social  norms  leading  to   particular  by  providing  spaces  for  women,  children  and  youth  to   make  their  voices  heard.  (C) increased  empowerment,  such  as  electoral   participation. ________________________________________________ The  everyday  living  situations  and  responsibilities  of  women  may   preclude  them  from  participating  in  C4D  projects  or  make  it  more   difficult  for  them  to  participate.  For  example,  women  who  are   primary  child  carers  may  be  unable  to  attend  project  events  and   training.  This  can  result  in  an  imbalanced  gender  ratio,  with  more   male  participants  than  female  participants.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  low  number  of  female  participants  in  the  project  could  be   addressed  by  an  explicit  gender  strategy.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 62 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 6)&*UDGLRSURJUDPVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHZKHUH Hate media political  and  military  leaders  frequently  use  the  radio  to  incite  ethnic   C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  need  to   hatred  and  have  the  power  to  influence  media  coverage,  including   consider  the  role  of  hate  media  and  speech   ________________________________________________ Hate  media radio  coverage,  of  particuODUHYHQWV%URDGFDVWLQJ6)&*¶VUDGLR ______________________________________ and  its  role  in  inciting  violence,  conflict  and   programs  has  reduced  these  incidences.  (C) genocide.  Radio  has  historically  been  the   ________________________________________________ principal  channel  for  hate  speech. In  some  regions,  there  may  be  no  or  limited  access  to  FM  radio   coverage.  This  needs  to  be  considered  in  the  design  of  C4D   projects  that  utilise  FM  radio.  Children  in  the  Dang  districts  were   unable  to  access  the  radio  programs,  despite  the  fact  that  they  lived   in  a  designated  project  area.  (C) ________________________________________________ Radio  programs  that  are  not  broadcast  in  local  languages  can  have   unforeseen  positive  impacts.  In  some  villages,  informal  listening   clubs  emerged  that  helped  community  members  who  did  not  speak   French  to  understand  the  programs.  Summaries  and  translations  of   programs  were  created  and  shared  amongst  the  villages.  These   activities  created  important  opportunities  for  community  dialogue   and  cooperation.  (C) Information divide ________________________________________________ ________________________________________________ Information  divide ______________________________________ Information  divides  and  inequalities  are   SFCG  staff  are  unaware  of  the  geographic  dimensions  of  their  radio   evident  in  any  context  or  community. programming  coverage.  Establishing  the  potential  overlaps  and   holes  in  radio  coverage  is  essential  if  SFCG  want  to  continue  to   expand  and  improve  their  radio  programming.  (C) ________________________________________________ Some  project  achievements  or  challenges  are  highly   context-­specific.  Despite  this,  the  differences  between  rural  and   urban  areas  were  not  adequately  accounted  for  in  the  project   design.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  availability  of  project  materials  such  as  posters  and  cassettes   and  the  organisation  of  project  activities  can  vary  widely  across   districts.  The  effectiveness  of  C4D  interventions  may  differ  greatly   Page 63 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 depending  on  the  activities  and  materials  available  in  each  location,   as  such,  generalisations  about  the  impact  of  projects  at  the  national   level  may  be  unreliable.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  implementation  of  C4D  projects  that  utilise  radio  can  be   hampered  by  a  lack  of  resources,  equipment  and  poor   infrastructure.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  visual  and  oral  nature  of  theatre  means  that  it  is  a  particularly   effective  C4D  method  to  use  in  rural  areas  where  there  are  high   illiteracy  rates.  (C) ________________________________________________ Although  the  project  was  designed  to  address  political  violence,  the   participants  used  the  project  to  discuss  and  address  many  other   forms  of  conflict  including  familial  conflict  and  student/teacher   conflict.  The  scope  of  the  project  was  expanded  to  meet  the  needs   of  the  participants  suggesting  a  high  level  of  project  ownership.  (C) ________________________________________________ Local ownership Radio  programs  that  incorporate  local  content  and  involve  local   Working  to  develop  a  high  degree  of  local   ________________________________________________ ______________________________________ participants  in  their  production  are  more  popular  than  centrally   Local  ownership involvement  and  ownership  over  C4D   produced  and  disseminated  programs.  (C) initiatives  can  lead  to  social  change  and   ________________________________________________ increased  self-­reliance. 7KHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­Violence  iQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWLQVSLUHGVRPH participants  to  organise  their  own  conflict  resolution  initiatives  and   other  activities.  This  suggests  that  the  project  effectively   empowered  and  equipped  young  people  to  continue  non-­violence   education.  (C) Poor  infrastructure,  such  as  roads,  and  short  project  time  frames   Long-­term commitment can  contribute  to  the  over-­representation  of  urban  district   ________________________________________________ Long  term  commitments ______________________________________ C4D  initiatives  have  more  potential  to   Page 64 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 participants  in  radio  programming.  (C) generate  positive  impact  if  they  are   ________________________________________________ implemented  over  the  longer  term. Some  PIVOT  initiatives  could  have  been  more  effective  if  they  were   LPSOHPHQWHGHDUOLHU,WWDNHVWLPHWREXLOGFLWL]HQ¶VFRQILGHQFHDQG promote  behaviour  change.  (C) $OOLDQFHSDUWQHUVPXVWEHFKRVHQFDUHIXOO\WRHQVXUHWKDW7'6¶V trustworthy  and  independent  reputation  is  not  jeopardised  and  that   potential  partners  share  the  same  values  and  vision  as  TDS.  (C) ________________________________________________ 6)&*UDGLRSURJUDPVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHZKHUH political  and  military  leaders  frequently  use  the  radio  to  incite  ethnic   hatred  and  have  the  power  to  influence  media  coverage,  including   UDGLRFRYHUDJHRISDUWLFXODUHYHQWV%URDGFDVWLQJ6)&*¶VUDGLR programs  has  reduced  these  incidences.  (C) ________________________________________________ Media bias Media  bias  is  a  fundamental  problem   6)&*¶VWKHDWUHDQGUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJKDVDSRVLWLYHLPSDFWRQ ________________________________________________ Media  bias ______________________________________ affecting  both  pre-­conflict,  conflict  and   SHRSOH¶VLQIRUPDWLRQVeeking  habits  and  their  knowledge.  Listeners   post-­conflict  states. DQGYLHZHUVRI6)&*¶VSURJUDPPLQJDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRGLVPLVV rumours  and  to  obtain  information  from  the  radio,  local  NGOs  and   the  government.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  perceived  neutrality  and  professionalism  of  SFCG  produced   radio  programs  has  a  flow  on  effect  on  the  radio  stations  that  aired   WKHPUHVXOWLQJLQLQFUHDVHGOLVWHQHUFRQILGHQFHLQWKHUDGLR¶V impartiality.  (C) ________________________________________________ Combining  outreach  work  and  media  (live  drama,  video  and  radio)   Multi-­channel communication is  a  highly  effective  way  to  engage  rural,  largely  illiterate   ________________________________________________ Multi-­channel  communication ______________________________________ In  fragile  states  C4D  initiatives  are  more   populations  and  promote  peace-­building.  (C) effective  if  they  utilise  multiple  communication   Page 65 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 ________________________________________________ channels  (i.e.  interpersonal,  participatory,   6)&*¶VWKHDWUHDQGUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJKDVDSRVitive  impact  on   traditional  mass  media,  new  ICTs). SHRSOH¶VLQIRUPDWLRQVHHNLQJKDELWVDQGWKHLUNQRZOHGJH/LVWHQHUV DQGYLHZHUVRI6)&*¶VSURJUDPPLQJDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRGLVPLVV rumours  and  to  obtain  information  from  the  radio,  local  NGOs  and   the  government.  (C) ________________________________________________ It  is  difficult  to  involve  youth  ZKRµEHQHILW¶IURPWKHSUHVHQWSROLWLFDO situation  in  project  activities.  (C) ________________________________________________ Recruitment  and  selection  procedures  were  not  transparent  and   this  created  animosity  and  jealousy  within  the  community  and   ________________________________________________ Participation  (negative) negatively  impacted  on  the  legitimacy  of  Common  Ground  (CG)   Indonesia.  (C) ________________________________________________ No  one  reported  any  major  violent  incidents  in  the  three  cities  where   Participation WKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶ZDVFRQGXFWHGDQGDOO Local  participation  in  C4D  initiatives  in  fragile   people  interviewed  noted  positive  changes  in  youth  behaviour,   ______________________________________ states  can  help  increase  community   including  increased  mediation  skills.  This  is  significant  given  that   ownership  over  conflict-­related  problems  and   there  was  a  violent  protest  and  massacre  in  the  city  of  Conakry  in   help  generate  greater  impact. 2010.  Some  project  participants  in  Mamou  reported  that  they   received  rallying  calls  from  their  peers  in  Conakry,  which  they   rejected  because  of  their  involvement  in  the  Youth  and   Non-­Violence  project.  (C) ________________________________________________ Participation  (positive) ________________________________________________ 3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFW LQFUHDVHG\RXWKV¶NQRZOHGJHRIKXPDQULJKWVFLYLFGXWLHVDQG conflict  resolution.  (C) ________________________________________________ TDS  programs  have  encouraged  greater  levels  of  inclusion  and   Page 66 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 participation  by  all  community  members  in  local  decision  making,  in   particular  by  providing  spaces  for  women,  children  and  youth  to   make  their  voices  heard.  (C) ________________________________________________ Combining  outreach  work  and  media  (live  drama,  video  and  radio)   is  a  highly  effective  way  to  engage  rural,  largely  illiterate   populations  and  promote  peace-­building.  (C) ________________________________________________ &XOWXUDOO\VSHFLILFRUµORFDO¶PHGLDIRUPVVXFKDV'RKRUL>D1HSDOL folk  tradition  of  dialoguing  through  songs]  can  be  an  effective  way  to   deliver  C4D  messages  and  promote  community  participation.  (C) ________________________________________________ 6XUYH\GDWDLOOXVWUDWHVWKDW6)&*¶VWKHDWUHSURJUDPPLQJZDVPXFK PRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHDQHJDWLYHLPSDFWRQYLHZHU¶VWROHUDQFHOHYHOV Participatory media ZKHUHDV6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJZDVPRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHD Participatory  media  (such  as  street  theatre,   positive  or  no  impact  on  listeneU¶VWROHUDQFHOHYHOV7KLVLOOXVWUDWHV role  playing,  video,  social  mobilisation,  local   that  different  media  forms  may  have  varying  impacts  that  need  to  be   ________________________________________________ Participatory  media ______________________________________ media  genres)  can  be  effective  in  stimulating   accounted  for  during  project  design.  Given  the  negative  impacts  of   community  dialogue  and  in  reaching   theatre,  SFCG  must  carefully  examine  the  content  of  its  theatre   marginalised  groups  (especially  those  who   programming  and  continue  to  evaluate  its  effectiveness.  (C) may  be  illiterate). ________________________________________________ The  realistic  nature  of  SFCG  interactive  theatre  performances   enhances  their  ability  to  effectively  promote  community  discussion,   self-­reflection  and  sensitisation.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  visual  and  oral  nature  of  theatre  means  that  it  is  a  particularly   effective  C4D  method  to  use  in  rural  areas  where  there  are  high   illiteracy  rates.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 67 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 An  appropriate  exit  strategy  for  TDS  needs  to  be  developed  to   ensure  the  long  term  sustainability  of  funded  and  supported   initiatives  such  as  community  radio  stations.  A  clear  exit  strategy   will  help  staff  and  project  partners  to  plan  more  effectively.  (C) ________________________________________________ Building  partnerships  with  local  authorities  may  improve  the  long   term  sustainability  and  effectiveness  of  SFCG  projects.  (C) ________________________________________________ Given  the  cost  of  establishing  CTN,  a  more  sustainable  option  may   have  been  to  build  up  the  capacities  of  an  existing  radio  station   rather  than  creating  a  new  independent  news  agency.  (C) ________________________________________________ Sustainability planning The  quality  of  Common  Ground  (CG)  ,QGRQHVLD¶VSURJUDPVZDV C4D  initiatives  in  fragile  states  are  heavily   reduced  by  rapid  expansion.  Donors  need  to  ensure  that  existing   ________________________________________________ Sustainability  planning ______________________________________ reliant  on  external  donor  funding  and  need  to   projects  are  sufficiently  established  before  they  are  scaled  up  into   consider  sustainability  planning  and  exit   new  regions.  (C) strategies  in  a  more  systematic  way. ________________________________________________ The  success  of  C4D  projects  and  the  trustworthy  reputation  of   development  organisations  can  create  problems  including;;   dependency,  sustainability  and  high  demand.  Many  individuals  and   groups  approach  TDS  [Talking  Drum  Studios,  used  in  this  report  to   describe  all  SFCG  activities  in  Sierra  Leone]  for  assistance  with  a   wide  range  of  issues  and  this  places  pressure  on  the  organisation.   TDS  needs  to  educate  people  about  the  roles  and  responsibilities  of   other  institutions,  and  where  they  can  go  to  address  their  problems.   Furthermore,  TDS  needs  to  implement  processes  to  increase  the   capacity  and  confidence  of  people  to  conduct  activities  without   support  from  TDS.  (C) Key  terms  need  to  be  clearly  defined  and  very  specific  to  avoid   Understanding the cultural context miscommunication,  ambiguity  and  inappropriate  impact   Developing  a  detailed  understanding  of  the   expectations.  (C) ________________________________________________ Formative  research ______________________________________ cultural  context  of  fragile  states,  why  conflict   ________________________________________________ occurs,  how  it  is  reduced  and  how  best  to   Key  terms  used  by  SFCG,  such  as  'Youth'  were  not  adequately   communicate  with  the  public,  is  essential  if   Page 68 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 defined.  (C) C4D  initiatives  are  to  be  effective. ________________________________________________ 6)&*¶VSULPDU\DXGLHQFHDUHKLJKO\HGXFDWHGDQGDGXOW$PRUH concerted  effort  should  be  made  to  reach  young  people  and   uneducated  viewers/listeners.  (C) ________________________________________________ Some  project  achievements  or  challenges  are  highly   context-­specific.  Despite  this,  the  differences  between  rural  and   urban  areas  were  not  adequately  accounted  for  in  the  project   design.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 69 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 A  sound  understanding  of  the  social,  cultural  and  political  context  in   which  C4D  projects  will  be  implemented  contributes  to  their   effectiveness.  The  characteristics  and  roles  of  local  parties  and   stakeholders  need  to  be  considered  in  project  design.  (C) ________________________________________________ More  men  participated  in  the  project  than  women.  Factors  that  may   make  it  difficult  for  women  to  attend  project  events  such  as  their   daily  household  tasks  were  not  considered  in  the  project  design.  A   more  explicit  gender  strategy  that  considers  the  specific  needs  of   young  women  is  required  if  SFCG  wants  to  ensure  their  greater   participation.  (C) ________________________________________________ Understanding  local  culture ________________________________________________ ______________________________________ Understanding the cultural context (cont.) Some  project  achievements  or  challenges  are  highly   context-­specific.  Despite  this,  the  differences  between  rural  and   urban  areas  were  not  adequately  accounted  for  in  the  project   design.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  timing  of  radio  programs  needs  to  be  carefully  considered  so   that  the  target  audience  can  be  effectively  reached.  Sunau  Bolau   was  broadcast  in  the  morning,  a  time  when  children  were  often   working  or  preparing  to  go  to  school  and  unable  to  listen  to  the   program.  (C) A  sound  understanding  of  the  social,  cultural  and  political  context  in   which  C4D  projects  will  be  implemented  contributes  to  their   effectiveness.  The  characteristics  and  roles  of  local  parties  and   stakeholders  need  to  be  considered  in  project  design.  (C) Understanding the institutional context   ________________________________________________ Understanding  the  institutions  that  support  or   Donors  need  to  have  a  sound  understanding  of  the  political  context   ________________________________________________ Understanding  the  institutional  context ______________________________________ constrain  the  effectiveness  of  C4D  initiatives   in  fragile  states  is  a  critically  important   in  which  projects  are  funded  and  the  risks  that  may  pose  serious   determinant  to  effectiveness. challenges  to  project  success  and  participant  safety.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  appointment  of  a  partner  organisation  that  was  associated  with   Page 70 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 a  particular  political  party  threatened  the  impartiality  of  Common   Ground  (CG)  Indonesia  and  created  frictions  in  the  already  divided   local  political  context.  (C) ________________________________________________ The  relationship  between  Common  Ground  (CG)  Indonesia  and   local  partners  was  not  always  clear.  This  lack  of  clarity  created   tensions  and  dissatisfaction.  (C) ________________________________________________ Page 71 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Discussion This discussion section has a number of broad aims. First, it draws on a range of literature to µVHWDVFHQH¶LQWHUPVRIGHILQLQJWKH nature of fragile states and the role that C4D can play within a number of conflict different scenarios (latent, open and post-conflict). Second, it collates and organises the findings associated with the review in terms of these differing conflict scenarios. This is undertaken to aid highlight the potential range of C4D interventions that can be undertaken in fragile states. Third the discussion recognises that while different initiatives can be pursued in different situations, the direction and content of C4D initiatives tends to be driven by a close understanding of context, which in turn is driven by clearly defined communication practice principles. A principle-based approach to C4D initiatives is discussed and a table that identifies and sets out the various contextual and programmatic factors identified in this review follows this analysis. Each identified factor is also subject to a realist assessment, in which further elaboration and examples are provided for consideration. Finally, the discussion seFWLRQ FRQFOXGHV ZLWK DQDO\VLV RI WKH UHYLHZ¶V SROLF\ SUDFWLFH DQG UHVHDUFK implications. This systematic review has examined a wide range of contextual and programmatic factors frame, affect and constrain communication for development (C4D) interventions undertaken in fragile or conflict affected states. Understanding the various factors that influence C4D interventions in fragile states is critical to improving practice, implementation and evaluation, as well as to the future development of communication focused approaches, methods and frameworks that can be utilised in various conflict or crisis situations. 7KHWHUPµIUDJLOHVWDWHV¶ implies numerous different conditions, possibilities and constraints. However, it is often used to imply the failure of sovereign states to assure security, rule of law and justice, or to provide 9,10 basic services and economic opportunities. Fragile states may be at a high risk of failure or increasing deterioration. Such contexts tend to display a sensitivity to conflict - be it latent, open or post-conflict scenarios and these different forms of conflict typically demand different types of communication intervention. The DFID guide Working with the Media in Conflict and Other 17 Emergencies uses the categories latent, open and post-conflict to good effect in developing a number of intervention frameworks that help us to think through some of the critical warning signs, communication and information needs and the scope of C4D of interventions possible. While the range of interventions in fragile states is driven by context specific media availability, media uses and genre preferences, and cannot be realistically captured in their entirety, there is practical mileage in developing, adapting and updating these intervention frameworks to help locate the findings emerging from this systematic review. C4D in different conflict scenarios Latent conflict scenarios tend to reflect political, religious, economic or ethnic tensions and such tensions are increasingly being focused on by media and peace-building organisations for the reason that they can evolve into more acute forms of open conflict. Within such situations, reconciliation focused media, inter-ethnic reporting, media strengthening through capacity Page 72 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 development, as well as support to generate participatory and community media to help build 17 dialogue between opposing groups is often promoted. In addition, latent conflict situations may force a focus on ensuring the responsibility of media not to inflame existing tension and to act responsibly. 17 C4D in Latent Conflict Scenarios Critical warning signs -­‐ Political, economic and/or ethnic tensions -­‐ Local civil unrest -­‐ Weak state and local authority capacity -­‐ Increasing rights infringements -­‐ Increasing press and media censorship -­‐ Harassment of journalists and media professionals -­‐ Suppression of dissent and public expression Communication and -­‐ Access to accurate and impartial reporting and news media information needs -­‐ Increased communication between rival groups and factions -­‐ Increased dialogue between government and the public -­‐ Increased flow of information relating to human rights -­‐ Awareness of conflict mediation and resolution mechanisms Scope of C4D -­‐ Research and analysis of existing information and communication interventions sources -­‐ Research on the information needs of people affected by conflict and their key sources/channels of communication -­‐ Support to more balanced news and media coverage through national and international channels -­‐ Support to community media to develop conflict-reducing and dialogue creating communication that helps to bring rivals together to defuse tensions -­‐ Support communication interventions at all levels that promote inter-ethnic understanding and tolerance -­‐ Support communication that promotes awareness of and adherence to human rights -­‐ Establish mechanisms to monitor the content being produced by media to ensure it does not incite conflict -­‐ Increased media monitoring Turning to open conflict, which, within the developing world tends to be sub-national and can be characterised by the use of light weapons and a blurring of the distinction between combatants 17 and civilians. Such conflict may pass through both acute phases, with high levels of violence and chronic phases of lower intensity conflict and insecurity. During more acute phases, C4D initiatives may be limited to the provision of emergency humanitarian information relating to maximising security/safety or raising awareness of services for displaced populations. Open conflict, regardless of intensity, is often accompanied by human rights abuses. Consequently, it is important to raise awareness of rights conventions and the need to observe basic human 10 rights, such as those set out in the Geneva Convention. Lower intensity conflict may provide additional opportunities for peace-building and reconciliation initiatives through relevant media and communication channels. Such situations provide more of an opportunity to research, design and implement C4D interventions that focus on the root causes of violence and promote community self-reliance in the widespread absence of government services and/or physical aid delivery. Page 73 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 17 C4D in Open Conflict Scenarios Critical warning signs -­‐ Open conflict between clearly defined combatants driven by specific causes and goals -­‐ Widespread human rights abuses -­‐ Forced migration and internal displacement -­‐ Destruction of infrastructure (including media and communications) -­‐ Increasing food insecurity -­‐ Rapid deterioration of the public health environment -­‐ High degree of censorship and regulation of media and communications Communication and -­‐ Impartial and accurate media, especially news media information needs -­‐ Targeted information on health food availability, shelter, conflict avoidance and mitigation, landmine awareness, human rights and international humanitarian law, humanitarian aid activities, peacekeeping roles and responsibilities Scope of C4D -­‐ Rapid assessment of media and communications availability, uses and interventions preferences to inform implementation strategy and options -­‐ Support to community, national and international media for dissemination of balanced news media and humanitarian information -­‐ Support for the production of peace-building programming at all levels -­‐ Training for objective political/conflict reporting, humanitarian reporting and peace-building programming -­‐ Provision of emergency media/communication response, i.e. rapid deployment radio broadcasting -­‐ Maintenance of telecommunications infrastructure -­‐ Provision of broadcasting and communications infrastructure -­‐ Provision of media (i.e. radios) to dislocated populations Finally, in post-conflict scenarios, efforts to sustain and enhance peace, reconciliation, reconstruction and trust are critical. Here, C4D often takes the form of support for civic and electoral education in support of political and democratic reforms. Equally, they may help to explain stability interventions, anti-corruption measures, better governance, promote the rule of law, as well as efforts to maintain the peace-building dialogue necessary to stop a slide back in to open conflict. In many post-conflict scenarios media strengthening/development is actively promoted, with efforts to improve the professionalism and responsibility of the media, as well as efforts to increase the plurality, independence and performance monitoring (watchdogs) of media through changes to the legislative and policy environment representing priority 17 interventions. Page 74 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 17 C4D in Post-Conflict Scenarios Critical warning signs -­‐ Context is characterised by a transitional status often associated with a move towards democracy -­‐ Relaxing of media censorship -­‐ Relaxing of media and telecommunications regulation -­‐ Renewal and expanding of media and communication infrastructure -­‐ NGOs and CSOs expanding Communication and -­‐ Development of media and communications capacity information needs -­‐ Maintenance of peace-building dialogue between formerly opposed groups through media -­‐ Increase transparency between governments and the public, with a increased focus on information sharing to enhance accountability -­‐ Maintained focus on human rights observance and the addressing of previous human rights abuses -­‐ Focus on civic education, the roles and responsibilities of governments and citizens (i.e. during elections) Scope of C4D -­‐ Increased emphasis on capacity strengthening of media and interventions communications personnel, especially in areas associated with news reporting and peace-building -­‐ Support for revision of media and communications policy and regulation to enhance plurality and lower cost to access -­‐ Development of local C4D capacity and specialization within national/local NGOs and CSOs While the conflict scenarios outlined above present very different communications challenges, the range of C4D implementation options is fairly well defined, i.e. humanitarian information provision (across a wide range of themes), support to increase media professionalism, support for conflict reduction, the promotion of reconciliation and peace-building, stabilisation processes, participatory media/communication to build dialogue, civic and electoral education, media and communications deregulation and reform through policy and legislative actions, as well as enhanced media monitoring to ensure media responsibility. In addition, as new information and communication technologies (ICTs) have diffused to developing world contexts the number of potential communication channels available to C4D implementers, as well as 18 citizens, has risen exponentially. Increasingly, both governments and citizens are actively using new ICTs to engage in a wide range of social media activity that is far more participatory than traditional media such as radio and television. Interestingly, this review returned few sources that related directly to the use of new or social media in conflict situations. This is because the bulk of new research on social media and conflict has arisen from states not included in the AusAID/OECD DAC composite list of fragile states at the time the searches were conducted for this review. Page 75 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 C4D intervention summaries of review findings The intervention summaries set out below provide an alternative way of reading the data extracted from the qualitative research and textual sources included in this systematic review. These summaries allow the evidence to be read according to the context in which specific C4D interventions occur and highlight the facilitators and barriers to interventions in those contexts. The following intervention summaries build on the categories of latent, open and post-conflict outlined above and provide illustrations of the types of intervention that might be pursued within certain given situations. These summaries are not comprehensive, but give a sense of the breadth of C4D initiatives that can occur. The summaries identify both the geographical context and the program-specific sub-context. These are followed by a number of categories (see synthesised findings, Table 10) that relate to the factors or issues, as identified in the available evidence, that exert influence over these initiatives. Finally, a summary of the extracted findings associated with each example, plus a conclusion and the source data is provided. The shading within the intervention summaries highlights different sources to aid the read-across of the example. Page 76 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Table 6: Latent conflict intervention map Context Sub-Context Factors Findings Conclusion Source Indonesia - Search for Behaviour change Recruitment and selection procedures were not transparent and Local participation is Tagor Lubis, West Common Ground communication this created animosity and jealousy within the community and important in C4D I. & Kalimantan, (SFCG) Projects - negatively impacted on the legitimacy of SFCG Indonesia. projects. The impact of Nainggolan Central conflict Contextual SFCG activities in SV, M. Kalimantan transformation constraints The relationship between SFCG Indonesia and local partners was Indonesia could have (2004) and Madura - radio programme, not always clear. This lack of clarity created tensions and been strengthened if they Common following conflict Culturally appropriate dissatisfaction. had more effectively Ground community transformation media content liaised with locals and Indonesia conflicts in comic book The appointment of a partner organisation that was associated gained a better Full Program these regions programme, and Edutainment with a particular political party threatened the impartiality of SFCG understanding of the Evaluation in 1997, 1999 community based Indonesia and created frictions in the already divided local political, cultural and Report, and 2001. conflict Evaluation and political context. economic context in Common transformation evidence which their projects were Ground programme. A sound understanding of the social, cultural and political context implemented. Indonesia, Participation in which C4D projects will be implemented contributes to their pp. 1-40. effectiveness. The characteristics and roles of local parties and Sustainability stakeholders need to be considered in project design. planning SFCG Indonesia did not adequately incorporate local suggestions Understanding the and ideas into their comic book programme. SFCG included a cultural context sensitive phrase in the comic book that generated complaints from local children and resulted in several local people protesting Understanding the the edition arguing that it should be withdrawn. In a pre-release institutional context workshop session in Pontianak the sensitive nature of the wording had been raised but this issue was not adequately addressed by SFCG. De-FHQWUDOLVDWLRQZRXOGLPSURYH6)&*,QGRQHVLD¶VDELOLW\WR respond to local problems. At the moment, local partners are reliant on SFCG management who are based in Jakarta. Poor communication between SFCG staff in Jakarta and local partners exacerbates this issue. 7KHTXDOLW\RI6)&*,QGRQHVLD¶VSURJUDPVZDVUHGXFHGE\UDSLG expansion. Donors need to ensure that existing projects are Page 77 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 sufficiently established before they are scaled up into new regions. Outcomes or recommendations made in dialogue forums or community workshops need to be followed up. Guinea ± Search for Behaviour change The implementation of C4D projects that utilise radio can be 7KHµ<RXWKDQG Bright, D. & Kindia, Common Ground communication hampered by a lack of resources, equipment and poor Non-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶ Mozani, B. Mamou and (SFCG) project infrastructure. project effectively (2010). Final Kankan ± µ<RXWKDQG Civic education LQFUHDVHGSDUWLFLSDQWV¶ Evaluation following the Non-Violence in 7KHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWLQVSLUHGVRPH peaceful conflict Report: riots of Jan GuiQHD¶WRSURPRWH Contextual participants to organise their own conflict resolution initiatives and resolution skills and their Youth and and Feb non-violent conflict constraints other activities. This suggests that the project effectively knowledge of human Non-Violenc 2007. resolution among empowered and equipped young people to continue non-violence rights and civic duties. e in Guinea, youth. Edutainment education. However, several Search for limitations of the program Common Evaluation and No one reported any major violent incidents in the three cities were noted, including the Ground evidence ZKHUHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶ZDVFRQGXFWHGDQGDOl lack of female (SFCG) with people interviewed noted positive changes in youth behaviour, participants. support for Gender equality including increased mediation skills. This is significant given that US Agency there was a violent protest and massacre in the city of Conakry in for Information divide 2010. Some project participants in Mamou reported that they International received rallying calls from their peers in Conakry which they Development Local ownership UHMHFWHGEHFDXVHRIWKHLULQYROYHPHQWLQWKHµ<RXWKDQG (USAID), pp. Non-9LROHQFH¶SURMHFW 1-37. Participation 3DUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFW LQFUHDVHG\RXWK¶VNQRZOHGJHRIKXPDQULJKWV civic duties and conflict resolution. The interactive radio format involves the risk that callers will make derogatory comments live on air that incite violence and hatred. 2QO\RQHVXFKLQFLGHQWRFFXUUHGGXULQJWKHµ<RXWKDQG Non-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SUoject, suggesting that the benefits of interactive radio outweigh the risks. The radio programs (Barada magazine and interactive shows) were highly valued by the project participants, community leaders and the radio stations. In particular, respondents indicated that Page 78 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 they enjoyed the responsibility of facilitating the discussion in the interactive show, a format that encouraged listeners to call in to discuss a particular topic. The low number of female participants in the project could be addressed by an explicit gender strategy. The everyday living situations and responsibilities of women may preclude them from participating in C4D projects or make it more difficult for them to participate. For example, women who are primary child carers may be unable to attend project events and training. This can result in an imbalanced gender ratio, with more male participants than female participants. If questionnaires are not conducted correctly they may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to their exclusion from the study and can create information gaps. Missing project documentation or records that are not standardised can make it difficult for evaluators to assess the full impact of a C4D project. The impact of C4D projects can be more effectively gauged if monitoring systems are developed that are tailored to the specific project. 7KHUHLVDODFNRIGDWDDERXWWKHLPSDFWRIWKHµ<RXWKDQG Non-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWRQEHQHILFLDULHV7KHEHQHILWVRI the program for community members in project locations need to be more consistently measured. The The use of new Civic education New communications technologies can be used in conjunction New communications Karan, K., Philippines - media and with traditional media to increase public engagement and technologies are a Gimeno, J. against the technologies for Digital divide generate political support during election campaigns. cost-effective way for D. M., & backdrop of electoral political parties to reach Tandoc, E. the 2007 campaigning by the Multi-channel Political parties with limited funds may be unable to adequately voters. However, some Jr., (2009) mid-term GABRIELA communications maintain and promote a website. forms of new µ7KH,QWHUQHW elections. :RPHQ¶V3DUW\ communications and Mobile (GWP). Telecommunications New communications technologies are not effective if they are technologies are more Technologie Page 79 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 inaccessible. Members of the GABRIELA party thought that their accessible than others. In s in Election mobile phone electoral campaign was more effective than their the Philippines Campaigns: use of the Internet because mobile phones have a higher campaigning via mobile The penetration rate in the Philippines. phones was more GABRIELA effective then utilising the :RPHQ¶V The cost of airing television commercials on national television is internet. Party During prohibitive. Political advertisements that are hosted on YouTube the 2007 can generate widespread political exposure for less financial cost. Philippine (OHFWLRQV¶,Q The effectiveness of internet based political campaigns can be Journal of increased if the medium is used early in the campaign. Information Technology and Politics, Vol. 6, Issue 3-4, pp. 326-339. Sri Lanka ± The use of Digital and/or media A clear digital divide exists in Sri Lanka, with access to A number of Gamage, P. residual telecentres to literacy Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) being very improvements need to be & Halpin, E. tensions after bridge the digital unequal. made to the telecentres in F. (2007) emerging divide through e-Sri Digital divide order to increase their µ(-Sri Lanka: from 20 years /DQND¶V7HOHFHQWUH An evaluation of the telecentres set up as part of the Sri Lankan effectiveness. In Bridging the of civil war. Development Sustainability JRYHUQPHQW¶V7HOHFHQWUH'HYHORSPHQW3URJUDPPH7'3 particular, the author Digital Programme (TDP). planning revealed that 90 percent of telecentre users are under 35 years of found that the telecentres 'LYLGH¶,Q age and no older people used the service. were poorly promoted, Electronic Telecommunications under-staffed and reliant Library, Vol. Many people were unaware of the telecentres and did not use the on subsidies. 25, Issue 6, Understanding the services offered by them. Furthermore, some of pp. 693-710. cultural context their services were not Many telecentres are situated in remote locations, are used or valued by the inadequately staffed and are poorly maintained. These factors community. These issues contribute to their limited use and lack of functionality. need to be addressed in order to improve the The telecentres do not adequately cater for non-English speaking sustainability of the groups such as Sinhala and Tamil speakers. Off-line computer centres and their impact based training materials that were going to be made available to RQWKHµGLJLWDOGLYLGH¶ the telecentres by the ICTA in Sinhala, Tamil and English were not provided. Page 80 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 ICT4D projects need to clearly identify and solve the needs of their target population. Interventions that are poorly designed, implemented and promoted will not achieve their desired outcomes and the money spent to fund them will have been wasted. Poor publicity and awareness programs have contributed to the small number of telecentre users. The current promotion and awareness strategy utilises a medium (a television channel) that is not accessible in many parts of the country and is, therefore, not very effective. Telecentres lose customers to competitors who can offer the same services for lower prices. Telecentre operators are heavily reliant on government subsidies and, therefore, the sustainability of the telecentres is questionable. Outbreaks of violence in fragile states can create security threats WKDWUHVWULFWUHVHDUFKHUV¶DFFHVVWRSDUWLFXODUUHJLRQV Sri Lanka ± Journalism training Capacity High levels of partisanship in media play a key role in dividing the For journalism training Miller, S. during by the BBC World strengthening wider journalism community, especially when it is divided along interventions to be (2006) prolonged Service Trust. ethnic lines. effective it is critical that µ-RXUQDOLVP periods of Media bias work is undertaken with Training in ethnic Journalism training must be systematic with: (i) follow up senior staff and owners to Sri Lanka: tension. face-to-face training dominates; or (ii) additional face-to-face ensure that higher Meeting the training if the dominant mode of delivery is online learning. standards of journalism Needs of are encouraged and Working Developing a cadre of trained trainers through a training of supported. -RXUQDOLVWV¶ trainers (TOT) process in addition to training staff within individual In Changing organisations helps to strengthen the pool of available English: professionals to work across the entire sector. Studies in Culture and Education, Vol. 13, Issue 2, pp. 173-178. Page 81 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Eastern Radio soap opera - Behaviour change Listeners who listened to both the talk-show and soap opera Listeners of both the Paluck, E. L. Democratic Kumbuka Kesho - communication discussed the soap opera more than those who only listened to talk-show and soap opera µ,V,W Republic of and related the soap opera. discussed the content Better Not to Congo (DRC) talk-show. Edutainment more often but their Talk? Group ± during This suggests that multiple-media broadcasting similar content intolerance towards other Polarization, periods of Evaluation and can have a compound effect, i.e. increase potential impact. groups hardened as a Extended residual evidence result of being exposed to Contact, and conflict and Exposure to the talk-show appeared to harden attitudes towards such content. Perspective hostility. Multi-channel outgroups and decrease tolerance, rather than increase it. The Taking in communications author cautions that either the methodological design or the Easter quality of media content could have influenced this finding, i.e. the Democratic content lacked a clear behaviour change focus and offered no Republic of course of action associated with conflict reduction. &RQJR¶,Q Personality The format of C4D and the need for pretesting audience feedback and Social prior to broadcast is essential to ensuring that content achieves Psychology the desired effect. The lack of clear goals associated with the Bulletin, Vol. discussions mean that testing outcomes is problematic and points 36, Issue 9, to need for clear objectives, goals and impact indicators. pp. 1170-1185. Democratic Search for Behaviour change The bias towards publishing positive project data means that The negative impacts of Gordon, G. Republic of Common Ground communication information about what does not work is not always shared. This 6)&*¶VZRUNDUH (2008). A Congo (DRC) (SFCG) can result in a limited understanding of the factors that influenceoutweighed by the UNHCR ± South Kivu media-oriented Contextual project success and the re-creation of poor programming. positive impacts. It is Evaluation of and Katanga conflict resolution constraints concluded that increased Search for ± following programming. A lack of baseline data and prior randomisation means that communication between Common the Culturally appropriate collected statistical data intended to measure the impact of SFCG the UNHCR and SFCG Ground long-standing media content programming in the DRC can only be used to suggest correlation would enhance project Programmin humanitarian not causation. This limitation could be avoided through the success and create more g in the DRC: crisis and Evaluation and implementation of new evaluation and monitoring procedures. opportunities for OCTOBER large scale evidence collaboration. It is also (2008), displacement. 6XUYH\GDWDLOOXVWUDWHVWKDW6)&*¶VWKHDWUHSURJUDPPLQJZDV indicated that a lack of UNHCR and Information divide much more likely to have a negative impacWRQYLHZHU¶VWROHUDQFH baseline information and Search for OHYHOVZKHUHDV6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJZDVPRUHOLNHO\WR inadequate evaluation Common Media bias KDYHDSRVLWLYHRUQRLPSDFWRQOLVWHQHUV¶WROHUDQFHOHYHOV7KLV and monitoring Ground illustrates that different media forms may have varying impacts procedures can make it (SFCG), pp. Multi-channel that need to be accounted for during project design. Given the difficult to assess the 1-51. Page 82 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 communication negative impacts of theatre, SFCG must carefully examine the impacts of C4D projects. content of its theatre programming and continue to evaluate its Participatory media effectiveness. Understanding the Key terms need to be clearly defined and very specific to avoid cultural context miscommunication, ambiguity and inappropriate impact expectations. The evaluation of the impact of SFCG programming was conducted in relatively peaceful areas, Uvira, Fizi and Moba. When these programs were implemented in more volatile areas they will need to be assessed to determine what works in these contexts. 6)&*¶VWKHDWUHDQGUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJKDVDSRVLWLYHLPSDFWRQ SHRSOH¶VLQIRUPDWLRQVHHNLQJKDELWVDQGWKHLUNQRZOHGJH /LVWHQHUVDQGYLHZHUVRI6)&*¶VSURJUDPPLQJDUHPRUHOLNHO\WR dismiss rumours and to obtain information from the radio, local NGOs and the government. SFCG staffs are unaware of the geographic dimensions of their radio programming coverage. Establishing the potential overlaps and holes in radio coverage is essential of SFCG want to continue to expand and improve their radio programming. People prefer radio and theatre content that is produced by local staff and locally selected journalists. In communities marked by conflict and ethnic tension, where people can be very suspicious RIµRXWVLGHUV¶VLJQLILFDQWDmounts of media content should be locally produced. Post-conflict Hate speech in the Behaviour change Amongst mass media, radio broadcasting has played a central Hate speech is a Vollhardt, J., Democratic mass media and a communication and historic role in generating conflict and instability across the destructive tool used in Coutin, M., Republic of radio program developing world, but especially in Africa, over the past 20 years. conflict and genocide that Staub, E., Congo (DRC) developed to Edutainment can be fought through Weiss, G. & ± surrounding counteract hate Developing a comprehensive understanding of conflict is critical legislation and social Deflander, J. the speech. Digital and/or media to the deployment of counter hate speech strategies and action. Public (2006) presidential literacy campaigns that empower and support groups affected by sensitisation to hate µ'HFRQVWUXFWL election violence. Hate speech builds on stereotypes, societal beliefs and speech, how to recognise ng Hate Page 83 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 campaign of Hate media cultural preconceptions which need to be understood before hate it and reject it are critical Speech in 2006. speech can be effectively countered. to peace and stability. the DRC: A Educational programs Psychologica The central characteristics of hate speech have been identified (radio-based) and l Media and focus on: (i) instigating elements; (ii) derogatory elements, (iii) sensitisation campaigns Sensitization strategies designed to promote self-interest or political gain while are critical in contexts in &DPSDLJQ¶,Q causing harm to others (see Vollhardt et al. 2006, p.29-30 for a full which hate speech is Journal of list of hate speech characteristics). The implication of the promoted. Hate availability of such characteristics is the potential to undertake Studies, Vol. discourse and textual analysis of media text to analyse the extent 5, Issue 1, to which they promote hatred. pp. 15-35. In contexts in which conflict is occurring, enhancing media literacy (i.e. the ability to critically assess media content for its truth and voracity) can play an important role in countering hate speech. Côte d'Ivoire Search for Behaviour change Short evaluation time frames can limit the amount of data that can The project has had a Gouley, C. & ± following &RPPRQ*URXQG¶V communication be gathered and can result in information gaps. significant positive impact Kanyatsi, Q. the attempted (SFCG) Project on Ivorian youth, Areas (2010) Final coup in 2002 µ6XSSRUWLQJD The evaluators were reliant on SFCG staff to organise meetings for improvement are also Evaluation of Participatory and Conversation on and focus groups, and administer questionnaires. While this identified. the Project approaches increasing Youth Leadership increased the involvement of SFCG staff in the evaluation ³6XSSRUWLQJ conflict in &{WHG ,YRLUH¶ process it also reduced the ability to the evaluation team to act a Culturally appropriate between independently. Conversation media content government on Youth forces and The project had less impact in areas where SFCG were not as Leadership Evaluation and rebels. active. in Côte evidence d'Ivoire´ 7KHYLVLELOLW\RI6)&*LQHDFKUHJLRQLQIOXHQFHVWKHSURMHFW¶V Search for Gender equality effectiveness in that area. Common Ground Hate media .H\WHUPVXVHGE\6)&*VXFKDVµ<RXWK¶ZHUHQRWDGHTXDWHO\ (Côte identified. d'Ivoire) and Information divide US Some project achievements or challenges are highly Department Local ownership context-specific. Despite this, the differences between rural and of State urban areas were not adequately accounted for in the project Bureau of Media bias design. Democracy, Human Page 84 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Participation More men participated in the project than women. Factors that Rights and may make it difficult for women to attend project events such as Labor, pp. Participatory media their daily household tasks were not considered in the project 1-65. design. A more explicit gender strategy that considers the specific Sustainability needs of young women is required if SFCG wants to ensure their planning greater participation. Understanding the 6)&*¶VZRUNLQCôte d'Ivoire did result in a reduction in violence cultural context DQGSRVLWLYHFKDQJHVLQ\RXWKV¶DWWLWXGHVDQGEHKDYLRXUV However, these findings need to be confirmed during a presidential election campaign where tensions are likely to increase. The perceived neutrality and professionalism of SFCG produced radio programs has a flow on effect on the radio stations that aired WKHPUHVXOWLQJLQLQFUHDVHGOLVWHQHUFRQILGHQFHLQWKHUDGLR¶V impartiality. SFCG radio programs play an important role in Côte d'Ivoire where political and military leaders frequently use radio to incite ethnic hatred and have the power to influence media coverage, including radio coverage, of particular events. Broadcasting 6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPV has reduced these incidents. Radio programs that are not broadcast in local languages can have unforeseen positive impacts. In some villages, informal listening clubs emerged that helped community members who did not speak French to understand the programs. These activities created important opportunities for community dialogue and cooperation. The visual and oral nature of theatre means that it is a particularly effective C4D method to use in rural areas where there are high illiteracy rates. The realistic nature of SFCG interactive theatre performances enhances their ability to effectively promote community discussion, self-reflection and sensitisation. Although the project was designed to address political violence, Page 85 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 the participants used the project to discuss and address many other forms of conflict including familial conflict and student/teacher conflict. The scope of the project was expanded to meet the needs of participants suggesting a high level of project ownership. It is difficult to involYH\RXWKZKRµEHQHILW¶IURPWKHSUHVHQWSROLWLFDO situation in project activities. Building partnerships with local authorities may improve the long-term sustainability and effectiveness of SFCG projects. Kenya ± Theatre for Behaviour change Outbreaks of political and/or ethnic violence make it very difficult It is extremely difficult but Connelly, C. Nairobi, Development communication for Theatre for Development programs to continue very important to conduct µ+RZ Kibera and interventions theatre for development Does the Nakuru ± LQFOXGLQJ3HRSOH¶V Participatory Theatre for Development interventions held in non-theatre activities during and Show Go following the Popular Theatre approaches settings such as parks and markets can reach disadvantaged post-conflict. On?: Theatre disputed (PPT), Shining audiences that may be unable or unwilling to attend performances for election in Home for the Participation in traditional theatre venues. Development 2007. Community in (SHOFCO), and Participatory media Theatre for Development activities can play a role in promoting Post-Election Rapid Effective peace and changing individual beliefs and practices. .HQ\D¶LQ Participatory Action Theatre in Community Participation in Theatre for Development can create bonds History Theatre Education between members of different ethnic groups. Studies, Vol. DQG'HYHORSPHQW¶V 30, pp. (REPACTED) 65-72. Magnet Theatre. Kenya ± Civic education Civic education Despite the increasing number of civic education interventions, This study provides Finkel, S. E. following the intervention ± there is a lack of evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of conclusive evidence that & Smith, A. transitional Kenyan National Contextual these programs. exposure to adult E. (2011) democratic Civic Education constraints education training can µ&LYLF election of Programme Evaluations of civic education programs need to consider both increase political education, 2002. (NCEP). Evaluation and direct and indirect effects. Studies that solely focus on those who knowledge and Political evidence attended the programs fail to consider the indirect ways that participation and reduce Discussion information and ideas promoted in the education programs can political intolerance. and the Participatory influence non-attendees (e.g. through discussion with peers). Social approaches Transmissio Page 86 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Following a democratic regime change, citizens need to learn n of about the norms and values that inform the democratic political Democratic V\VWHPDQGDFTXLUHQHZµFLYLFFRPSHWHQFLHVDQGDWWLWXGHV¶)LQNHO Knowledge and Smith 2011, p. 417). While this process was initially thought and Values to involve slow changes over time in peoplH¶VNQRZOHGJHEHOLHIV in a New and behaviours, more recent studies suggest that these changes Democracy: can happen relatively quickly. Nonetheless, there are more direct .HQ\D¶ ways to promote democratic values. The most effective way to In American directly educate citizens in new democracies may be through civic Journal of education programs. Political Science, Vol. Adults who attended the civic education showed a significant 55, Issue 2, increase in all four dependent variables identified by the authors: pp. 417-435. political knowledge, political participation, political tolerance, and national versus tribal identification. The NCEP civic education program has widespread indirect effects. Many Kenyans who did not attend the programs were exposed to the civic education messages through dissemination with attendees in their social network. Although the authors estimate that 14% of the Kenyan population attended the training, they state that approximately 40 to 50% were exposed to the program messages in some way (Finkel and Smith 2011, p. 433). This had a measureable statistical impact on all of the dependant variables except political participation. The ethnic violence that broke out after the 2007 Kenyan election may have been worse if the 2002 NCEP program and a 2007 civic education program had not been implemented. Although civic education training has positive effects it is important to recognise that the impact of programs like NCEP are constrained by other factors that also influence the success of democratic institutions. Civic education programs that utilise open, participatory teaching PHWKRGVPRUHHIIHFWLYHO\FKDQJHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHEHOLHIV and behaviours than those that do not. The authors group various participatory methods into six categories: small group discussions, role playing, stage plays or dramatisations, game Page 87 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 playing, problem solving and developing proposals, and mock elections. Table 7: Open conflict intervention map Context Sub-Context Factors Findings Conclusion Source Afghanistan :RPHQ¶VUDGLR Capacity Central government organisations may be unable to enforce their C4D initiatives that are Kamal, S. - Herat - station Radio strengthening policies in locations where warlords or local militia have strong designed to reduce (2007) during Sahar launch. power bases. Donor agencies cannot solely rely on government gender inequalities, like µ'HYHORSPHQ post-Taliban Culturally appropriate support in these situations. The success of C4D initiatives in these Radio Sahar, need to t On-air: reconstructi media content contexts may be dependent on the backing of key political and/or produce content that is :RPHQ¶V on. military figures. representative of their Radio Gender equality target audience. Production in 0HPEHUVRI5DGLR6DKDUKDGOLPLWHGDFFHVVWRGDWDDERXWZRPHQ¶V Inadequate audience $IJKDQLVWDQ¶ Understanding the radio listening habits. Therefore, they made decisions about research can result in In Gender cultural context program content based on their own life experiences and social programming that reflects and networks. However, their own perspectives and needs were not the interests and Development Understanding the reflective of the majority of the Afghan female population. C4D concerns of a select , Vol. 15, institutional context initiatives need to consider whether or not the cultural, social and number of radio station Issue 3, pp. economic backgrounds of participants such as radio hosts and members. 399-411. producers, are representative of the broader target population. Self-censorship also contributes to the Time restraints can mean that members of radio stations have very dominance of content little time to plan their programming schedule and produce their own favoured by Western content. This can lead to a heavy reliance on pre-packaged donor agencies and programming created by donor agencies, which may not be programming that is likely representative of the target audience. to be accepted by local stakeholders such as the Some of the women at Radio Sahar initially hid their inclusion of militia. religious programming from Kamal because they assumed that she would disapprove of the content. Her role as an employee of a secular funding body Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society (IMPACS) led them to believe she would inform the donor agency of their religion-inspired programming which may lead to their funding being cut. This demonstrates that the perceived interests and aims of donor agencies can influence the actions of C4D participants. Page 88 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 The pre-scripted nature of Radio Sahar content meant that illiterate people were excluded from the production process. The reliance on written scripts also meant that the radio content and presentation style was formal and official rather than controversial. This focus on WKHZULWWHQZRUGUDWKHUWKDQWKHµoral cultural more dominant in $IJKDQLVWDQ¶.DPDOS-408) limited the appeal of the program to Afghan women who were not highly educated. Radio Sahar members self-censored their content in order to avoid scrutiny from male political and religious leaders. This self-censorship hindered the stations ability to address gender inequalities in Afghanistan because potentially controversial topics were avoided. Creating opportunities for women to participate in the media sector will not necessarily change their unequal social status. C4D interventions that effectively promote gender equality should be holistic, culturally and socially specific and part of a long term vision. Afghanistan Promotion of civic Civic education Undertaking gender analysis in the context of ICT or C4D Projects that target Sengupta, ± during the education material interventions is critical if equity and rights issues are to be access to and use of ICTs A., Long, E. 2005 through audio Contextual addressed and, in particular, the empowerment of women is to be for women can play a G., Singhal, parliamentar devices - Voice for constraints realised. significant role in A. & y elections. +XPDQLW\¶V9)+ empowerment and Shefner-Rog Sada initiative. Culturally appropriate :RPHQ¶VDFFHVVWR,&7VLVFRQVWUDLQHGE\DUDQJHRIFRQWH[WXDO UHDOLVDWLRQRIZRPHQ¶V ers, C. L. media content and cultural factors, including demands on their time and economic human rights, as well as µ7KH constraints, In the context of Afghanistan, illiteracy also constrains the enhancement of Sada Says Digital divide access to information. family and community µ:H:RPHQ dialogue. Have Our Gender equality The Sada device became a focus for collective listening and 5LJKWV¶$ engagement around the content contained on the device. In simple Gender Participation media contexts or contexts constrained by a lack of electricity or Analysis of mainstream media, such devices could have a potential important an ICT Understanding the role to play in bringing information about civic and human rights, Initiative in cultural context and in starting dialogue in information-poor environments. $IJKDQLVWDQ¶ In Where information and communication technologies are socially International FRQVWUXFWHGDVµPDOH¶VXFKDVLQ$IJKDQLVWDQWKought needs to be Communicati put in to how the design or styling of the ICTs can enhance the on Gazette, Page 89 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 potential for ownership and use by women. vol. 69, Issue 4, pp. C4D interventions that target gender inequality can positively affect 335-353. social norms regarding the social mobility, roles and rights of women in conservative society. This was found to be especially significant in the areas of early and forced marriage and the right to education and employment. Civic education targeted at women through Sada led to an increase in knowledge of civics and in electoral participation. The media content (which was relevant to both men and women) FRQWDLQHGRQWKH6DGDGHYLFHKDGDQLPSDFWRQZRPHQ¶V understanding of their rights, though it is noted that open discussion RIZRPHQ¶VULJKWVLVVWLOOFRQVWUDLQHd by conservative cultural context. Nonetheless, there is evidence of the media content empowering women and increasing their confidence to act over rights denial or abuse. Women found the information contained on the Sada device to be culturally appropriate, easy to understand and were enjoyable (being listened to m any times) as the content used simple language and a variety of genres (jokes, drama, etc.). The device was also found to be easy to use and cost effective as it required no batteries (due to solar power). When working in culturally conservative contexts, access to primary stakeholders may be constrained and consideration should be given to how such constraints can be mitigated. Impacts were found to be greatest in areas that were deemed to be more secure and progressive than others. Solomon The Australian Conflict reduction and Conflict reduction and peace-building interventions may be Transparency and Whalan, J. Islands, *RYHUQPHQW¶V peacekeeping hampered in contexts where weak investment in research accountability can be µ7KH following Regional operations constrains understanding of the socio-cultural dynamics or enhanced in conflict Power of conflict Assistance politico-economic dimensions of conflict. Ongoing examination of interventions through Friends: The between Mission to the Multi-channel the relationships between peace operation and local people can effective local Regional militia Solomon Islands communications help ensure effective operations. participation Assistance Page 90 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 groups. (RAMSI). mechanisms. Such Mission to Understanding the The RAMSI (Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands) mechanisms help Solomon cultural context LQWHUYHQWLRQ¶VSRWHQWLDOWREHHIIHFWLYHZDVHQKDQFHGE\WKH interventions to ,VODQGV¶,Q large-scale deployment of military personnel which had a understand the power Journal of substantiaOµFRHUFLYH¶HIIHFWDQGUHPRYHGWKHLPSHWXVIRUORFDO dynamics that may derail Peace SHRSOHWRµVHOI-GHIHQG¶DEDQGRQSHUVRQDOZHDSRQVDQGWKHUHE\ the peace processes and Research, created better public security. try to enhance their Vol. 47, Issue legitimacy to act in 5, pp. Unilateral conflict reduction and peace-building initiatives may pursuing peace. 627-637. stand a greater chance of success because they are easier to coordinate and support. The deployment of Pacific Islander personnel helped to legitimise the intervention and helped to ensure that communications between RAMSI and the general public were effective. Public perceptions of RAMSI eroded as the intervention sought to bolster local leadership and reduce its own influence. This has lead to claims that RAMSI is a foreign policy tool of the Australian Government, rather than a helping hand. In turn this highlights the challenge associated with long-term peace-building and in the transfer of power to local actors. The development of effective communication strategies helped to support the legitimacy of the RAMSI intervention. Communication occurred face-to-face in the context of ceremonies to destroy weapons, national radio broadcasting, through newly established police posts, press conferences and public meetings. This supports the notion that multi-channel communications is effective and that interventions can be more effective if the general public is clear about how they work and the ways in which they exercise power. Page 91 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Table 8: Post-conflict intervention map Context Sub-Context Factors Findings Conclusion Source Legality of Media Conflict reduction and The legal basis of media/information interventions is debateable; In There should be a strong Erni, J. N. interventions interventions peacekeeping particular, interventions that utilise measures that could be defined presumption against µ:DU carried out promoting operations DVµXVHRIIRUFH¶VXFKDVERPELQJEURDGFDVWLQJWRZHUVPD\YLRODWH media interventions that µ,QFHQGLDU\ by foreign stabilisation the UN Charter and other international norms (Erni 2009, p.872). challenge sovereignty 0HGLD¶DQG forces in undertaken by Media bias and a high standard of International post-conflict foreign forces. Media/information interventions may violate state sovereignty. proof demonstrating Human settings. Understanding the media abuse in RighWV/DZ¶ institutional context The use of mass media (i.e. C4D interventions) can be an important stabilisation contexts. In Media, tool in promoting how institutions are understood by the public, how Culture & they work and how they can be challenged to improve. Further Society, Vol. studies are required to verify the role the media plays in this 31, Issue 6, dynamic. pp.867-886. The diverse agendas of the parties involved in media/information interventions can create rifts that hinder the success of the media reforms. Transitional governments in post-conflict societies may abuse their ability to control the media and begin to recreate conditions that led to the intervention. Post-conflict The support of Hate media Over the past 15 years the media has played a central role in Reconstructing the media Frére, M. S. Central press freedom and exacerbating ethnic and political tensions and inciting violence and sector post-conflict is a µ$IWHU Africa ± media monitoring Media bias hatred in the Central African nations of Rwanda, Burundi and the difficult task. the Hate Burundi, through Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Communication Media: Rwanda and communications Sustainability regulatory bodies can Regulation in the regulatory bodies planning The establishment and strengthening of communications regulatory play a key role in the the DRC, Democratic bodies in the DRC, Rwanda and Burundi was intended to facilitate development of a media Burundi and Republic of Understanding the the development of a more accountable and democratic media sector that is professional 5ZDQGD¶,Q Congo institutional context sector. and accountable. Global Media (DRC) ± However, these bodies and following the Internal divisions within communications regulatory bodies can lead often lack the resources Communicati end of civil to conflicts and ineffective regulation as members with diverse to effectively fulfil this on, Vol. 5, wars in the political affiliations seek to serve their own political interests. role. Issue 3, pp. Page 92 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 region. Members can be unwilling to sanction media outlets that support 327-352. their own political views, even when these outlets are producing extremist propaganda. The Rwandan communication regulatory body, the High Council of the Press (HCP), is not a decision-making body that relies on the government to enforce their recommendations. This means that the HCP has very little power and is not independent from government influence. Communications regulatory bodies are unable to regulate the media sector effectively when their legitimacy is not recognised and the media outlets they seek to control have more resources, popular support and power than themselves. A lack of resources can reduce the ability of communications regulatory bodies to function effectively. In Burundi, the members of the CNC (Conseil National de la Communication) had limited access to transport and no generator and this significantly affected their ability to monitor the media. Communications regulatory bodies can play a vital role in the peace process in post-conflict countries where the media has contributed to the violence. However, their influence is often mitigated by their lack of power, minimal resources, the unwillingness of governments to concede control of the media and the ethnic, national and political divisions that still exist in post-conflict settings. Many radio stations in Burundi are reliant on foreign aid and the withdrawal of this aid may threaten their survival and the impartiality of the media sector. Post-conflict Health and Behaviour change In the short-term, radio soap opera can improve the ability of C4D interventions can Paluck, E. L. Rwanda reconciliation communication individuals and communities to express dissent, increase lead to behavioural shifts & Green, D. following the radio soap operas. self-reliance and collective action in post-conflict societies. in political culture and P. (2009) 1994 Conflict reduction and enhance community µ'HIHUHQFH genocide. peace keeping Radio soap opera that focuses on social and political conflict can ownership of problems Dissent and operations help to increase social trust within discrete social and cultural requiring collective action. Dispute groups, but may do little to close the social distance between Resolution: Page 93 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Edutainment groups affected by conflict. This is especially relevant to conflict An characterised by ethnic cleansing or genocide. Experimental Understanding the Intervention institutional context Conflict and reconciliation focused edutainment (as role-played Using Mass from a partial radio script) can lead to a reduction in dependency on Media to external institutions and bodies (NGOs and government) and an Change increase in social action. Norms and Behaviour in The use of mass media (i.e. C4D interventions) can be an important 5ZDQGD¶,Q tool in promoting how institutions are understood by the public, how American they work and how they can be challenged to improve. Political Science Further studies are required to verify the role media plays in this Review, Vol. dynamic. 103, Issue 4, pp. 622-644. Post-conflict Local media Conflict reduction and Donor agencies are increasingly utilising local media projects to Local media projects can Curtis, Rwanda, (television and peace keeping promote peace building. However, there is a lack of research that contribute to peace D.E.A. following the radio) peace operations examines the effectiveness of these projects and their contribution building. However, the (2000) 1994 building activities. to peace building strategies. factors that contribute to µ%URDGFDVWLQ genocide, Contextual the success of such g Peace: An and constraints When donors implement local peace building projects they must activities need to be Analysis of post-conflict make difficult decisions about which outcomes they will prioritise further evaluated. Local Media Bosnia, Edutainment and what they implications of that choice will be. Every strategy has in following the strengths and weaknesses and donors should carefully consider Post-Conflict war Evaluation and these when developing local media peace building projects. Peace (1992-1995) evidence building . Short-term evaluations of local media peace building projects may projects in Hate media not capture long-term changes in behaviour or beliefs. Rwanda and %RVQLD¶,Q Media bias Internal evaluations of local media peace building projects may be Canadian unreliable and this makes it difficult to accurately assess the Journal of Participation impacts of these projects. Development Studies, Vol. Sustainability Broader factors that influence the success of peace building also 21, Issue 1, planning play a role in determining the effectiveness of local media peace pp. 141-166. building projects. Peace building projects are more likely to succeed Understanding the if they promote indigenous participation and understand the cultural cultural context and local context in which they operate. Page 94 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Ensuring the safety of journalists is an important component of an effective local media peace building strategy. International actors and donor agencies are divided and how, when and if hate media should be prevented post-conflict. Thus, while some scholars argue that controlling hate media is a necessary step in the peace building process, others raise concerns about the implications of media regulation, censorship and international inference. Local media, in particular radio soap operas, can be used to directly promote conflict resolution and reconciliation. In a post-conflict setting media outlets, such as radio stations, are often unable to meet the needs of diverse groups who have different expectations. This can result in their characterisation as biased or illegitimate, which threatens their ability to promote peace building. If local media peace building projects are not seen to be impartial, they can be viewed with suspicion. A lack of local involvement in the development and implementation of local media projects can reduce their effectiveness. Local media projects in post-conflict settings face great challenges and will not necessarily result in immediate short-term changes. East Africa ± Community Behaviour change Stand-alone awareness campaigns designed to address and Mobilising communities to Michau, L. Tanzania mobilisation communication change practices around violence are unlikely to succeed without a prevent domestic (2007) and Uganda (through the NGO more systematic approach to addressing the social and cultural violence holds promise, µ$SSURDFKLQJ ± following Raising Voices) to Evaluation and factors that drive violence. but presents many Old periods of counter violence evidence challenges such as over Problems in political against women Community mobilisation can provide an alternative to media-based community ownership, as New Ways: tension. (VAW). Multi-channel campaigns. Because they are more responsive and participatory well as the length and Community communications they have a better chance of addressing the root causes of complexity of the process. Mobilisation violence. as a Primary Participatory Prevention approaches Social mobilisation efforts should be realistic about what can be Strategy to Page 95 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 achieved and engage across communities and the institutions that Combat Participatory media support them systematically and over the long-term if change is to Violence occur. Against :RPHQ¶,Q Individuals can only sustain behaviour change if the communities Gender and around them support and endorse that change, i.e. social norms Development have to shift for change to be sustainable. , Vol. 15, Issue 1, pp. Assessing the effectiveness of long-term social mobilisation 95-109. campaigns is challenging because it is often difficult to link activities to changes in community held beliefs. Post-conflict Use of media to Civic education The success of C4D projects and the trustworthy reputation of 6)&*¶VDFWLYLWLHVLQ Everitt, P., Sierra promote peace development organisations can create problems, including Sierra Leone have been Williams, T., Leone, building by SFCG Gender equality dependency, sustainability and high demand. Many individuals and highly effective, with & Myers, M. following the through Talking groups approach TDS for assistance with a wide range of issues many benefits of an (2004) civil war Drum Studio Media bias and this places pressure on the organisation. TDS needs to µDOOLDQFHEXLOGLQJ¶ Evaluation of (1991-2002) (TDS) and educate people about the roles and responsibilities of other approach. However, the Search for . Community Peace Multi-channel institutions, and where they can go to address their problems. success of programs Common Building Unit communication Furthermore, TDS needs to implement processes to increase the have created some Ground (CPU) (jointly capacity and confidence of people to conduct activities without problems that may prove Activities in referred to as Participation support from TDS. challenging regarding the Sierra TDS). preparation of an exit Leone, Participatory media An appropriate exit strategy for TDS needs to be developed to strategy. Search For ensure the long-term sustainability of funded and supported Common Sustainability initiatives such as community radio stations. A clear exit strategy Ground planning will help staff and project partners to plan more effectively. (SFCG), Sierra Leone $OOLDQFHSDUWQHUVPXVWEHFKRVHQFDUHIXOO\WRHQVXUHWKDW7'6¶V and trustworthy and independent reputation is not jeopardised and that Department potential partners share the same values and visions and TDS. for International 6)&*¶VDFWivities in Sierra Leone increased accountability and Development transparency by exposing corruption practices, holding government (DFID), pp. officials and public figures to account, and fostering improved 1-46. civil/police relationships that promoted the reporting of crimes. TDS programs have encouraged greater levels of inclusion and participation by all community members in local decision-making, in Page 96 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 particular by providing spaces for women, children and youth to make their voices heard. Combining outreach work and media (live drama, video, radio) is a highly effective way to engage rural, largely illiterate populations and promote peace building. Post-conflict Supporting free Capacity Radio stations can help reduce practices such as the intimidation of The impact of projects Hanson-Alp, Sierra and fair elections strengthening female election candidates by broadcasting discussion programs designed to promote civic R. (2008) Leone, through WKDWSURPRWHZRPHQ¶VHOHFWRUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGE\SURYLGLQJ education and Promoting particularly Department for Civic education information about the harassment of female candidates. participation in the lead Information the 2007 International up to elections can be and Voice elections. 'HYHORSPHQW¶V Contextual Poor infrastructure, such as roads, and short project time frames maximised if planning and Transparenc (DFID) Promoting constraints can contribute to over-representation of urban district participants in support starts early and y on Information and radio programming. delays are avoided. Elections Voice for Culturally appropriate Coordinating a large (PIVOT): Transparency on media content Some PIVOT initiatives could have been more effective if they were project that involves End of Elections (PIVOT) LPSOHPHQWHGHDUOLHU,WWDNHVWLPHWREXLOGFLWL]HQV¶FRQILGHQFHDQG multiple organisations Programme Programme. Digital divide promote behaviour change. poses numerous Assessment, challenges ± information Department Evaluation and Donors need to have a sound understanding of the political context sharing acts as a critical for evidence in which projects are funded and the risks that may pose serious factor that influences the International challenges to project success and participant safety. success of complex Development Gender equality projects. (DFID), pp. Given the cost of establishing CTN, a more sustainable option may 1-20. Long-term have been to build up the capacities of an existing radio station commitment rather than creating a new independent news agency. Sustainability When donors provide equipment, funding and/pr deliver training planning this can create tensions between those who receive the benefits and those who do not. Understanding the institutional context The maintenance of satellite equipment can be a frustrating burden in a country like Sierra Leone where replacement parts are unavailable and there are limited technicians. A weakness of the CTN (Cotton Tree News) radio programming was a lack of local language programs. This led some listeners to critique the stations for only representing Freetown and being Page 97 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 inaccessible. 7KHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRIWKHµ3URPRWLQJD&XOWXUHRI(TXDO Representation (PACER) project was hindered by staff changes within the partner organisations (Oxfam and 50/50), and a lack of clear project goals. These factors contributed to the slow implementation of the project and its limited impact in its first year. Post-conflict Telecommunicatio Capacity Conventional understandings of the process by which public policy Unique factors influence Best, M. L. & Liberia, ns policy in strengthening is developed and implemented in nations like the US may not apply the policy process in Thakur, D. following the post-conflict to developing countries, and in particular to post-conflict developing developing post-conflict (2009) FRXQWU\¶V setting. Civic education countries. settings. A better µ7HOHFRPPX emergence understanding of these nications from Conflict reduction and There is a lack of studies that consider how the cultural context of factors could improve the Policy protracted peacekeeping post-conflict countries influences the policy process. development and Process in civil war. operations implementation of public Post-Conflict International support played a key role in facilitating the creation policies in these settings. Developing Digital divide and delivery of government policy in the Liberian Countries: telecommunications sector. The case of Evaluation and /LEHULD¶LQ evidence In a post-conflict setting the legitimacy of the new government is Info: The often questioned and this can result in lack of support for Journal of Participatory government policies and regulatory bodies. Policy, approaches Regulation During periods of political instability and/or violence people often and Telecommunications operate with minimal governance. This can create problems Strategies for post-conflict because people who are accustomed to self-regulation telecommuni Understanding the or minimal regulation may resist change. cations, cultural context Information During conflict skilled workers may flee the country and this has an and Media, adverse effect on industries that are trying to re-build. In Liberia the Vol. 11, lack of qualified personnel had a direct impact on data collection Issue 2, pp. and policy analysis capabilities. 42-57. In post-conflict settings elite actors play a greater role in policy processes than in stable nations. This can result in policies that represent the interests of elite actors and not the general public. Certain ethnic groups may have greater influence on governmental policy and be more likely to hold positions of power. Page 98 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 When the policy process is not inclusive and participatory this can hinder the effectiveness of the policy. Post-conflict Radio talk-show ± Capacity State-run media are often ill-prepared and equipped for the public Engagement with state Milligan, S. & Nigeria ± the Radio Hannu strengthening service role that they are expected to take in a democratic society. media can yield results in Mytton, G. Jigawa state Daya ± to Funding deficits and a lack of capacity hamper the effectiveness of terms of shifting editorial µ)URP - following encourage Civic education the support they can offer during democratic transition, i.e. in practices and improving Mouthpiece the nations increased post-conflict states. independence. to Public return to communication Edutainment Sustaining this Service: democracy. between State media can be slow (or unwilling) to reflect democratic independence remains a Donor government and Information divide changes in their media content in transition/post-conflict societies. key challenge. Support to electorate. Radio Media bias Legislative reform of the media alone will not necessarily deliver Broadcasters change unless it is supported by meaningful capacity development. in New State media Democracies The rural poor are especially reliant on state broadcasting and ¶LQ Sustainability many commercial outlets see little point in trying to reach such Development planning audiences. in Practice, Vol. 19, Understanding the Effective civil society engagement with state broadcasters remains Issue 4/5, pp. institutional context problematic in many contexts (due to domination by governing 491-503. powers), in turn this can hamper the diversity of media voices available. There is a strong correlation between poverty and: (i) lack of electricity (i.e. power does not extend to poor remote areas); (ii) illiteracy; (iii) poor access to television and print media. In turn this places a particular emphasis on radio as a medium capable of reaching the poor. The introduction of a talk-show format to state media, one that addresses the role of government and its service delivery, helped to increase openness and accountability and allowed for greater diversity of voices to be heard. Donor supported C4D interventions may struggle to be sustainable when external funding is no longer available. Developing realistic sustainability and phase-out strategies are important to ensuring Page 99 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 local ownership of initiatives in the long run. C4D initiatives need to consider the wider institutional setting when building capacity and skills and not just a focus on stand alone initiatives. Attention should be paid to complementary activities that help improve the organisation/institutional context for media freedoms. Post-conflict Use of media for Behaviour change Radio programs that incorporate local content and involve local The CAAFAG did result in Dahal, J., Nepal, community peace communication participation in their production are more popular than centrally behaviour change, Kafle, K. & following the building by SFCG produced and disseminated programs. although the success of Bhattarai, K. signing of through Children Culturally appropriate the project was mitigated (2008) the Peace Associated with media content The incorporation of English terms and the use of formal and by a number of factors. In µ&KLOGUHQ Accord in Armed Forces and complex language in radio programs made the programs more particular, the use of Associated 2006. Armed Groups Edutainment difficult for Nepali children to understand and less appealing. cultural activities like with Armed Program Dohari was an effective Forces and (CAAFAG). Evaluation and Radio programs that use lengthy interviews and discussions may way to deliver behaviour Armed evidence not be entertaining for children. change messages and to Groups initiate intergenerational Program ± Information divide &XOWXUDOO\VSHFLILFRUµORFDO¶PHGLDIRUPVVXFKDV'RKRUL>D1HSDOL dialogue. Evaluation folk tradition of dialoguing through songs] can be an effective way to 5HSRUW¶ Local ownership deliver C4D messages and promote community participation. Search for Common Participatory media In some regions, there may be no or limited access to FM radio Ground coverage. This needs to be considered in the design of C4D (SFCG), pp. Understanding the projects that utilise FM radio. Children in the Dang districts were 1-53. cultural context unable to access the radio programs, despite the fact that they lived in a designated project area. The availability of project material such as posters and cassettes and the organisation of project activities can vary widely across districts. The effectiveness of C4D interventions may differ greatly depending on the activities and materials available in each location, as such, generalisations about the impact of projects at the national level may be unreliable. The timing of radio programs needs to be carefully considered so that the target audience can be effectively reached. Sunau Bolau was broadcast in the morning, a time when children were often Page 100 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 working or preparing to go to school and unable to listen to the program. Post-conflict Peace building Behaviour change Peace education programs for young people can also have positive Peace building education Evans, R. Nepal, education communication impacts on the broader community. programs may have µ7KH following the interventions unintended Two Faces of influx of among Bhutanese Conflict reduction and The impact of peace education programs designed to encourage consequences. Young Empowerme refugees refugees living in peace keeping non-YLROHQFHWKURXJKµHPSRZHUPHQW¶QHHGWREHHPSirically people can use the skills QWLQ&RQIOLFW¶ from Bhutan Nepal ± namely operations examined. It cannot be assumed that the skills and experiences developed in these in Research in the early the Bhutanese gained through participation in these projects will necessarily be projects to campaign for in 1990s. Refugee Children Participation used to promote peace. violent political Comparative Forum (BRCF). movements. and Participatory Participation in peace building programs, such as the BRCF, and International approaches involvement in violent political activities, such as Maoist political Conflict, Vol. activities, are not mutually exclusive. 3, Issue 1, Understanding the pp. 50-64. cultural context Young people who participated in the BRCF reported many positive impacts, including increased confidence and personal freedom, improved family relationships, and the development of new skills that could potentially earn them money. BRCF staff teach young children that they can play an active role in improving their community. 'HVSLWHWKH%5&)¶VHPSKDVLVRQSHDFHHGXFDWLRQVRPH%5&) participants see political involvement, sometimes inciting violence, as a viable way to make these improvements. The disparities between international child rights norms promoted by the BRCF and Bhutanese socio-cultural values can create conflicts. Structural factors such as poverty, political instability and SDUWLFLSDQWV¶UHIXJHHVWDWXVOLPLWWKHHIIHFWLYHQHVVRISHDFH HGXFDWLRQSURMHFWVGHVLJQHGWRµHPSRZHU¶\RXQJSHRSOHLQUHIXJHH camps. Post-conflict Participatory Digital and/or media ICT access and content creation by the poor can be characterised C4D interventions can Tacchi, J., Page 101 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Sri Lanka - media content literacy by exclusion, leading to voicelessness. Using participatory research reach out to marginalised Watkins, J., also drawing distributed through techniques, trusted local intermediaries and relevant combinations communities with new & on studies the e-Tuktuk Digital divide of ICTs, initiatives can be optimised to promote inclusion and voice. and traditional Keerthiranth from India, mobile media communication ne, K. (2009) Indonesia platform. Information divide Community access to and effective use of ICTs requires a technologies to harness µ3DUWLFLSDWRU\ and Nepal. systematic approach to building digital literacy among stakeholders the creativity of poor Content Participatory people and help them to Creation: approaches When considering the use of intermediaries used to link ICT define and address their Voice, initiatives to poor and marginalised communities it is essential that information needs. In Communicati Participatory media power dynamics and the potential for them to exacerbate exclusion doing so, this helps on, is considered. An intermediary that is not trusted by the community stimulate a great diversity Development will result in poor uptake of the ICT initiative by the community. of voices within ¶,Q communities and Development Participatory media content creation does not necessarily lead to encourages local debate in Practice, either voice or empowerment. There must be an audience for a in issues that affect them. Vol. 19, voice to be heard, therefore in consideration of such interventions Issue 4-5, as they might relate to conflict reduction, it is important that an pp. 573-584. emphasis is placed on participatory dialogue and sharing, i.e. using media to bridge the gap between opposing sides and to build trust and ultimately dialogue. Page 102 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 A focus on implementation factors The conflict scenarios and intervention summaries outlined above help to locate the potential role that C4D can play in different conflict situations. However, this review is not overly FRQFHUQHG ZLWK HVWDEOLVKLQJ ZKDWVSHFLILFW\SHVRI&'LQWHUYHQWLRQV µZRUN¶LQIUDJLOHVWDWHV This is for a number of reasons. First, conflict places severe restrictions on routine monitoring and evaluation processes and our source searches have revealed that there is a relative paucity of reliable quantitative impact data associated with C4D interventions in fragile states. Second, where quantitative data does exist, reliability is often constrained by a lack of independence from the implementing organisation, i.e. the norm is for self-assessment. The bulk of impact data associated with C4D interventions in fragile states resides in the arena of text and opinion content the quality if which is generally too low for inclusion in a systematic review. Because of this, the decision was made to exclude quantitative data in favour of qualitative sources. Our focus has been on securing the best quality evidence possible, mainly through selection of peer reviewed qualitative evidence and text and opinion sources with a demonstrable and rigorous methodology. The examples highlighted in this review reveal that there is a wide range of potential C4D activity that could occur in any given context. The potential diversity of C4D interventions are such that attempting to comprehensively catalogue them all, or indicate explicitly, which should be employed in which circumstance is beyond the scope of this review. Further, there are inherent risks involved in linking a specific C4D activity to a specific issue or occurrence as this may lead to prescriptive solutions that are at odds with the opportunities or constraints presented in context. More typically, the specificity of interventions is driven by the principles that are employed by C4D practitioners and organisations. It is widely recognised by C4D SUDFWLWLRQHUVWKDWDQDSSURDFKWRSURJUDPLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWKDWLVµSULQFLSOH-EDVHG¶KDVWKHEHVW 19 potential to yield sustainable outcomes. Within this review our principal concern has been to highlight the various programmatic and contextual factors that either constrain or facilitate C4D initiatives in fragile states, many of which link to and inform a principles-based approach to communication. A list of generic C4D principles, derived from both qualitative research and textual evidence can include, but is not limited to: a) The use of formative research to examine knowledge, attitudes and practices and to understand the information needs of people at risk in conflict situation, as well as summative evaluation that is learning-centred and feeds back in to program delivery; b) Recognising that audiences/stakeholders are diverse and have different needs based on factors including gender, age and ethnicity, occupational category and socio-economic standing; c) Understanding that diverse audience/stakeholder groups need information that specifically targets them; using popular media formats and multiple communication channels to ensure wide exposure to relevant information; d) Prioritising behaviour change messages, i.e. messages that advocate an action or access to a resource or service, within communication; Page 103 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 e) Linking communication strategies to physical service provision and delivery, (i.e. humanitarian aid, security services); f) Working with and through communities, community structures and local organisations (i.e. participation); g) Advocating to positively influence key stakeholders and to help formulate a supportive 19 policy environment. Turning to examine the contextual and programmatic factors that exert influence over C4D implementation in fragile states, this review highlights and discusses a wide range. These factors can influence effectiveness and, therein, outcomes in both a positive and negative sense. To a degree, these factors replicate, but also substantively expand upon prior literature reviews that have focused on C4D implementation factors in the context of HIV communication 12,13 and prevention. The factors identified in this review fall into a number of broad categories or factors that can be further refined to reflect: (i) interventions and/or approaches; (ii) facilitators; (iii) obstacles; and (iv) outcomes. These categories (which are reflected in the intervention maps above) help to make sense of the various factors identified in this review and whether they have a positive (i.e. help facilitate) or negative (i.e. present obstacles) influence on C4D implementation and the associated outcomes. While the range of factors is significant, this discussion also seeks to apply a realist lens to the findings to ensure that they are relevant to C4D practitioners. Table 9: C4D factors Identified from the review Interventions / Facilitators Obstacles Outcomes Approaches - Conflict reduction, - Behaviour change - Culturally appropriate - Contextual constraints peacekeeping, communication (BCC) media content - Digital divide reconciliation - Capacity - Understanding the - Information divide strengthening cultural context - State media - Civic education - Understanding the - Media bias - Edutainment institutional context - Hate media - Participatory - State media - Weak evaluation and approaches - Telecommunications evidence - Multi-channel communication - Participatory media - Sustainability planning - Long-term commitment - Building digital or media literacy - Gender equality - Local ownership - Local participation Page 104 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 There is little value in presenting an ideal-typical list of factors or model of C4D intervention without discussing what is practical, pragmatic and realistic. This is especially relevant when the nature of fragile or conflict-affected states tends to constrain C4D implementation in very specific ways. For example, arguing for the promotion of better research on communication contexts during periods of open conflict would present acute problems associated with researcher safety and efficacy that need to be clearly identified. Accordingly, each of the factors and related findings identified through the process of data extraction and synthesis is outlined in detail and is then subject to realist assessment of its relevance to C4D practice, including any 16 identified gaps. The realist assessment was undertaken by C4D practitioners (Power and Friguglietti) and provides commentary on the conceptual, programmatic and logistical aspects of each identified factor. In turn, this assessment points the reader to a number of alternative sources not identified through the formal search and selection process used in this review. For ease of access and referral the discussion of the programmatic and contextual factors identified in this review are presented in table form (see Table 10), together with how they have been interpreted using a realist assessment. Page 105 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Table 10: Review findings and realist interpretation Systematic Review Findings Realist Interpretation Interventions and/or Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) - C4D initiatives in fragile Conceptual - The BCC approach has conceptually evolved from health approaches states may benefit from taking a behaviour change communication promotion frameworks where desirable behaviours are often predefined (BCC) approach, i.e. an approach that advocates and demonstrates an and are relatively more predictable than the behaviours associated with action that is achievable. Evidence suggests that: (i) participatory media thematic areas like governance or conflict reduction. It is also can be effective at promoting behaviour change such as problematic in some cases, as BCC approaches may not always be violence/conflict reduction within fragile states (though implementation especially participatory, with desirable behavioural outcomes often may be hampered by conflict); (ii) behaviour change requires wider being predefined as part of the intervention, i.e. smoking cessation. community support if it is to occur (individuals cannot shift collectively Consequently, it is essential that any interventions targeting behaviour 20 held norms); (iii) a focus on behaviour change demands a rigorous change undertake rigorous situational analysis. Additionally, the approach to formative research, pretesting of outputs, as well as the literature is still lagging behind both in terms of our understanding of evaluation of clear and measurable goals (though all of these may be media effects and impact evaluation of BCC. This problem may be difficult to achieve in a conflict scenario); and (iv) media content that further aggravated, because the theoretical models are more 21 lacks a clear BCC focus can harden attitudes because no clear actions µHYLGHQFH-EDVHG¶WKDQµSUDFWLFH-EDVHG¶VHH&URVE\DQG1RDU may be advocated, i.e. problematising issues without offering solutions. Programmatic - At the programmatic level, there needs to be a consideration of whether BCC is thematically and contextually attuned to programs in different areas like governance, sustainable livelihoods or humanitarian response. Also, for lasting behaviour change to occur community support is essential. Undertaking behaviour change interventions in its absence is unlikely to yield positive outcomes. Logistical - BCC presupposes change and not necessarily reinforcement of existing systems or practices. This can be challenging, particularly in the context of a fragile state that is already in the process of transformation. Further, behaviour change communication should not promote desirable behaviours that are not supported by corresponding improvement in service delivery or which may create artificial demand where the goods or services are not available in a fragile state scenario. This could result in exacerbation of conflict. I. a) Capacity Strengthening - of the media and communications sectors II.in Conceptual - The requirement to provide capacity strengthening that is post-conflict contexts can help strengthen professionalism, inclusive and broad based can often manifest itself in a very independence, reduce bias and self-censorship. Evidence associated heterogeneous client base. For example, it is often counter-productive with capacity strengthening includes: (i) conflict can lead to a brain-drain to mix senior veteran and junior journalists not only for pedagogical Page 106 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 within media, IT and research sectors leading to skills deficiencies reasons, but also to acknowledge the boundaries of hierarchy in during post-conflict reconstruction; (ii) training of trainers programs help traditional societies that may exist. Segregating the less experienced to strengthen capacity in post-conflict scenarios; (iii) journalism training can often give licence to younger participants to be more expressive is critical to helping ensure the neutrality of the media and should be in-group learning situations. comprehensive and long-term; (iv) capacity strengthening needs to occur in tandem with policy/legislative change; (v) capacity developmentIII. Programmatic - Despite capacity strengthening programmes, a study should build on what is already there (i.e. existing media) rather than try of 400 journalists across 20 countries in Africa conducted for the to create new institutions; (vi) capacity strengthening should be as International Food Policy Research Institute (www.ifpri.org) to help inclusive and as broad based as resources allow; and (vii) capacity foster more and better coverage of development issues uncovered a strengthening efforts should take into account safety and other plethora of barriers to journalists. These included poor access to contextual constraints that may affect implementation. experts, data, transport facilities, low salaries and bribery. These factors are likely to be exacerbated in fragile states and conflict and post-conflict environments. However, the greatest barrier to journalists producing content they might not have otherwise produced is editorial sanction, which is likely to be highly sensitive in politically sensitive contexts. Greater success is achieved when both the editors and their journalists participate in the capacity strengthening initiatives. IV. Logistical - In many fragile states, the majority of the population lives in rural areas, often served only by state radio and/or television. This is often where the need for a diversity of voices and perspectives is greatest. However, the challenge of providing capacity strengthening programmes to media practitioners working in remote areas should not be underestimated, in terms of security, logistics and costs. Further, professionals in senior positions will often be resistant to attending a session that is positioneGDVµEXLOGLQJVNLOOVRUFDSDFLW\¶DVLWLVDVVXPHG that they already have the skills necessary to fulfil their duties. A seminar or dialogue would be deemed more appropriate. In addition, the venue for the seminar or dialogue must be perceived as sufficiently high status. Otherwise, this may also prove to be a barrier to attendance. Civic Education - Evidence suggests that civic education can increase Conceptual - In some countries the terms accountability and political knowledge, participation, tolerance, national identification and transparency do not directly translate in local languages. This can help to reduce violence, as well as increase government transparency create challenges in communicating these concepts at the country level. and accountability. Changes in norms and values associated with In more closed societies or where freedom of expression is severely GHPRFUDWLFSROLWLFDOVKLIWVLHZRPHQ¶VULJKWWRYRWHFDQRFFXUTXLFNO\ restricted, it is imperative to be more innovative about ways of Civic education programs in fragile states are most effective when: (i) connecting with hard-to-reach populations (be they hard to reach for spread across multiple media channels; and (ii) contain a social cultural, religious, political, ethnic, linguistic or security reasons). New mobilisation or community dialogue component to extend the reach of media are often the only solution to sharing information. key messages. Finally, new ICTs (such as mp3 players) can be effective Page 107 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 at delivering civic education to remote populations in areas where poor Programmatic - The work of the Small Media Foundation (SMF) to media and communications infrastructure exists. foster otherwise restricted cultural spaces in Iran is exemplary. Because of the repressive state control of cultural spaces in Iran, SMF has 22 designed programmes that are delivered digitally. Elsewhere, in Cambodia an AusAID Independent Review has shown that radio talkback programs on state provincial stations have increased community dialogue. These programs are supported by ABC International Development and implemented in partnership with the Provincial Department of Information. Citizens are free to call in and pose questions on any subject related to provincial development. Prior to the introduction of talkback, there was no platform to ask such questions to government. Logistical - SMF have employed the Internet as the vehicle to deliver their programmes. Despite the government censorship, the high level of internet penetration in Iran has enabled SMF to provide human rights content and banned literature to networks of information brokers 23 throughout the Persian blogosphere. However, there is a constant challenge to maintain the content online and to avoid state blocking of websites and discussion forums, not unlike the satellite jamming of broadcast signals for traditional media. I. Edutainment - The use of edutainment (programs that mix education II. Conceptual ± The Audiences in the Developing World reports a high with entertainment) in fragile states is effective because: (i) it helps to value on educational content provided via mass communication increase collective social action and self-reliance (edutainment typically channels. The creation of a genre that combines entertainment and highlights problems and solutions that can be acted upon); (ii) it can help educational content in many developing countries may be highly promote conflict resolution, reconciliation and social trust between specific, i.e. may mix a variety of popular genres, the design of which opposing groups; and (iii) it can help to increase openness, can be informed by detailed audience research. accountability and the diversity of media voices (by offering a platform via which people can speak or sensitive topics can be aired). III. Programmatic - The entertainment component can be a soap opera or drama, a reality show or music, the appeal of which is often defined by the popular mainstream genres among audiences in different cultural contexts, i.e. if radio drama is highly popular in any given context then an educational radio drama is likely to appeal to mass audiences. IV. Logistical - The challenge of creating content that will have mass appeal and compete for audiences with other popular television, radio and increasingly online entertainment education programmes, should not be underestimated. Breaking through the clutter in competitive media environments is not easy. In addition, language and cultural Page 108 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 differences between opposing groups may make it challenging for such groups to be featured on the same program and therein promoting a conflict resolving dialogue may be difficult. I. Participatory Approaches - C4D initiatives that use participatory II. Conceptual - To the extent that participation is linked to the notion of a approaches/methods are more effective at changing knowledge, beliefs community, SDUWLFXODUO\DVLWXDWHGFRPPXQLW\ZKHUHµPHPEHUVKDYHD and behaviour because they have a better chance of understanding and FRPPXQLFDWLYHDQGGLDORJLFUHODWLRQVKLS¶WKHQZHEHOLHYHWKHVH getting to the root causes of conflict and violence. Participatory approaches can be problematic. There is a twofold challenge: the nature approaches can also help to bridge digital and information divides and of how groups define and label themselves according to the leads to more inclusive policy processes. socio-historical conditions at a particular historical moment is fluid; also, while the majority of the population in most conflict and post-conflict environments lives in rural settings and not cities, the scale and reach of a community in urban and semi-urban places is less clear. Consequently, participation in an era of global connection may imply digital communities of bloggers as much as grounded and bounded communities. III. Programmatic - Participatory approaches can be resource intensive and require considerable research capacity to be mobilised. Also, participation is never equal and program managers need to be aware of power dynamics within groups. Further, participation can be forced or be seen as a requirement, which can undermine the very purpose it was designed to serve, i.e. greater community inclusion. See section on PHGLDWHGFRPPXQLW\HQJDJHPHQWLQ0DQ\R]R3HRSOH¶V5DGLR 24 Communicating Change Across Africa. Penang: Southbound. IV. Logistical - Significant resources are often required to sustain long term and meaningful ownership of C4D activities at the community level. The availability, especially of the skilled human resources, necessary to maintain community participation levels may be problematic in open conflict situations in which community involvement in C4D initiatives often gives way to the pressing demands of communicating humanitarian information. Facilitators Culturally Appropriate Media Content - Culturally appropriate media Conceptual - There are at least two important dimensions to the content, i.e. content that links to social and cultural norms and local hegemonic nature of cultural appropriateness in terms of understandings of conflict dynamics will tend to have a greater impact. implementation of interventions. First, it is more useful to regard Supporting local or culturally appropriate media content does not mean appropriateness as a continuum rather than as an absolute state, as the that such content is in any way contrary to development goals or aims of the intervention may require a challenge to what is culturally Page 109 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 outcomes, rather it is an effective strategy for getting messages across sanctioned rather than adhering to cultural norms. Second, as is often and increasing their level of community acceptance. Media content can the case with culturally appropriate attitudes and behaviours, including be enhanced and made more culturally appropriate by: (i) listening to domestic violence, their appropriateness is often gendered and will local media professionals and audiences; (ii) using local/vernacular require a different approach for men and women. language; (iii) ensuring that time and budget is allocated to enable production values to focus on cultural propriety; (iv) ensuring that Programmatic - It is critical that the content is tested with audiences initiatives understand the needs of their audiences and the styles of before it is broadcast. The content must be tested not just for the content they prefer; (v) considering the use of specific local positive intended messages, but also for any unintended negative communications genres/forms; and (vi) incorporating local voices/input messaging which may have severe consequences for the credibility of into production. C4D programs. This is also particularly important for testing different genres and formats. In the case of drama, testing how audiences interpret the characters and plots/subplots can help predict the outcomes from such programs. Logistical - There can be potential conflicts between production and research if the process of testing outputs and formats is not well managed. It is important for production staff to be engaged and aware of the process involved and have an in-depth understanding of the value of pretesting outputs. Further, testing may be problematic in contexts experiencing open conflict. I. Understanding the Cultural Context - Developing a detailed II. Conceptual - In conflict or post-conflict environments, there are three understanding of the cultural context of fragile states, why conflict important challenges that are particularly salient for formative research occurs, how it is reduced and how best to communicate with the public, efforts. First, there is often little secondary data available to draw on in is essential if C4D initiatives are to be effective. Detailed evaluation of: terms of population characteristics and behaviour patterns. Second, (i) media practices and preferences (such as times to listen/view); (ii) there can often be large variations among sub-populations, which can information use, needs and access; (iii) ICT/digital divide issues; (iv) be eliminated when data from different groups or regions are gender equity in information access; (v) social and cultural constraints to aggregated. Third, conditions tend to be dynamic and populations may potential behaviour change; (vi) the role of elites in constraining change; be forced migrate. During such times access to information sources (vii) mechanisms to promote community participation; (viii) the tends to be subject to information technology infrastructure such as relationship between and perception of peacekeeping interventions; (ix) transmitters and signals being available in different areas. structural drivers of conflict such as poverty or lack of resource access; and (x) local interpretations of human rights. The presence of open III. Programmatic - It is important to create outputs that are responsive to conflict may make such data collection problematic and points to the the immediate and evolving needs of audiences, and that are not static 25 need for early intervention, during latent or pre-conflict stages to obtain and prescribed. the data necessary to begin early implementation of C4D initiatives. IV. Logistical - Creating feedback mechanisms from communities back to central communications hubs will assist in monitoring changing situations and conditions and more effectively provide up-to-date insights on the cultural context. Large-scale time consuming Page 110 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 population-based research endeavours may not be practical or efficient in conflict affected contexts. Understanding the Institutional Context - Understanding the Conceptual - There may be an absence of an institutional force or body institutional contexts that support or constrain the effectiveness of C4D that can both inhibit and facilitate implementation of C4D initiatives. This initiatives in fragile states is critically important. Supporting capacity may be a temporary situation that will change as conditions improve or development of the media without working to free the legislative or may develop into a more semi-permanent state of dysfunction. regulatory environment may be counterproductive. Further, in conflict situations the institutional context may not be one of formal government, Programmatic - It may be valuable to design activities and a supporting therefore analysis of institutional actors can play an important role in infrastructure that is sufficiently versatile to adapt to changing mitigating challenges and constraints. However, the security situation circumstance and to the requirement of institutional bodies. For during open conflict may make institutional assessment problematic. example, in a situation in which information technology infrastructure has been destroyed, working with institutional partners to allow for the rapid deployment of emergency radio broadcasting services to provide essential humanitarian information to the public becomes a priority. Logistical - It may be possible to work outside the institutional requirements of the nation state if one is working outside of the borders of the country. This is often the case with radio stations in refugee camps, whose outputs can be received by citizens living inside the borders of the more fragile state (e.g. Somaliland, Puntland and Burma). I. State Media - State media have a key role to play in reaching remote II. Conceptual - There is often an inherent contradiction in working with and poor populations, often through radio broadcasting and may serve state media. On the one hand, the national infrastructure is in place to both as a facilitator and as an obstacle. Despite this, civil society groups reach the entire population of a country. On the other hand, state media often find it hard to access airtime leading to concerns that state media often only reflect the interests of the capital city or other urban centres are not fully representative of the full diversity of opinions that may be where it is feasible and affordable to have reporters. The views and present in any given context. interests of rural populations are often neglected on state media. III. Programmatic - It is often the case that the audience for state media are older, literate and male. This demographic profile may not match the requirements of a C4D initiative in a fragile state in conflict or post-conflict conditions. Further, state media may lack innovation in programming and could attract a more diverse audience through innovation in program genres. IV. Logistical - There may be challenges in working with the State if there is a lack of mutual trust and respect between the state media and civil society groups. There is a greater need to work in partnership with the Page 111 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 State, including the state media, to ensure that existing systems can be strengthened within fragile states. Telecommunications - Telecommunications can play an important role I. Conceptual - telecommunications, as a key facilitator of access to the in C4D interventions in fragile states because they often have high internet and social media during the Arab Spring, are understood to play penetration rates (but services may be prone to disruption during a critical role in networking, in mounting a challenge to rights abuses periods of conflict). International support can help post-conflict societies and also in organising armed groups. Increasingly, telecommunications build the policy and legislative environment (preferably pro-poor) and it tools and options are being integrated into mainstream C4D approaches is noted that new ICT or telecommunications initiatives such as as a vital information channel. More than any other ICT, telecentres may be hard to sustain and are often not competitive with telecommunications and especially mobile communications help to the private sector. foster national and international connections, dialogue and real-time 26 interaction. II. Programmatic - While significant use has been made of telecommunications and things such as smart phone applications in areas such as health, their use in conflict reduction and peace-building is not as well evidenced. Further, access to and ownership of mobile phones is reaching saturation levels in many developing world contexts and is a medium (i.e. mobile internet content and social media use) that is far harder to control and regulate than traditional terrestrial media such as radio and television. III. Logistical - Infrastructural access is critical if C4D interventions are to make effective use of telecommunications, yet in many contexts telecommunications systems remain the monopoly of governments. Ensuring state cooperation may be difficult. In contexts in which multiple commercial service providers exist, working out effective partnerships and ensuring low or no cost access to things such as SMS can positively impact on C4D programs. SMS can provide instant access to significant portions of the population and have become an important tool in disaster preparedness initiatives, i.e. via Tsunami alerts. Multi-Channel Communication - In fragile states C4D initiatives are Conceptual - It is important to map how communication flows within more effective if they utilise multiple communication channels (i.e. different areas i.e. not just considering what the multiple communication interpersonal, participatory, traditional mass media, new ICTs). channels are, but also taking into consideration how these channels can Evidence demonstrates: (i) higher levels of impact in addressing the be best synergised to communicate new messages or reinforce existing social and cultural factors that drive conflict when using multiple messages. There is a lack of conceptual clarity around the roles that channels; (ii) additional impact when communication is linked to service different media can play in different contexts or regions within the same provision, i.e. weapons collection or the establishment of police/security country. Page 112 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 services; (iii) effectiveness at including/reaching illiterate populations. Programmatic - While multiple communication channels are employed, it is imperative not to assume that all citizens will engage with all channels in a consistent manner. Consequently, it is valuable to understand the conditions under which certain groups will benefit from a variety of sources and vehicles, while others will have none. Logistical - Consistency in amount and frequency of exposure to multiple channels is difficult to capture empirically and understanding the interaction effects between different information vehicles and formats is even more complex. Mapping this interaction is possible in latent conflict scenarios, but is problematic in open conflict situations when normal research infrastructure may be severely disrupted and research itself may be a hazardous activity. b) c) Participatory Media - Participatory media (such as street theatre, role Conceptual - The self efficacy potential of participatory media is great playing, video, social mobilisation, local media genres) can be effective and the challenge is to create an experience that can benefit from a in stimulating community dialogue and in reaching marginalised groups multiplier effect and one that does not require the physical intervention (especially those who may be illiterate). When considering the use of from the original source. participatory media in fragile states: (i) face to face communication may be difficult and risky to undertake depending on the intensity of conflict; Programmatic - Facilitating aQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIRQH¶VSRWHQWLDODVDQ (ii) it should be recognised that it is only going to be effective if there is information disseminator to others may be the greatest achievement of an audience for it or it stimulates some form of dialogue; and (iii) it is participatory media, i.e. the possibility that the citizen/consumer important to be holistic when approaching participatory communication becomes the messenger. efforts and engage across as many community groups and institutions as possible to help generate a more meaningful dialogue. Logistical - Scaling up participatory media activities in terms of numbers of people reached and the breadth of geography covered is always difficult. This is especially so during periods of conflict when severe risk may accrue to people trying to promote participatory media initiatives. Sustainability Planning - C4D initiatives in fragile states are heavily Conceptual - The imperative is to be specific and precise about what is reliant on external donor funding. Initiatives should: (i) be realistic about sustainable by whom and among whom. The nature of C4D the outcomes that can be achieved in terms of conflict reduction, interventions, especially in open conflict situations, is not geared peace-building or civic education; (ii) be realistic about what is and is not towards sustainability. sustainable (i.e. emergency humanitarian information interventions are not designed to be sustainable over the long-term) and engage in more Programmatic - A mentoring and succession-planning programme will rigorous sustainability planning with the local media and information increase the likelihood that the technical skills elements of C4D sectors; (iii) develop comprehensive phase-out strategies designed to interventions will be sustained after the programme has ended. Page 113 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 build ownership and the resourcing of initiatives with local partners; (iv) take a long-term approach as problems may arise when a phase-out is Logistical - Often the language in project documents and logical too rapid (which may lead to a collapse of media/information quality); frameworks is vague and general, leading to little ownership and and (v) work to build on existing institutions, rather than seek to develop accountability in terms of the goals for sustainability, for succession or new ones. phase-out. Long-term Commitment - C4D initiatives have more potential to Conceptual - It is important to gauge the necessity of a long-term generate positive impact if they are implemented over the longer term. commitment and the appropriate format or vehicle to deliver information Longer project timeframes enable implementers to develop strategies based on the objectives of the C4D intervention. Longer-term for including difficult-to-reach populations and enables them to build interventions have better potential to build capacity, but may be best trust with communities. suited to latent or post-conflict situations. Programmatic - Again, depending on the nature of the objectives, a long-term commitment may be appropriate in order to repeat C4D interventions over a period of time for different populations or as an evolving C4D effort for the same population. Logistical - A long-term commitment to C4D in conflict-affected contexts may require the rebuilding of capacity, i.e. it is common for highly skilled media professionals to migrate. Also longer-term interventions would need to be able to respond to the changing information needs of various groups, i.e. using public service announcements directing citizens to food supplies in post-conflict zones will require a different strategy over time in comparison to a C4D initiative supporting peace and reconciliation between warring tribes in a post-conflict phase. I. Digital and/or Media Literacy - C4D initiatives in fragile states need II.to Conceptual - In order to leverage the potential of digital and media assess the degree of digital and/or media literacy present within context literacy, it is imperative to integrate the literacy programmes within the before engaging in implementation. Building digital/media literacy can lager media landscape and to understand how to complement existing play an important role in: (i) familiarising communities with the role and resources and needs. Digital and media literacy in isolation or in a value of new technologies; (ii) building awareness of new services (such vacuum is of limited value. as telecentres); and (iii) countering hate media/speech. Community intermediaries can play an important role in building digital/media III. Programmatic - While C4D interventions may need to build digital or literacy for excluded groups. media literacy, they can also take their lead from rapidly emerging literacies. For example, social media usage in certain contexts may start to dictate how media development/C4D practitioners can utilise such a phenomenon as a C4D tool. More understanding is needed in this area as there is a tendency to use social media in a way that complements Page 114 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 more traditional forms of media. IV. Logistical - Building digital and media literacy in contexts experiencing conflict requires sustained efforts to train significant sections of the population in using ICTs. Conflict disrupts infrastructure and may make such interventions problematic unless they are very well designed and targeted. Gender Equality - C4D initiatives in fragile states that target aspects of Conceptual - Gender equality has inherently different implications for gender equality can positively affect collectively-held social norms men and women and these distinctions need to be reflected in the 27 leading to increased empowerment, such as electoral participation for design of C4D interventions and programmes. women. Gender-focused C4D initiatives are more effective when they: (i) are implemented over the longer-term; (ii) reduce the potential for Programmatic - In particular, programs that focus on improving self-censorship (of media content developed by women); (iii) undertake conditions and guaranteeing rights of women may meet with greater holistic gender analysis (of gender norms, gender bias in media content resistance from men and will require community level grass roots and gender-based social constraints to media access and use); and (iv) intervention to reinforce the underlying assumptions of gender equity, as ICTs are designed specifically for women's use (i.e. styled to detract well as the basic information being delivered. male use). In addition, the development of gender strategies can help more broadly focused C4D initiatives to address any gender inequalities Logistical - Access to the voices of women and participation by women that they may face or inadvertently create. in media production may itself be challenging in some of the more traditional cultures. Issues of self-efficacy must be taken into consideration as part of gender equality programs, i.e. the level of self-belief that people have regarding the potential to achieve change, which may be weak for women in certain contexts. Local Ownership - Working to develop a high degree of local Conceptual - Internalising an understanding of and appreciation for involvement and ownership over C4D initiatives can: (i) lead to social C4D initiatives is optimal, but not easily achieved. Defining the meaning changes above and beyond the immediate scope of the intervention; RIµORFDO¶LVDOVRSUREOHPDWLFDQGUDLVHVTXHVWLRQVDERXWWKHUHIHUHQFH and (ii) increase community dialogue and self-reliance. groups with which citizens self-define, i.e. is an internet community local? Also, in crisis situations interventions often occur without any sense or possibility for ownership. They are driven by necessity, i.e. humanitarian information interventions. Programmatic - Initiating dialogue is difficult and verifying the extent to which it has happened in a consistent manner is also challenging. In latent and post-conflict situations ownership over C4D initiatives has more potential and is in fact critical to successful outcomes, i.e. a lack of ownership and involvement in peace-building initiatives is unlikely to deliver peace. Page 115 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Logistical - Delivering programmes at scales that have a local quality is resource intensive and may only be achievable with specific homogeneous groups to whom specific content is directed. Building a sense of ownership in small-scale initiatives is more realisable. Local ownership implies something beyond just participation, it reflects the directing and implementation of initiatives, which again may be difficult to achieve in conflict-affected states. Local Participation - Local participation in C4D initiatives in fragile Conceptual - Participation is considered an essential component of states: (i) helps to reduce conflict and violence by building ownership development practice and is aspired to in C4D interventions. In its own over both the problems and the processes C4D initiatives advocate for right participation is a measure of success in that it reflects activity. their resolution; (ii) builds bonds between opposing groups; and (iii) may Over-zealous practitioners can also force participation upon be more effective in areas that are more secure (as conflict may make communities because promises of participation have been made to local participation problematic). While local participation increases funders. effectiveness some participants in C4D initiatives may continue to use violence to pursue their goals. Programmatic - Participation needs to be managed carefully if it is to be effective. Participation requires excellent formative assessment of the actors, structures and dynamics associated with conflict and C4D initiatives should encourage increased participation and contact between opposing groups only when suitable levels of trust have been built. Some C4D initiatives, especially in conflict affected areas may not encourage or require participation, rather they may advocate an action or behaviour. Logistical - Effective participation in C4D initiatives is difficult to achieve on a large scale, requires human resource capacity to undertake facilitation and is difficult to assess in terms of impact and/or quality. Obstacles Contextual Constraints - Contextual constraints including conflict, Conceptual - It is widely recognised that in order for C4D and BCC poor infrastructure, lack of media coverage, lack of government practice to be effective, it is necessary to understand and work through a services, the presence of conflict and geographical remoteness may wide range of contextual constraints that may inhibit access to affect the implementation of C4D initiatives in fragile states and need to information, use of a technology and so on. In turn, this again prioritises be ameliorated where possible. the role of formative research in C4D design processes. Programmatic - In a recent study of media habits in Burma, The BBC Media Action report that in terms of access to information, 28 there were marked geographical information divides. Urban youth used multiple information sources, including Facebook, TV, print Page 116 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 journals and some radio to get news. By contrast, in rural locations, sources of news were much more limited: radio, TV and word of mouth. When the research team asked about ten recent news stories, in some rural communities, most people had heard nothing about them at all. This reinforces the need to both understand and work through those constraints that can be offset through program implementation and delivery. Logistical - It is important to recognise that not all contextual constraints can be addressed. Some are of a scale, i.e. lack of IT infrastructure, which may be hard to address through C4D programs and may be a job for post-conflict reconstruction. Further, it is important to be attuned (through research) to the resourcefulness of citizens and their ability to overcome the challenges of a limiting political and media environment. In a recent report on media use in North Korea, citizens demonstrated very creative ways of copying broadcast content onto DVDs and smuggling them into the country to share with their family and trusted friends. Undertaking the necessary detailed formative research to fully understand constraints may itself be constrained by the nature of the conflict, i.e. open conflict. Digital Divide - Digital divides exist within communities that may Conceptual ± It is widely recognised that digital divides are driven by exclude the very young, the old, women, ethnic, linguistic and religious poverty and inequality and drive aspects of vulnerability and risk, i.e. minorities, the remote and the poor from accessing and using new those that are associated with a lack or inadequacy of information. digital information and communication technologies. The use of new Addressing the inequalities associated with digital divides has become a ICTs in fragile states suggests: (i) the matching of information needs of critical feature of C4D interventions more broadly. the community to cost effective and appropriate ICT provision (new technologies may not be the most effective or popular channels for Programmatic - Addressing aspects of digital divides is not often communication, especially in conflict scenarios); (ii) the raising of ICT associated with C4D initiatives in conflict situations, and interventions literacy to ensure effective use; (iii) raising awareness of the availability tend to rely on the dominant, easy-to-access media and communication of community services such as telecentres; (iv) that attention is paid to channels that are available. This should not result in a stifling of linguistic diversity to ensure linguistic minorities are included; (v) innovation. New communication technologies have worked well in donor-supported or state ICT initiatives should be cost-competitive with remote contexts where traditional media may not reach. local alternative services; (vi) ICT and communications policy/legislation that is context specific, i.e. not policy that is transplanted from Western Logistical ± Raising ICT literacy, addressing infrastructural concerns to non-Western contexts; (vii) the use of trained community and ensuring the adequate human resources to help overcome digital intermediaries to raise ICT literacy and enhance digital inclusion; and issues remains problematic in open conflict situations. In latent and (viii) ensuring there is enough technical human resource capacity to post-conflict/reconstruction scenarios, addressing digital divides can maintain equipment. give a boost to dialogue and community engagement and help promote conflict resolution/mitigation. Page 117 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Information Divide - Information divides are evident between sections Conceptual - Access to a platform or source does not guarantee of any context or community based on: (i) poverty (which manifests itself access to information; and access to information does not guarantee in terms of a lack of access to services such as electricity); (ii) access to quality or relevant information; and access to quality or 29 remoteness (and a physical lack of coverage of media and difficulties in relevant information does not guarantee that it will be acted upon. distributing information materials); (iii) illiteracy; (iv) leading to a lack of access to or exclusion from information, (v) a lack of access to or Programmatic - In the case of media and technology, it is important to exclusion from traditional as well as new ICTs; (vi) a lack of information distinguish between those who have access and those who own. High and media content in minority languages. In contexts characterised by levels of group listening to radio and viewing of television, use of Internet information divides, community-based intermediaries and the use of cafes, and pay-as-you-go customers rather than mobile subscribers can participatory media can play a role in fostering greater information lead to dramatic underreporting of access to a source of information or a equality and inclusion for marginalised groups. platform. Second, it is valuable to know whether access occurs in a public versus private space. Similarly, it is valuable to understand the context in which the information source or platform is accessed. Certain information may be culturally or politically sensitive and may not be appropriate for dissemination with strangers. For example, family planning content may be more comfortably consumed by parents without their children or by young people without their parents. Third, access may be restricted at certain times because of electricity cuts or because of weak signals. Access to a platform or source of information may be interrupted at certain times of the day. For example, not all radio stations broadcast 24 hours every day. Finally, signals may barely reach remote areas, with the result that the audio or video content is not comprehensible. Finally, identifying the medium of access is important, recognising that, in the context of convergence, citizens may be using one medium to access the content originated from another. With the rise of technological convergence, it is imperative to establish the platform where the medium is accessed. For example, is the citizen listening to radio on her radio, on the Internet, or on her mobile phone? Logistical - In a recent study of citizen access to information in Papua New Guinea, commissioned by ABC International Development, there were significant differences in access to information across different provinces largely attributed to either the absence of a transmitter or an inconsistent or low quality broadcast signal. Media Bias - Media bias is a fundamental issue affecting both Conceptual - Bias manifests itself in the media in various forms and it is pre-conflict, conflict and post-conflict states. Media bias is: (i) evident in valuable to identify the range of biases that may exist within the same fragile states in which media is divided along ethnic lines; (ii) often system, media organisation or media channel. More important are the Page 118 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 difficult to counter within the media of post-conflict or transition states structural relationships between the media entity and other and in regulatory bodies (which may favour elected governments); (iii) socio-political forces within the political economy of a country that prevents a diversity of voices and opinions being aired. Reducing media requires or, at the very least, passively permits such biases to persist. bias requires: (i) long-term support and capacity development with both media professionals and regulators to establish functional and Programmatic - A classification of media biases and illustrative independent public service/interest broadcasting; (ii) careful choice of examples of each can be useful to understand the extent to which they trustworthy partners; and (iii) the development of high quality impartial pose a problem to the credibility or effectiveness of a C4D initiative. For media content. example, is a media entity actively promoting one position over another? To what extent is information consciously withheld from the citizenry? How pervasive is self-censorship at the organisational and practitioner level? Logistical - It is important to identify the spectrum of perspectives or diversity of voices that one would expect in theory, compared with the reality, and to identify what is reasonable to achieve within the constraints of the proposed C4D initiative. Hate Media - C4D initiatives in fragile states need to consider the role of Conceptual - $EGLDQG'HDQH¶V3ROLF\%ULHILQJRQWKHUROHRIWKHPHGLD hate media and speech and its role in inciting violence, conflict and in the violent aftermath in the Kenyan elections in 2007 is valuable 30 genocide. Radio has historically been the principal channel for hate here. The authors address the claims facing local language media that speech. When considering hate media and speech it is important to: (i) it has fanned ethnic hatred and incited violence; the role of community have a comprehensive contextual understanding of conflict; (ii) enable media and an examination of why there is not more of it given its social hate speech to be countered through media/communication role; the role of the mainstream media and examining claims that it has interventions; (iii) enhance media literacy so that audiences can identify become politically co-opted; an examination of claims that blogs and and reject hate media and speech; and (iv) identify and address hate SMS text messages were used to inflame tension and incite ethnic speech in media regulation and legislation. hatred; the role of the government media, and the claim that a more credible and independent public service broadcaster could have done much to shape a more constructive tone in national debate; and the role of the international media. Programmatic - In order to address hate speech, it may be more effective to work with the communicators of hate speech within their channels to challenge their assumptions, rationale and legitimacy and leverage access to their audience. Countering hate speech on alternative sources may not always reach the same target group. Logistical - Hate speech is often validated through stereotypes of out-groups and these pre-conceptions are difficult to change. Counter-stereotypes are one strategy to challenge general assumptions about out-group members. Page 119 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Evaluation and Evidence - The evidence base associated with many Conceptual - The Crawford and Pauker (2008) report on C4D interventions in fragile states is relatively weak and many studies Communicating Transitional Justice in Burundi speaks to the value of are unreliable (i.e. they are performed by the implementing organisation having research-based evidence and the challenges of using language 31 and potentially biased). The evaluation of C4D initiatives in fragile states to communicate to citizens that they will understand. There has also may not yield expected results in the short term and tracking change been a focus on developing participatory evaluations as part of C4D over the long term is problematic as it is often difficult to link impact to initiatives, though the practicality of undertaking participatory evaluation specific C4D initiatives. Some of the challenges associated with in conflict situations may be limited. Academic texts may underestimate evaluation include: (i) the need to establish clear objectives and the value and reliability of internal evaluations, many of which are indicators and be realistic about what C4D initiatives can achieve; (ii) the critical, incisive and undertaken in very challenging conditions. XVHRIYDJXHDQGLPSUHFLVHWHUPVVXFKDVµ\RXWK¶XVHGGXULQJGHVLJQ can hamper the specificity of impact evaluation; (iii) establishing quality Programmatic - Participatory research evidence can be used to baselines data is difficult; (iv) the context and conflict may lead to develop media content that is more likely to be understood by citizens difficulties with the execution of evaluation and poor quality data; (v) because the vocabulary has been pre-tested. evaluation (and monitoring) is hampered by poor record keeping; (vi) context affects the quality of evaluation, it being easier to conduct Logistical - It is imperative to conduct research with all of the relevant evaluations in more peaceful areas; (vii) it is difficult for external stakeholder groups in order to understand the sources of confusion, evaluation to remain independent of the implementer due to misunderstanding and disagreement and to establish research-based methodological reliance on them to link evaluators with informants; and protocols on language use. (viii) there is a reluctance to reveal constraints, implementation errors or negative impacts in evaluation. Outcomes Conflict Reduction/Peacekeeping Operations - Multi-channel Conceptual - In Pakistan, InterMedia has partnered with the Popular communications that link to the provision of services (i.e. weapons (QJDJHPHQW3ROLF\/DE3(3/WRFRQGXFWLQQRYDWLYHµK\SHU-ORFDO¶ collection) can be effective in peacekeeping or stabilisation efforts, UHVHDUFKGHVLJQDQGORFDOFDSDFLW\VWUHQJWKHQLQJWUDLQLQJIRUµ3DNKWR especially where a strong security presence enhances public 9RLFHV¶- a program that seeks to prevent and ameliorate violent conflict confidence in the abandonment of violence. C4D initiatives in the LQ3DNLVWDQ¶V)HGHUDOO\$GPLQLVWHUHG7ULEDO$UHDV)$7$DQGWKH context of peacekeeping or stabilisation: (i) have more legitimacy when adjoining areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) by strengthening local local personnel are involved; (ii) need to be long term and think through governance, voice and accountability. the transition from stabilisation to civil governance more thoroughly; (iii) can help the public understand institutional change; (iv) may be more Programmatic - The project, in partnership with local media and civil effective when they support unilateral interventions (i.e. RAMSI). society organizations, involves ongoing survey and ethnographic research to identify information and local service delivery needs among the local population, as well as ongoing content analysis of local media DVDZD\WRLGHQWLI\JDSVEHWZHHQORFDOFLWL]HQV¶QHHGVDQGPHGLD coverage. These gaps are then addressed in local radio, print and SMS outputs to the region as a means of strengthening local voice, accountability, governance and contributing to longer-term peace-building in the region. Similarly, an independent review of the Page 120 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 $%&,QWHUQDWLRQDO'HYHORSPHQW¶VPHGLDVWUHQJWKHQLQJSURJUDPLQWKH Solomon Islands, SOLMAS, revealed a significant improvement in the media coverage of the National Election in comparison with the 2006 election. RAMSI also acknowledged that media coverage contributed to a peaceful election process. This further reiterates that C4D in peacekeeping operations may be more successful when they support unilateral interventions. Logistical - In the case of peacekeeping operations and conflict reduction, it is important to ensure that the basic media infrastructure is reinstated before C4D interventions are designed. In such scenarios media development may take precedence before any effective C4D interventions can be undertaken due to the lack of basic infrastructure. Page 121 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Conclusion Drawing out a set of wider conclusions emerging from the findings and realist assessment of C4D contextual and programmatic factors presented in this systematic review is challenging, but essential. The findings support the earlier assertion that C4D interventions can and should be approached from a perspective of identifying and working through the factors and issues that help to determine communications effectiveness. The sheer diversity of potential combinations of communication channels and thematic content makes a focus on influencing factors both logical and of practical relevance. The findings and realist assessment outlined above can help development program officers and implementers to better understand some of the most critical inputs (facilitators) and obstacles to C4D effectiveness, as well as some of the key interventions and/or approaches. Importantly, the difficulties associated with developing effective participation or in undertaking formative research in conflict situations is also recognised within the realist assessment in order to identify the range of barriers or constraints that may be faced. While elaboration of the C4D factors is of value in its own right, a number of broader conclusions UHOHYDQWWR$XV$,'¶VIXWXUHVXSSRUWIRU&'LQIUDJLOHDQGFRQIOLFW-affected states can be drawn from the broad body of evidence identified by this review. These include: a) Early intervention: in latent conflict scenarios is potentially easier - in terms of understanding contextual and institutional factors, as well as media/ICT uses and preferences or aspects of digital and information divides - than in open conflict scenarios. Early mapping of information and communication contexts, linked to existing or concurrent conflict analyses can play a role in identifying future areas of C4D intervention that can inform interventions across latent, open and post-conflict contexts. Putting in place the necessary formative research, establishing communication partnerships and building communication capacity constitutes a future priority for bilateral, multilateral and non-government organisations. b) Long-term commitments: that support C4D initiatives during and through latent, conflict and post-conflict scenarios have better potential to build a useful/useable knowledge base, sustainable capacity and enhanced levels of social trust than short-term interventions. Conflict reduction and peace-building are complex processes that require long-term investment if they are to achieve appropriate outcomes. Longer funding cycles for C4D interventions can help to build more meaningful partnerships and capacity strengthening activities, as well as reduce the transaction costs for those involved in designing, implementing, evaluating and approving C4D interventions. c) Methodological tools: could usefully be developed and trialled in order to help facilitate the participatory assessment of existing media and communications environments, media uses and preferences, media and communications policy and legislation, capacity development needs, institutional opportunities and constraints and the identification of key messages that support civic education, conflict reduction and peace-building. Any new methodological tools Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 122 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 developed need to be responsive to different context scenarios and conditions (although early intervention, as stated above, is desirable), providing a range of assessment options from the rapid to the longer-term. Ideally, the application of such tools would generate not only knowledge that is critical to understanding which forms of C4D should be promoted, but also to building inclusive partnerships for implementation. Ultimately, this systematic review has found that a broad array of contextual and programmatic factors underpins C4D implementation and practice in fragile and conflict-affected states. Evidence highlights that these factors combine to both constrain and provide opportunities for C4D initiatives and, as such, need to be recognised, negotiated and addressed by a range of different development practitioners in order to enhance effectiveness. This review has added to and extended upon the C4D implementation and programmatic factors identified in earlier literature reviews undertaken in the context of HIV 12,13 communication, therein providing a number of additional criteria for consideration. The factors outlined here support the need for early, more thorough and longer-term C4D interventions in fragile and conflict-affected states, as well as the need to develop appropriate methodological frameworks to enable engagement in both rapid and extended mapping of the media and communications contexts. Implications for practice and policy The implications for C4D practice within fragile and conflict-affected states that this review has outlined are numerous. Pragmatically, no C4D intervention could, or necessarily should, seek to adhere to, or address, all of the contextual and programmatic factors identified that affect C4D implementation. The specificity of C4D interventions, from civic education to emergency humanitarian information provision, places different values on different contextual and programmatic factors. For example, humanitarian information interventions demand rapid deployment and by association do not have the time or necessarily the mandate to engage in lengthy formative analysis. On the other hand, conflict reduction initiatives in latent conflict situations require an in-depth understanding of the factors and dynamics associated with features such as inter-ethnic conflict. With this recognised, the factors presented in this review nonetheless provide broad guidance to C4D implementers, as well as offering insights into the principles that uphold effective C4D practice for donors. The evidence and synthesis emerging from this review allows the following observations to be made about C4D interventions in fragile states. The observations, as suggested above, are of value to C4D program designers, implementers and assessors. They include: a) Behaviour change communication (BCC): C4D initiatives in fragile states may benefit from taking a behaviour change communication (BCC) approach, i.e. an approach that advocates and demonstrates an action that is achievable; Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 123 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 b) Capacity strengthening: capacity strengthening of the media and communications sectors in post-conflict contexts can help strengthen professionalism and reduce bias and self-censorship; c) Civic education: civic education can increase political knowledge, participation, tolerance, national identification and help to reduce violence, as well as increase government transparency and accountability; d) Conflict reduction/peacekeeping operations: multi-channel communications that link to the provision of services (i.e. weapons collection) can be effective in peacekeeping or stabilisation efforts, especially where a strong security presence enhances public confidence in the abandonment of violence; e) Contextual constraints: contextual factors including conflict, ethnicity, poor infrastructure, lack of media coverage, gender inequality and so on may constrain the effectiveness of C4D initiatives in fragile states; f) Culturally appropriate media content: culturally appropriate media content, content that links to social and cultural norms and local understandings of conflict dynamics will tend to have a greater impact; g) Digital and/or media literacy: C4D initiatives in fragile states need to assess the degree of digital and/or media literacy present within context before engaging in implementation; h) Digital divide: digital divides exist within communities that may exclude the very young, the old, women, ethnic, linguistic and religious minorities, the remote and the poor from accessing and using new digital information and communication technologies; i) Edutainment: the use of edutainment (programs that mix education with entertainment) in fragile states is effective because it helps to increase social action and self-reliance; j) Evaluation and Evidence: evaluation constraints are evident in fragile states, which means the evidence base associated with C4D interventions that focus on peace-building and conflict reduction is weak; Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 124 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 k) Gender equality: C4D initiatives in fragile states that target aspects of gender equality can positively affect collectively-held social norms leading to increased empowerment, such as electoral participation; l) Hate media: C4D initiatives in fragile states need to consider the role of hate media and speech and its role in inciting violence, conflict and genocide. Radio has historically been the principal channel for hate speech; m) Information divide: Information divides and inequalities are evident in any context or community; n) Local ownership: working to develop a high degree of local involvement and ownership over C4D initiatives can lead to social change and increased self-reliance; o) Long-term commitment: C4D initiatives have more potential to generate positive impact if they are implemented over the longer term; p) Media bias: Media bias is a fundamental problem affecting both pre-conflict, conflict and post-conflict states; q) Multi-channel communication: in fragile states C4D initiatives are more effective if they utilise multiple communication channels (i.e. interpersonal, participatory, traditional mass media, new ICTs); r) Participation: local participation in C4D initiatives in fragile states can help increase community ownership over conflict-related problems and help generate greater impact; s) Participatory approaches: C4D initiatives that use participatory approaches/methods are more effective at changing knowledge, beliefs and behaviour because they have a better chance of understanding and getting to the root causes of conflict and violence; t) Participatory media: participatory media (such as street theatre, role playing, video, social mobilisation, local media genres) can be effective in stimulating community dialogue and in reaching marginalised groups (especially those who may be illiterate); Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 125 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 u) State media: state media have a key role to play in reaching remote and poor populations, often through radio broadcasting; v) Sustainability planning: C4D initiatives in fragile states are heavily reliant on external donor funding and need to consider sustainability planning and exit strategies in a more systematic way; w) Telecommunications: telecommunications can play an important role in C4D interventions in fragile states because they often have high penetration rates (but services may be prone to disruption during periods of conflict); x) Understanding the cultural context: developing a detailed understanding of the cultural context of fragile states, why conflict occurs, how it is reduced and how best to communicate with the public, is essential if C4D initiatives are to be effective; y) Understanding the institutional context: understanding the institutions that support or constrain the effectiveness of C4D initiatives in fragile states is a critically important determinant to effectiveness. Implications for research This systematic review has highlighted the need for more rigorous and longer-term research in the context of C4D interventions in fragile states. While conflict situations inevitably constrain and affect the quality of the summative evidence available, it is the formative aspects of research that are potentially of more importance to C4D interventions and wider processes of development, humanitarian assistance and conflict mitigation and reduction. A striking feature of the review is the relative dearth of latent or open conflict examples, relative to that of post-conflict interventions. Mapping the complexity of media DQGFRPPXQLFDWLRQHQYLURQPHQWVZKLOHµZLQGRZVRIRSSRUWXQLW\¶UHPDLQRSHQGXULQJSHULRGVRIODWHQW conflict is potentially critical to informing more effective communication interventions should open conflict scenarios subsequently develop. Early research interventions into media and communication environments in fragile states require that: (i) appropriate policy commitments are made to undertake such work; and (ii) that the necessary funding and institutional relationships are pursued to enable such work to be undertaken. While, research interventions during periods of latent conflict can help to build better and more targeted interventions, from a research perspective, there is a clear need to enhance and increase conflict and C4D-focused research on Africa. The map set out at the beginning of this review highlights that large parts of Central, West and East Africa fall into the fragile state category, yet for many of these countries this review returned no quality evidence. Though C4D interventions are occurring, they are not on the radar of many researchers or research institutions. Forging long-term relationships with African Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 126 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 universities and committing additional research funding to mapping media and communications environments and to understanding the potential of C4D interventions in fragile states within Africa represents a key priority. Within the arena of C4D practice, especially within fragile states, this systematic review found little quality evidence concerning the role of new and social media. This is because of the bulk of evidence emerging relates to contexts in North Africa, such as Libya, Egypt and Tunisia, countries that were not included in this review. The role that new and social media have played in the political transformations that have occurred there is important to understand, especially the potential role social media has to play in supplying humanitarian information and in protecting communities from rights abuses. Untangling the evidence and practical implications of new and social media from the hyperbole that surrounds them constitutes an important future research agenda for bilateral, multilateral and non-government development organisations alike. Limitations of the Review Like all research processes, certain limitations emerged during the development of the protocol, data extraction and report development stages that are worth noting. Research in fragile states is an area that can be characterised by data that is constrained in quality, due principally to the difficulties related to its collection in contexts experiencing conflict. Unlike the theme of HIV communication and prevention, C4D implementers in fragile states tend not to collect rigorous quantitative data due to the context, which makes pursuing a focus on the effectiveness of different types of C4D interventions extremely limited. Because of the significant absence of reliable quantitative data this review developed a protocol that examined the identifiable factors, inputs and issues that affected implementation utilising qualitative research and textual evidence. It is widely recognised in C4D practice that adherence to a set of core principles, combined with recognition of contextual opportunities and constraints, 19 significantly affects the quality of implementation. Further, the highly specific nature of C4D interventions, which are tailored to specific media uses and genre preferences makes the identification of particular interventions such as talk-radio for conflict prevention, redundant. Consequently, this review has sought to identify the various programmatic and contextual factors that might influence implementation - in line with the AusAID-agreed protocol - rather than attempting to identify specific C4D courses of action in specific fragile state contexts. While this review identifies a range of different C4D interventions in different contexts, which can be characterised by different forms and intensities of conflict, the authors recognise that the examples cited are not exhaustive. The bulk of examples of C4D interventions reside in the realm of self-assessed project evaluations, the relatively low reliability and poor methodological quality of which resulted in their exclusion from this review. Hence, a focus on programmatic and contextual factors identified in higher quality peer reviewed journals and methodologically assessed text and opinion sources results in a focus that cuts across any type of C4D intervention conducted in any fragile state or conflict-affected scenario. In addition, the absence of a publicly available C4D strategy or policy further Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 127 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 limits the scope of this review, as there is no clear AusAID policy position with which this review can articulate, challenge or inform. Conflict of Interest No significant conflicts of interest are evident in this review. However, given the reviewers are active in the field of study under review no qualitative or textual study produced by a member of this review team or the institutions for which they work was included for assessment. This removed a potential for bias within evidentiary assessment and data synthesis. AusAID provided the financial support for this review (through a partnership with the DFID and 3ie). This support had no influence on the independence of this review or the outcome of the activity beyond the identification of an initial question broadly related to the role of C4D initiatives in fragile states. Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID). The research was commissioned as part of a joint call for systematic reviews with the Department for International Development (DFID) and the International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3ie). The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the Commonwealth of Australia. The Commonwealth of Australia accepts no responsibility for any loss, damage or injury resulting from reliance on any of the information or views contained in this publication The review team acknowledge the support of The Joanna Briggs Institute and in particular Dr. Ed Aromataris, Dr. Melanie Attard, Dr. Catalin Tufanaru and Dr. Sarahlouise White. AusAID funded this review and the team would like to acknowledge the support of Fiona Crockford, Jo Elsom, Marcus Khan and Tymon Kennedy. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 128 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 References 1. Lerner, D. (1958) The Passing of Traditional Society. New York: Free Press. 2. Rogers, E. (1962) Diffusion of Innovation. New York: Free Press. 3. Mansell R. (2002) From Digital Divides to Digital Entitlements in Knowledge Societies. Current Sociology. 50(3):407-426. 4. Inagaki, N. (2007) Communicating the Impact of Communication for Development: Recent Trends in Empirical Research. Washington DC: World Bank. 5. Torero, M. and Von Braun, J. (2005) Information and Communication Technologies for the Poor. Washington DC: International Food Policy Research Institute. 6. Quarry, W. and Ramírez, R. (2009) Communication for Another Development: Listening before Telling. London: Zed Books. 7. 6HUYDHV-µ,QWURGXFWLRQ¶Communication for Development and Social Change. London: Sage. 8. King E, Samii C, Snilstveit B. Interventions to promote social cohesion in sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Development Effectiveness. 2(3):336±370. 9. Department for International Development [homepage on the Internet]. Glossary [cited 17/10/2011]. Available at: http://www.dfid.gov.uk/about-dfid/glossary/?key=F. 10. AusAID [homepage on the Internet]. Fragile states and Australia's aid program [cited 17/10/2011]. Available at: http://www.ausaid.gov.au/keyaid/fragile_states.cfm. 11. %UDFN'µ,QWURGXFWLRQ7UDGH$LGDQG6HFXULW\$Q$JHQGDIRU3HDFHDQG'HYHORSPHQW¶ Trade, Aid and Security: An Agenda for Peace and Development. Earthscan: London. 12. 0\KUH6DQG)ORUD-µ+,9$,'6FRPPXQLFDWLRQFDPSDLJQV3URJUHVVDQGSURVSHFWV¶ Journal of Health Communication, 5: 29-45. 13. Noar, S., Palmgreen, P., Chabot, M., Dobransky N. and Zimmerman, R. µ$-year Systematic Review of HIV/AIDS MaVV&RPPXQLFDWLRQ&DPSDLJQV+DYH:H0DGH3URJUHVV"¶ Journal of Health Communication, 14: 15-42. 14. Lloyd, E., Penn, H., Barreau, S., Burton, V., Davis, R., Potter, S., and Sayeed, R. (2005) How effective are measures taken to mitigate the impact of direct experience of armed conflict on the psychosocial and cognitive development of children aged 0±8? In: Research Evidence in Education Library. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London. 15. Thomas, J. & Harden, A. (2008) Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research in systematic reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8(45)-doi:10.1186/1471-2288-8-45. 16. Pawson, R., Greenhalgh, T., Harvey, G. and Walshe, K. (2005) Realist review - a new method of systematic review designed for complex policy interventions. Journal of Health Service Research and Policy, 10(1): 21-34. 17. DFID (2000) Working with Media in Conflict and Other Emergencies. DFID, London, UK. 18. Batchelor, S. and Scott, N. (2005) Good Practice Paper on ICTs for Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction. Paris: OECD. 19. Waisbord, S. (2001) Family Tree of Theories, Methodologies and Strategies in Development Communication. New York: The Rockefeller Foundation. 20. The MARCH (Modelling and Reinforcement to Combat HIV) model approach partly addresses this by taking account of barriers and facilitators for BCC http://www.mfdi.org/docs/MJMARCHpaper.pdf 21. Crosby R, Noar S. (2012) Theory development in health promotion: are we there yet? Journal of Behavioral Medicine. 33(4): 259-263. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 129 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 22. See http://issuu.com/smallmedia/docs/culturalcensorshipiniran?mode=window&backgroundColor=%2 3222222 and http://smallmediafoundation.com/files/LGBTRepublicofIran.pdf 23. See http://www.bbg.gov/press-release/bbg-data-show-iran-internet-satellite-usage-at-all-time-high/) 24. See: http://www.southbound.my/SB_PeoplesRadio.htm 25. See http://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where_we_work/africa/sierra_leone/nationalconversationsierra. html 26. See Frontline SMS and Plan work on Violence Reporting in West Africa: http://www.frontlinesms.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/FrontlineSMS_Plan_2011_2.pdf 27. 6HH81(6&2¶VUHFHQWO\UHOHDVHGGender Sensitive Indicators of Media: http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/IPDC/ipdc28_gsmi_paper_rev.p df 28. See http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/bbcmediaaction/posts/A-smile-from-land-of-hope 29. InterMedia argue that Citizen Access to information is based on five dimensions, see: http://intermedia.org/press_releases/InterMedia%20%20Citizen%20Access%20to%20Information .pdf 30. See: http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/trust/pdf/kenya_policy_briefing_08.pdf 31. See http://www.comminit.com/?q=democracy-governance/content/ready-talk-about-past-survey-knowl edge-and-attitudes-toward-transitional-justice-burundi. See also http://www.usip.org/publications/evaluating-media-interventions-in-conflict-countries-0 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 130 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix I: Example Search (Academic Search Premier A) Database and Search Name Search String and Qualifiers Results Included Retrieved Selected Included based on abstract Academic  Search  Premier  (A)     $IJKDQLVWDQRU$QJRODRU%XUPDRU%XUXQGLRU&DPHURRQRU³&HQWUDO$IULFDQ5HSXEOLF´RU           &KDGRU&RPRURVRU&RQJRRU³&RWHG¶,YRLUH´RU'MLERXWLRU³(TXDWRULDO*XLQHD´RU(ULWUHD   RU(WKLRSLDRU*DPELDRU*XLQHDRU³*XLQHD%LVVDX´RU+DLWLRUIraq  or  Kenya  or  Kiribati  or   5216   187   83   26   13   /DRVRU/LEHULDRU0DXULWDQLDRU1HSDORU1LJHURU1LJHULDRU³1RUWK.RUHD´RU3DNLVWDQRU ³3DSXD1HZ*XLQHD´RU5ZDQGDRU³6DR7RPHDQG3ULQFLSH´RU³6LHUUD/HRQH´RU ³6RORPRQ,VODQGV´RU6RPDOLDRU6XGDQRU7DMLNLVWDQRU³7LPor  LHVWH´RU³(DVW7LPRU´RU 7RJRRU7RQJDRU8JDQGDRU³:HVW%DQNDQG*D]D´RU<HPHQRU=LPEDEZH$1'ULJKWV RU³KXPDQULJKW ´RU³FLYLFULJKW ´RU³FLYLOULJKW ´RUGHPRFUDWL" RUZDURUSHDFHRU humanitarian  or  violence  or  conflict  or  mitigation  or  redXFWLRQRU³IUDJLOHVWDWH´RUVWDELOL" RUJRYHUQDQFHRUSROLF\RUOHJLVODWLRQRUHWKQLFRUUHIXJHHRUJHQGHU$1'³LQWHUHWKQLF UHSRUWLQJ´RU³SHDFHUHSRUWLQJ´RU³peace  building´RU³PHGLDVWUHQJWKHQLQJ´RUSDUWLFLSDW RU³QHZPHGLD´RU³VRFLDOPHGLD´RU  radio  or  television  or  print  or  video  or  interpersonal  or   LQIRUPDWLRQRUFDPSDLJQRUFRPPXQLFDWLRQRUGHYHORSPHQWRU&'RU³EHKDYLRUFKDQJH´ RU³EHKDYLRXUFKDQJH´RU%&&RU.$3RU,&7'RUPHGLD     Advanced  Search  -­  6HDUFKHGILHOGµ$%$EVWUDFWRU$XWKRU  6XSSOLHG$EVWUDFW¶<HDUV 2001-­/LPLWHGWRµ6FKRODUO\3HHU5HYLHZHG-RXUQDOV¶DQG'RFXPHQW7\SHµ$UWLFOH¶     Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 131 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix II: Search strategy The table below sets out the separate searches undertaken for peer reviewed qualitative material. It highlights the total results, articles that were viewed (abstracts), retrieved, selected and finally, included in the review. The text and opinion material is generally not searchable in a systematic way, due to the deficiencies in the search capability of various sites. For this reason, a similar detailed table is not included for the NOTARI sources. These are included in the last row of the table below under the KHDGLQJµJUH\OLWHUDWXUH¶ Included Database and Search Name Results based on Retrieved Selected Included abstract Academic  Search  Premier  (A)     5216   187   83   26   10   Academic  Search  Premier  (B)     92   3   3   0   0   $IULFDQ:RPHQ¶V%LEOLRJUDSKLF 379   0   0   0   0   Database  (A)   $IULFDQ:RPHQ¶V%LEOLRJUDSKLF 23   9   2   0   0   Database  (B)   Anthropology  Plus     84   13   4   0   0   Bibliography  of  Asian  Studies  (A)       0   0   0   0   0   Educational  Resources  Information   135   7   5   0   0   Centre  (ERIC)  (A)   Educational  Resources  Information   616   21   8   5   1   Centre  (ERIC)  (B)     Educational  Resources  Information   78   0   0   0   0   Centre  (ERIC)  (C)   Ingenta  Connect  (A)     0   0   0   0   0   Ingenta  Connect  (B)   6   0   0   0   0   Ingenta  Connect  (C)   10   0   0   0   0   JSTOR  (A)   7   4   2   0   0   JSTOR  (B)   253   0   0   0   0   JSTOR  (C)   5   0   0   0   0   JSTOR  (D)     10   0   0   0   0   Scopus  (A)     6841   24   13   2     0   (First  400   viewed)   Scopus  (B)     3826   52   17   1   0   (First  2000   viewed)   Scopus  (C)     7621   98   20   9   3   (First  2000   viewed)   Scopus  (D)   37   3   0   0   0   Sociological  Abstracts  (A)   782   33   7   2   1   Sri  Lanka  A+B+C   513   32   6   6   3   Indonesia  A+B   500   22   5   5   0   Philippines  A+B   500   15   5   4   1   Total 13646 484 177 58 19 Grey  Literature  (NOTARI)   9019   100   62   25   7   Combined Total 22665 584 239 83 26 Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 132 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix III: Selected Studies (JBI-QARI) 1. %DUNHU0-µ'HPRFUDF\RU3RO\DUFK\"86-funded media developments in Afghanistan DQG,UDTSRVW¶,QMedia, Culture and Society, Vol. 30, Issue 1, pp. 109-130. 2. %HVW0/ 7KDNXU'µ7KH7HOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQV3ROLF\3URFHVVLQ3RVW-Conflict 'HYHORSLQJ&RXQWULHV7KHFDVHRI/LEHULD¶,QInfo: The Journal of Policy, Regulation and Strategies for Telecommunications, Information and Media, Vol. 11, Issue 2, pp. 42-57. 3. %RXOWRQ$µ(GXFDWLRQIRU'HYHORSPHQW&'IRU3HDFH3URGXFLQJWKH³*OREDOO\ &RPSHWLWLYH´&KLOG¶,QGeoforum, Vol. 41, Issue 2, pp. 329-336. 4. %UDWLF9µ([DPLQLQJ3HDFH-OrLHQWDWHG0HGLDLQ$UHDVRI9LROHQW&RQIOLFW¶,Q International Communication Gazette, Vol. 70, Issue 6, pp. 487-503. 5. %UDXFKOHU%µ5HOLJLRXV&RQIOLFWVLQ&\EHUDJH¶,QCitizenship Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 4, pp. 329-347. 6. Bretherton, D., Weston- =EDU9µ6FKRRO-%DVHG3HDFH%XLOGLQJLQ6LHUUD/HRQH¶,Q Theory into Practice, Vol. 44, Issue 4, pp. 355-362. 7. &HOGUDQ'µ7KH3KLOLSSLQHV606DQG&LWL]HQVKLS¶,QDevelopment Dialogue, Vol. 2002, Issue 1, pp. 91-103. 8. Connelly&µ+RZ'RHVWKH6KRZ*R2Q"7KHDWUHIRU'HYHORSPHQWLQ3RVW-Election .HQ\D¶,QTheatre History Studies, Vol. 30, pp. 65-72. 9. &XUWLV'($µ%URDGFDVWLQJ3HDFH$Q$QDO\VLVRI/RFDO0HGLD3RVW-Conflict Peace building Projects in RwandDDQG%RVQLD¶,QCanadian Journal of Development Studies, Vol. 21, Issue, 1, pp. 141-166. 10. (UQL-1µ:DUµ,QFHQGLDU\0HGLD¶DQG,QWHUQDWLRQDO+XPDQ5LJKWV/DZ¶,QMedia, Culture & Society, Vol. 31, Issue 6, pp. 867-886. 11. Essien, E. J., Mgbere, O., Monjok, E., Ekong, E., Holstad, M. M., & Kalichman, S. C. (2011) µ(IIHFWLYHQHVVRID9LGHR-Based Motivational Skills-Building HIV Risk-Reduction Intervention for )HPDOH0LOLWDU\3HUVRQQHO¶,QSocial Science and Medicine, Vol. 72, Issue 1, pp. 63-71. 12. (YDQV5µ7KH7ZR)DFHVRI(PSRZHUPHQWLQ&RQIOLFW¶,QResearch in Comparative and International Conflict, Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp.50-64. 13. )LQNHO6( 6PLWK$(µ&LYLF(GXFDWLRQ3ROLWLFDO'LVFXVVLRQDQGWKH6RFLDO TransmissLRQRI'HPRFUDWLF.QRZOHGJHDQG9DOXHVLQD1HZ'HPRFUDF\.HQ\D¶,QAmerican Journal of Political Science, Vol. 55, Issue, 2, pp. 417-435. 14. )UHUH06µ$IWHUWKH+DWH0HGLD5HJXODWLRQLQWKH'5&%XUXQGLDQG5ZDQGD¶,Q Global Media and Communication, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp. 327-352. 15. *DPDJH3 +DOSLQ()µ(-6UL/DQND%ULGJLQJWKH'LJLWDO'LYLGH¶,QElectronic Library, Vol. 25, Issue 6, pp. 693-710. 16. *D]DOL(µ1HJRWLDWLQJ3XEOLFDQG&RPPXQLW\0HGLDLQ3RVW-SuhDUWR,QGRQHVLD¶,Q Javnost, Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 85-100. 17. *UHJRU\6µ7UDQVQDWLRQDO6WRU\WHOOLQJ+XPDQ5LJKWV:,71(66DQGYLGHRDGYRFDF\¶ In American Anthropologist, Vol. 108, Issue 1, pp. 195-204. Skuse et al. 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(2µ7ZHQW\<HDUVRI&RQIOLFWLQ1RUWKHUQ8JDQGD5HVKDSLQJWKH$JHQGD IRU7UDLQLQJDQG5HVHDUFK¶,QGlobal Media Journal ± Mediterranean Edition, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 12-20. 41. 3DOXFN(/ *UHHQ'3µ'HIHUHQFH'LVVHQWDQG'LVSXWH5HVROXtion: An ([SHULPHQWDO,QWHUYHQWLRQ8VLQJ0DVV0HGLDWR&KDQJH1RUPVDQG%HKDYLRULQ5ZDQGD¶,QAmerican Political Science Review, Vol. 103, Issue 4, pp. 622-644. 42. 3DOXFN(/Dµ5HGXFLQJ,QWHUJURXS3UHMXGLFHDQG&RQIOLFWXVLQJWKH0HGLD$)LHOd ([SHULPHQWLQ5ZDQGD¶,QJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 96, Issue 3, pp. 574-587. 43. 3DOXFN(/µ,V,W%HWWHU1RWWR7DON"*URXS3RODUL]DWLRQ([WHQGHG&RQWDFWDQG Perspective Taking in Eastern Democratic Republic of CongR¶,QPersonality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 36, Issue 9, pp. 1170-1185. 44. 3ODVWRZ-µ)LQGLQJ&KLOGUHQ¶V9RLFHV$3LORW3URMHFW8VLQJ3HUIRUPDQFHWR'LVFXVV Attitudes to Education Among Primary School Children in Two Eritrean VillagHV¶,QResearch in Drama Education, Vol. 12, Issue 3, pp. 345-354. 45. 5RELH'µ)URQWOLQH5HSRUWLQJ(WKRVDQG3HUFHSWLRQ0HGLD&KDOOHQJHVLQWKH6RXWK 3DFLILF¶,QAsia Pacific Viewpoint, Vol. 49, Issue 2, pp. 213-227. 46. Schulenkorf, N. (2010µ6SRUW(YHQWVDQG(WKQLF5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ$WWHPSWLQJWR&UHDWH6RFLDO Change between Sinhalese, Tamil and Muslim Sportspeople in War-WRUQ6UL/DQND¶,Q,QWHUQDWLRQDO Review for the Sociology of Sport, Vol. 45, Issue 3, pp. 273-294. 47. 6HQ.µ5adio Days: Media-3ROLWLFVLQ,QGRQHVLD¶,QPacific Review, Vol. 16, Issue 4, pp. 573-589. 48. Sengupta, A., Long, E. G., Singhal, A. & Shefner-5RJHUV&/µ7KH6DGD6D\V :H Women Have Our Rights': A Gender Analysis of an ICT Initiative in AfghaQLVWDQ¶,QInternational Communication Gazette, Vol. 69, Issue 4, pp. 335-353. 49. 6KDKHHQ0$µ8VHVRI6RFLDO1HWZRUNVDQG,QIRUPDWLRQ6HHNLQJ%HKDYLRURI6WXGHQWV 'XULQJ3ROLWLFDO&ULVHVLQ3DNLVWDQ$&DVH6WXG\¶,QInternational Information and Library Review, Vol. 40, Issue 3, pp. 142-147. 50. 6LUL\XYDVDN8µ3HRSOH¶V0HGLDDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQ5LJKWVLQ,QGRQHVLDDQGWKH 3KLOLSSLQHV¶,QInter-Asia Cultural Studies, Vol. 6, Issue 2, pp. 245-263. Skuse et al. 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WhaODQ-µ7KH3RZHURI)ULHQGV7KH5HJLRQDO$VVLVWDQFH0LVVLRQWR6RORPRQ,VODQGV¶ In Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 47, Issue 5, pp. 627-637. 57. :LFNHWW(µ9LGHRIRU'HYHORSPHQW¶,QVisual Anthropology, Vol. 20, Issue 2/3, pp. 123-141 58. <RGHU-%µ0LQRULW\/DQJXDJH'HYHORSPHQWDQG/LWHUDF\$PRQJ,QWHUQDOO\'LVSODFHG 3HUVRQV,'3V5HIXJHH¶VDQG:DUWLPH&RPPXQLWLHV¶,QCanadian Modern Language Review, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 147-170. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 136 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix IV: Selected Studies (JBI-NOTARI) 1. Bright, D. and Monzani, B. (2010). Final Evaluation Report: Youth and Non-Violence in Guinea, Search for Common Ground with support from US Agency for International Development (USAID), pp. 1-37. 2. Dahal, J., Kafle, K. & Bhattarai, K. (2008) 'Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups Program - (YDOXDWLRQ5HSRUW¶6HDUFKIRU&RPPRQ*URXQGSS-53. 3. (OPTYLVW0 %DVWLDQ6µ3URPRWLQJ0HGLD3URIHVVLRQDOLVP,QGHSHQGHQFHDQG $FFRXQWDELOLW\LQ6UL/DQND¶6,'$(YDOXDWLRQSS 1-52. 4. (OPTYLVW05\ODQGHU/ /XZDVR/µ3HUIRUPDQFH$QDO\VHVRIWKH&RRSHUDWLRQ between Swedish Radio and Radio Republic Indonesia 2000±¶6,'$(YDOXDWLRQVSS 1-38. 5. Everitt, P., Williams, T., & Myers, M. (2004) Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Activities in Sierra Leone, Search for Common Ground (SFCG), Sierra Leone and Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-46. 6. Gordon, G. (2008). A UNHCR Evaluation of Search For A Common Ground Programming in the DRC: OCTOBER (2008), UNCHR and Search for Common Ground (SFCG), pp. 1-51. 7. *RXOH\& .DQ\DWVL4)LQDO(YDOXDWLRQRIWKH3URMHFW³6XSSRUWLQJD&RQYHUVDWLRQRQ <RXWK/HDGHUVKLSLQ&{WHG¶,YRLUH´6HDUFKIRU&RPPRQ*URXQG&{WHG¶,YRLUHDQG86Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, pp. 1-65. 8. Gratton, M. (2010) Children and Youth Program Review - Summer 2010 - Democratic Republic of the Congo, Search for Common Ground, pp. 1-39. 9. Hanson-Alp, R. (2008) Promoting Information and Voice for Transparency on Elections (PIVOT): End of Programme Assessment, Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-20. 10. .DODWKLO6ZLWK/DQJORLV- .DSODQ$µ7RZDUGVD1HZ0RGHO0HGLDDQG Communication in Post-CoQIOLFWDQG)UDJLOH6WDWHV¶7KH,QWHUQDWLRQDO%DQNIRU5HFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG Development/The World Bank Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP), pp. 1-112. 11. Monzani, B. & Adhikari, K. (2009). Final Evaluation Report: Radio for Peace building Nepal, Search for Common Ground, pp. 1-22. 12. Mytton, G. (2005) Evaluation and Review of Hannu Daya in Jigawa State, DFID. pp. 1-20. 13. National Defence University & Quaid-e-Azam University (2011) Pakistan Radio: A Forum for Moderate Voices Project - Evaluation Report Search for Common Ground Pakistan, pp. 1-35. 14. Onuoha, A. & James, A. (2008) Report of Evaluation: Facilitating Civil Society Dialogue and Development to Foster Accountability and Good Governance in Liberia, Search for Common Ground (SFCG), Liberia and Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-20. 15. 2UPH%µ%URDGFDVWLQJLQ81%OXH7KH8QH[DPLQHG3DVWDQG8QFHUWDLQ)XWXUHRI 3HDFHNHHSLQJ5DGLR¶&HQWHUIRU,QWHUQDWLRQDO0HGLD$VVLVWDQFH&,0$)HEUXDU\6, 2010, pp. 1-74. 16. Paluck, E. L. & Green, D. P. (2006) La Benevolencija Reconciliation Radio Project: Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 137 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 0XVHNZH\D¶V)LUVW<HDU(YDOXDWLRQ5HSRUW5ZDQGD5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ5DGLR'RHVLW:RUN"SS-43 17. Shepler, S., Omideyi, O., & Lue Clark, C. (2006). Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Programming in Liberia, Search for Common Ground (SFCG), Liberia, pp. 1-37. 18. 6LJDO,µ'LJLWDO0HGLDLQ&RQIOLFW-3URQH6RFLHWLHV¶&HQWHUIRU,QWHUQDWLRQDO0HGLD Assistance (CIMA), pp. 1-40. 19. Street, A., Smith, J. & Mollett, H. (2008) Consolidating the peace? Views from Sierra Leone and Burundi on the United Nations Peace building Commission, Action Aid International, Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD) and CARE International, pp. 1-42. 20. Tagor Lubis, I. and Nainggolan SV, M. (2004). Common Ground Indonesia Full Program Evaluation Report, Common Ground Indonesia, pp. 1-40. 21. von Kaltenborn-6WDFKDX+µ7KH0LVVLQJ/LQN)RVWHULQJ3RVLWLYH&LWL]HQ-State Relations in Post-Conflict EnYLURQPHQWV¶7KH,QWHUQDWLRQDO%DQNIRU5HFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG Development/The World Bank Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP), pp. 1-124. 22. :DKQ\L(UL\DQWR :DKQ\L(VWLµ5DGLR&RQQHFWLQJ3DSXD7KH,PSDFWVRI5DGLR3LNon $QHRQ&RPPXQLWLHVLQ.XULPD<DKXNLPR3DSXD¶SS-64. 23. :RUOG%DQNµ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ&RPSOHWLRQDQG5HVXOWV5HSRUW,'$-38250) On a Credit in the Amount of SDR 15.7 Million (US $22 Million Equivalent) to the Government of the Islamic RepublLFRI$IJKDQLVWDQIRUD(PHUJHQF\&RPPXQLFDWLRQV'HYHORSPHQW3URMHFW¶3ROLF\8QLW*OREDO Information and Communication Technologies Department, South Asia Regional Office, pp. 1-40. 24. :RUOG%DQNEµ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ&RPSOHWLRQDQG5HVXOWV5HSRUWIDA-35810) On a Credit in the Amount of SDR 17.50 Million (US $22.56 Million Equivalent) to Nepal for a Telecommunications 6HFWRU5HIRUP3URMHFW¶3ROLF\8QLW*OREDO,QIRUPDWLRQDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQ7HFKQRORJLHV'HSDUWPHQW South Asia Regional Office, pp. 1-63. 25. World Bank (2010c) Implementation, Completion and Results Report (IDA-39850) On a Credit in the Amount of SDR 17.1 Million (US $25.0 Million Equivalent) to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia for an Information and Communication Technology Assisted Development Project (ICTAD), Transport, Water and ICT Sector Department, Ethiopia Country Department, pp. 1-106. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 138 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix V: Appraisal instruments QARI Appraisal instrument Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 139 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 NOTARI Appraisal instrument Skuse et al. 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Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 142 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix VII: Included studies QARI Study Methods Participants Intervention Outcomes Notes Using  the  case  study  of   Liberian  Government,  Mobile   Unique  factors  influence  the   telecommunications  policy  in   Phone  Operators,  Liberian   policy  process  in  developing   Liberia,  Best  and  Thakur   Telecommunications   Literature  Review,     post-­conflict  settings.  A  better   (2009)  demonstrate  that   Corporation  (LTC),  Ministry  of   Development  of   Qualitative  Semi-­Structured   understanding  of  these  factors   theories  which  are  designed  to   Best,  M.  L.  &  Thakur,  D.,  20092 Post  and  Telecommunications   telecommunications  policy  in  a   Interviews,     could  improve  the   analyse  the  public  policy   (MPT),  Development   post-­conflict  setting. Policy  Analysis. development  and   process  in  stable  countries  do   Organisations,  Elite  actors,   implementation  of  public   not  account  for  the  conditions   Americo-­Liberians,   policies  in  these  settings. present  in  post-­conflict   Indigenous-­Liberians. settings. T4D  Practitioners  and   participants.  Four  different   3HRSOH¶VH[SHULHQces  of   organisatioQV3HRSOHV¶ Article  is  a  compelling  account   Participant  observation,   community  theatre  or  T4D   Popular  Theatre  (PPT),   of  the  difficulties  faced  by   Personal  reflection,     during  and  after  periods  of   Shining  Home  for  the   It  is  extremely  difficult  but  very   Theatre  for  Development   Qualitative  email  interviews,   violence  and  the  difficulties   Community  (SHOFCO),  Youth   important  to  conduct  Theatre   practitioners  working  in  volatile   Connelly,  C.,  20108 Qualitative  face-­to  face   faced  by  T4D  practitioners   for  Youth  Service  Organisation   for  Development  activities   settings.  However,  the  author   interviews,     ZRUNLQJLQDQµHQYLURQPHQWRI DQG5(3$&7('¶V5DSLG during  and  post-­conflict. does  not  rigorously  evaluate   Theatre  for  Development   SROLWLFDOVWULIHDQGYLROHQFH¶S Effective  Participatory  Action  in   the  impact  of  a  specific   (T4D). 65).  The  role  of  T4D  in  the   Community  Theatre  Education   intervention. peace  process. and  Development)  Magnet   Theatre  (p.  65). Local  media  projects  can   Donor  agencies,  Rwandan  and   The  strengths  and  weaknesses   Literature  Review,     contribute  to  peace-­building.   A  detailed  consideration  of  the   Bosnian  National   of  local  media  projects  that   Qualitative  Interview,   However,  the  factors  that   factors  that  influence  the   Curtis,  D.  E.  A.,  20009 Governments,  Agents   promote  peace-­building.   Media/Policy  Analysis,   contribute  to  the  success  of   effectiveness  of  local  media   contributing  to  local  media   Focuses  on  projects  that  use   Programme  Evaluation. such  activities  need  to  be   peace-­building  projects. projects. television  and  radio  (p.  143). further  evaluated. Author  examines  the  diverse   Literature  Review,     Legality  of  media  interventions   Article  provides  a  sound   Foreign  Agencies,  Military   positions  of  different   Erni,  J.  N.,  200910 Legal  Analysis,     carried  out  by  foreign  forces  in   analysis  of  the  legality  of  media   Forces,  Media  organisations. intergovernmental  agencies,   Media  Analysis. post-­conflict  settings  (p.  868). interventions. donor  nations  and   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 143 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 non-­governmental   organisations  regarding  the   legality  of  media  interventions   in  post-­conflict  settings.  Author   argues  that  there  should  be  a   strong  presumption  against   interventions  and  a  high   standard  of  proof   demonstrating  abuse. µ&KLOGUHQ¶RUµ\RXQJSHRSOH¶LQ Bhutanese  refugee  camps,   although  the  author  notes  that   these  categories  are  culturally   constructed.  Evans  (2008)   Author  concludes  that   Participant  Observation,     argues  that  despite  the   peace-­building  education   Field  work,     culturally-­specificity  of   $QDO\VHVFKLOGUHQ¶V programs  may  have   An  in-­depth  and  well   Individual  Qualitative   FKLOGKRRGFRQFHSWVµWKHPRGHO experiences  of  peace-­building   unintended  consequences.   researched  account  of  the   Evans,  R.,  200812 Interviews,     of  childhood  prevalent  in  the   education  in  Bhutanese   Young  people  can  use  the   complexities  of  peace   Focus  Groups,     Global  North  exerts   refugee  camps  in  Nepal. skills  developed  in  these   education  programs. Drawing  and  Writing  Activities. ZLGHVSUHDGLQIOXHQFH¶S projects  to  campaign  for  violent   The  impact  of  this  concept  of   political  movements. childhood  is  explored  in  the   article.  Participants  in  the   Bhutanese  Refugee  Children   Forum  (BRCF). Article  draws  on  statistical   evidence  to  illustrate  changes   Authors  argue  that  their  study   in  knowledge,  belief  and   provides  conclusive  evidence   Pre  and  Post  Civic  Education   behaviours  following  direct  or   Numerous  individuals   that  exposure  to  adult  civic   Finkel,  S.  E.  &  Smith,  A.  E.,   Survey  (Likert  Scale),     The  direct  and  indirect  effects   indirect  exposure  to  civic   VXUYH\HGLQYDULRXVµZDYHV¶RI education  training  can  increase   201113 Various  cohorts  including   of  civic-­education. education.  However,  no   the  project. political  knowledge  and   non-­attendance  control  group. qualitative  data  was  gathered   participation  and  reduce   which  means  that  authors  do   political  intolerance. not  focus  on  the  experiences  of   specific  individuals. Communication  Regulatory   Examines  the  role  of   Author  concludes  that   Article  is  a  well  researched   Literature  Review,   Frère,  M.  S.,  200914 Bodies:  Haute  Autorité  des   Communication  Regulatory   reconstructing  the  media   literature  review  that  draws  on   Policy/Media  Analysis. Médias  (HAM)  -­  DRC,  Conseil   Bodies  in  promoting   sector  post-­conflict  is  a  difficult   both  scholarly  sources  and   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 144 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 national  de  la  communication   peace-­building  and  media   task.  Communication   grey  literature.  Frere  (2009)   (CRC)  -­  Burundi,  High  Council   strengthening  after  conflict,  in   regulatory  bodies  can  play  a   uses  case  studies  to  examine   of  the  Press  (HCP)  -­  Rwanda.   particular,  when  the  media  has   key  role  in  the  development  of   the  complexities  of  media   Journalists,  Politicians,  Foreign   contributed  to  violence. a  media  sector  that  is   reconstruction  in  post-­conflict   Aid  Donors,  Military  Forces. professional  and  accountable.   settings  and  identifies  many   However,  these  bodies  often   factors  that  influence  the   lack  the  resources  to   effectiveness  of   effectively  fulfil  this  role. communication  regulatory   bodies  in  these  contexts. Author  concludes  that  a   number  of  improvements  need   to  be  made  to  the  telecentres  in   order  to  increase  their   effectiveness.  In  particular,  the   author  found  that  the   A  succinct  account  of  an   Focus  Groups,     telecentres  were  poorly   ICT4D  project.  The  authors   Assessment  of  the  e-­Sri  Lanka   Observation,     Telecentre  Operators  and   promoted,  under-­staffed  and   evaluate  the  impact  of  the  TDP   Gamage,  P.  &  Halpin,  E.  F.,   ,QLWLDWLYH¶V7HOHFHQWUH Key-­Informant  Interviews,  User   Users,  People  in  proximity  of   reliant  on  subsidies.   and  consider  how  it  could  be   200715 Development  Program  (TDP)   Interviews,     the  telecentre. Furthermore,  some  of  their   further  improved.  At  times,  the   (p.  698). Document  Analysis. services  were  not  used  or   findings  are  a  little  brief  and   valued  by  the  community.   could  be  further  substantiated. These  issues  need  to  be   addressed  in  order  to  improve   the  sustainability  of  the  centres   DQGWKHLULPSDFWRQWKHµGLJLWDO GLYLGH¶ Author  concludes  that  C4D   initiatives  that  are  designed  to   The  researcher  (who  was  also   reduce  gender  inequalities,  like   Very  good  use  of  observations   7KHODXQFKRIDZRPHQ¶VUDGLR working  in  a  role  as  acting   Radio  Sahar,  need  to  produce   and  field  notes  to  examine  the   station  Radio  Sahar  (Radio   radio  station  manager)  and   content  that  is  representative   internal  workings  of  the  radio   Dawn)  in  Afghanistan  with  the   four  female  founding  members   of  their  target  audience.   station.  AuWKRU¶VFRQFOXVLRQV support  of  a  Canadian  media   Kamal,  S.,  200727 Participant  Observation of  the  radio  station.  Three  of   Inadequate  audience  research   about  the  representativeness   development  organisation   these  women  were  urban,   can  result  in  programming  that   of  radio  station  content  could   called  the  Institute  for  Media,   upper-­class  Dari  speakers  and   reflects  the  interests  and   have  been  further   Policy  and  Civil  Society   one  was  a  rural,  middle-­class   concerns  of  a  select  number  of   substantiated  with  data   (IMPACS). Pashto  speaker. radio  station  members.   gathered  from  radio  listeners. Self-­censorship  also   contributes  to  the  dominance   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 145 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 of  content  favoured  by  western   donor  agencies  and   programming  that  is  likely  to  be   accepted  by  local  stakeholders   such  as  the  militia. The  use  of  new  communication   technologies  for  electoral   Authors  demonstrate  that  new   campaigning  by  a  political   communications  technologies   Article  illustrates  the  new   party  called  the  General   are  a  cost-­effective  way  for   communications  technologies   Qualitative  face-­to-­face   Assembly  Binding  Women  for   political  parties  to  reach  voters.   can  be  used  in  novel  ways  in   interviews,     Officials  from  GABRIELA,   Reforms,  Integrity,  Equality,   However,  some  forms  of  new   Karan,  K.,  Gimeno,  J.  D.  M.  &   political  campaigns.  However,   Media  Analysis,     contributors  to  GABRIELA   Leadership  and  Action   communications  technologies   Tandoc  E.  Jr,  200928 there  is  a  limited  focus  on   Policy  Analysis,     online  forums  and  websites. (GABRIELA).  The  GABRIELA   are  more  accessible  than   development  or  the  impact  of   Site  mapper. party  was  created  in  1984  to   others.  In  the  Philippines   these  new  technologies  on  the   help  overthrow  the  dictatorship   campaigning  via  mobile   peace/reconstruction  process. DQGSURPRWHZRPHQ¶VULJKWV phones  was  more  effective   The  party  has  limited  financial   than  utilising  the  Internet. resources. Mobilising  communities  to   prevent  domestic  violence   Initial  findings  on  VAW   Community  mobilisation  to   holds  promise,  but  presents   prevention/mobilisation  that  is   Michau,  L.,  200736 Personal  reflection. Community  members. counter  violence  against   many  challenges  such  as  over   of  relevance  to  the  wider  issue   women. community  ownership,  as  well   of  violence/conflict. as  the  length  and  complexity  of   the  process. For  journalism  training   interventions  to  be  effective  it  is   Short  paper,  based  on   Journalism  training  to  improve   critical  that  work  is  undertaken   personal  reflection,  but  with   Miller,  S.,  200637 Personal  reflection. Media  professionals. accuracy,  impartiality  and   with  senior  staff  and  owners  to   some  interesting  notes  on  the   responsibility  during  conflict. ensure  that  higher  standards  of   implementation  issues  faced   journalism  are  encouraged  and   by  the  initiative. supported. Engagement  with  state  media   Useful  paper  that  highlights  the   The  promotion  of   can  yield  results  in  terms  of   outcomes  associated  with  a   Milligan,  S.  &  Mytton,  G.,   Radio  professionals,  listeners   accountability,  transparency   Personal  reflection. shifting  editorial  practices  and   C4D  initiative  to  support  more   200938 and  external  consultants. and  democracy  through  media   improving  independence.   effective  government  service   through  a  radio  talk-­show. Sustaining  this  independence   delivery.  The  paper  lacks  a   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 146 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 remains  the  key  challenge. clear  methodological   framework  and  is  based  on  the   authors'  experience  as   advisers,  so  there  is  potential   for  bias. Difficult  paper  to  interrogate,   the  findings  are  cautioned   against  by  the  author  for  a   Examination  of  the  role  of  a   Listeners  of  both  the  talk-­show   range  of  perceived   radio  talk-­show  and  radio  soap   and  soap  opera  discussed  the   Poor  and  violence  affected   methodological  difficulties,  but   opera  in  promoting  conflict   content  more  often  but  their   Paluck,  E.  L.,  201043 Survey. radio  talk-­show  and  radio  soap   a  key  aspect  lies  with  the  lack   reduction  in  promoting   intolerance  towards  other   opera  listeners. of  a  behaviour  change  focus  or   intergroup  discussion  and   groups  hardened  as  a  result  of   BCC  messages  in  the  content   cooperation.   being  exposed  to  such  content. which  can  lead  to  discussion   but  no  clear  understanding  of  a   course  of  action. Comparison  of  the  relative   impacts  of  a  health  (Urunana)   That  C4D  interventions  can   Mixed  method  (qualitative  and   and  reconciliation   Content  analysis,     lead  to  behavioural  shifts  in   quantitative)  study  that   Community  members  (from   (Musekewaya)  radio  soap   Paluck,  E.  L.  &  Green,  D.  P.,   quantitative  surveying,   political  culture  and  enhance   provides  some  useful   genocide,  pygmy,  prison  and   opera,  with  a  view  to   200941 qualitative  individual  interviews   community  ownership  of   behavioural  insights  into   general  populations). establishing  the  effect  on   and  focus  group  discussions. problems  requiring  collective   collective  responses  to   listeners  in  terms  of  promoting   action. edutainment. independent  thought  and   collective  action. Distribution  of  40,000  solar   Projects  that  target  access  to   powered  digital  audio  players   and  use  of  ICTs  for  women  can   Useful  study  of  ICTs,  gender   (called  Sada)  to  21  provinces   play  a  significant  role  in   and  access  in  the  context  of  a   Sengupta,  A.,  Long,  E.  G.,   to  enhance  women's  access  to   In-­depth  interviews  and  focus   Women,  media  and   empowerment  and  realisation   conservative  society  in  which   Singhal,  A.  &  Shefner-­Rogers,   and  use  of  ICTs.  Each  device   groups. development  professionals. of  women's  human  rights,  as   technology  access  is  typically   C.  L.,  200748 contained  15  hours  of  civic   well  as  the  enhancement  of   constructed  as  a  'male'   education  material  that   family  and  community   domain. promoted  peace,  national  unity   dialogue. and  democracy. Participatory  techniques,  focus   Participatory  media  content   C4D  interventions  can  reach   The  paper  provides  a  useful   Tacchi,  J.,  Watkins,  J.  &   Media  professionals,   group  discussions,   creation  by  poor  people  in   out  to  marginalised   insight  into  new  combinations   Keerthirathne,  K.,  200952 community  members. interviewing. disadvantaged  communities   communities  with  new  and   of  ICTs  and  the  potential  to   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 147 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 through  use  of  the  e-­Tuktuk   traditional  communication   enhance  the  voice  of  the  poor   multi-­media  platform. technologies  to  harness  the   in  the  public  sphere. creativity  of  poor  people  and   help  them  to  define  and   address  their  information   needs.  In  doing  so,  this  helps   stimulate  a  great  diversity  of   voices  within  communities  and   encourages  local  debate  in   issues  that  affect  them. Hate  speech  is  a  destructive   tool  used  in  conflict  and   genocide  that  can  be  fought   through  legislation  and  social   action.  Public  sensitisation  to   Important  paper  that  highlights   Mass  media  professionals,   Vollhardt,  J.,  Coutin,  M.,  Staub,   Discourse  analysis,     hate  speech,  how  to  recognise   the  negative  uses  of  hate   politicians,  human  rights   Effects  of  mass  mediated  hate   E.,  Weiss,  G.  &  Deflander,  J.,   textual  analysis,     it  and  reject  it  are  critical  to   speech  and  some  mechanisms   advocates,  development   speech  and  how  to  counter  it. 200655 analysis  of  secondary  data. peace  and  stability.   for  countering  its  harmful   practitioners. Educational  programs   effects. (radio-­based)  and  sensitisation   campaigns  are  critical  in   contexts  in  which  hate  speech   is  promoted.  are  essential Transparency  and   accountability  can  be   enhanced  in  conflict   The  paper  provides  some  rich   Local  commentators,   interventions  through  effective   contextual  detail  concerning   journalists,  civil  society   local  participation   why  RAMSI  was  a  success  and   In-­depth  interviews,  document   representatives,  community   Regional  Assistance  Mission  to   mechanisms.  Such   points  to  effective   Whalan,  J.,  201056 and  secondary  data  analysis. leaders,  public  officials,   Solomon  Islands  (RAMSI). mechanisms  help  interventions   communication  as  one  of  the   international  civil  service   to  understand  the  power   reasons  the  intervention  was   personnel,  RAMSI  personnel. dynamics  that  may  derail   regarded  as  a  legitimate  power   peace  processes  and  to   broker. enhance  their  legitimacy  to  act   in  pursuing  peace. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 148 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 NOTARI Study Methods Participants Intervention Outcomes Notes The  evaluators  demonstrate   WKDWWKHµ<RXWKDQG Participants  in  the  project  titled   Non-­9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶ µ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­Violence  in   program  effectively  increased   *XLQHD¶DQGSURMHFW Arguments  are  logically   SDUWLFLSDQWV¶SHDFHIXOFRQIOLFW   beneficiaries  (e.g.  people  who   presented.  Evidence  is  used  to   The  authors  utilised  primary   Sound  program  evaluation  that   resolution  skills  and  their   listened  to  the  radio  programs),   VXEVWDQWLDWHWKHHYDOXDWRUV¶ and  secondary  sources  to   reflects  on  the  strengths  and   knowledge  of  human  rights  and   Bright,  D.  &  Monzani,  B.,  20101 local  government,  project   claims  and  the  limitations  and   evaluate  the  outcomes  of  the   weaknesses  of  the  program   civic  duties.  However,  several   evaluators,  project  staff  from   weaknesses  of  both  the  project   µ<RXWKDQG1RQ-­Violence  in   and  identifies  the  limitations  of   limitations  of  the  program   Search  for  Common  Ground   and  the  evaluation  are   *XLQHD¶SURMHFW the  evaluation  process. including  the  lack  of  female   (SFCG)  and  project  funders   considered. participants  were  noted.  The   (US  Agency  for  International   evaluators  also  state  that  their   Development,  USAID). findings  were  limited  by  time   restraints. The  report  is  insightful  and   draws  on  empirical  evidence  to   assess  the  impacts  of  the   project.  However,  some  of  the   findings  are  generalised  and   Authors  conclude  that  the   Participants  in  the  project  titled   could  have  been  more   µ&KLOGUHQ$VVRFLDWHGZLWK µ&KLOGUHQ$VVRFLDWHGZLWK VXFFLQFW7KHµ/HVVRQV/HDUQW¶ Armed  Forces  and  Armed   Armed  Forces  and  Armed   section  of  the  report  could  have   The  authors  utilised  primary   *URXSV3URJUDP¶GLGUHVXOWLQ *URXSV3URJUDP¶DQGSURMHFW been  more  clearly  linked  to  the   (qualitative  interviews,   Authors  reflect  on  a  number  of   behaviour  change,  although   beneficiaries  (e.g.  people  who   case  studies  and  quotations   quantitative  survey,  field  visits,   factors  that  influenced  the   the  success  of  the  project  was   listened  to  the  radio  programs),   from  project  participants   focus  groups)  and  secondary   impact  of  the  project.  However,   Dahal,  J.,  Kafle,  K.  &  Bhattarai,   mitigated  by  a  number  of   local  government,  project   discussed  earlier  in  the  report.   sources  (project  documents   some  sections  of  the   K.,  20082 factors.  In  particular,  the   evaluators,  project  staff  from   For  example,  the  lesson  that   etc.)  to  evaluate  the  outcomes   evaluation  are  poorly  written   DXWKRU¶VIRXQGWKDWWKHXVHRI Search  for  Common  Ground   µFRQWLQXRXVLQIRUPDWLRQIORZLQ RIWKHµ&KLOGUHQ$VVRFLDWHG and  this  reduces  the  clarity  of   cultural  activities  like  Dohari   (SFCG)  Nepal,  partner   the  community  helps  to  change   with  Armed  Forces  and  Armed   the  findings. were  an  effective  way  to  deliver   organisations  (e.g.  Antenna   WKHPLQGVHWRIWKHSHRSOH¶ *URXSV3URJUDP¶SURMHFW behaviour  change  messages   Foundation  Nepal)  and  project   (Dahal,  Kafle  and  Bhattarai   and  to  initiate   funders  (UNICEF). 2008,  p.  29)  could  be   inter-­generational  dialogue. re-­worded  to  more  explicitly   illustrate  how  information  flow   facilitates  behaviour  change   DQGZKDWDµFRQWLQXRXV LQIRUPDWLRQIORZ¶DFWXDOO\ Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 149 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 involves. Authors  evaluate  the  impact  of   Participants  in  Search  for   SFCG  activities  in  Sierra   $XWKRUVFRQFOXGHWKDW6)&*¶V Common  Ground  (SFCG)   Leone,  including  Talking  Drum   activities  in  Sierra  Leone,   projects  in  Sierra  Leone,  and   Studios  (TDS)  and  the   colloquially  referred  to  as  TDS,   project  beneficiaries  (e.g.   Community  Peace  Building   A  well  written  report  that   have  been  highly  effective   people  who  listened  to  the   A  well  structured  and  thorough   Unit  (CPU).  These  two   illustrates  the  impact  of   DUJXLQJWKDWWKHLUµDOOLDQFH radio  programs,  community   report  that  draws  on  a  wide   interconnected  projects  utilise   6)&*¶VZRUNLQ6LHUUD/HRQH Everitt,  P.,  Williams,  T.  &   EXLOGLQJ¶DSSURDFKKDVPDQ\ members),  local  government,   range  of  sources  to  examine   the  media  to  promote   and  provides  clear   Myers,  M.,  20045 benefits.  They  note  that  the   paramount  chiefs,  project   WKHLPSDFWRI6)&*¶VDFWLYLWLHV peace-­building  and  to  achieve   recommendations  for  the   success  of  TDS  has  created   evaluators,  project  staff  from   in  Sierra  Leone. 6)&*¶VDLPRIµVWUengthening   future  strategic  directions  of   some  problems  and  that  TDS   SFCG,  partner  organisations,   communities  to  participate  in   TDS. will  face  new  challenges  as   and  project  funders   building  a  tolerance,  inclusive   they  begin  preparing  an  exit   (Department  for  International   society  for  a  sustainable   strategy. Development,  DFID). SHDFH¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG Myers  2004,  p.  8). The  negative  impacts  of   Participants  in  Search  for   6)&*¶VZRUNDUHRXWZHLJKHG Common  Ground  (SFCG)   by  the  positive  impacts.  Author   A  concise  examination  of  the   projects  in  the  DRC,  and   concludes  that  increased   LPSDFWVRI6)&*¶VZRUNLQWKH project  beneficiaries  (e.g.   The  authors  utilised  primary   communication  between  the   DRC.  The  strengths  and   people  who  listened  to  the   sources  (qualitative  interviews,   UNHCR  and  SFCG  would   ZHDNQHVVHVRI6)&*¶V A  thorough  report  that  draws   radio  programs,  community   quantitative  surveys  and   enhance  project  success  and   relationship  with  the  UNHCR  is   on  a  wide  range  of  sources  to   Gordon,  G.,  20086 members),  local  government,   ethnographic  observation)  to   create  more  opportunities  for   also  examined  which  provides   H[DPLQHWKHLPSDFWRI6)&*¶V project  evaluators,  project  staff   HYDOXDWHWKHLPSDFWRI6)&*¶V collaboration.  He  also  indicates   important  insights  into  the   activities  in  the  DRC. from  SFCG,  partner   work  in  the  DRC  over  a  two   that  a  lack  of  baseline   practicalities  of  alliances   organisations,  and  project   year  period  from  2006  to  2008. information  and  inadequate   between  NGOs  and   funders  (United  Nations  Higher   evaluation  and  monitoring   international  development   Commissioner  for  Refugees,   procedures  can  make  it  difficult   agencies. UNHCR). to  assess  the  impacts  of  C4D   projects. Participants  in  Search  for   The  authors  gathered   A  thorough  report  that  draws   Common  Ground  (SFCG)   A  well  structured  report  that   qualitative  and  quantitative   AuthoU¶VLOOXVWUDWHWKDWWKH on  a  wide  range  of  sources  to   projeFWLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHWLWOHG clearly  sets  out  the  scope  of   evidence  to  evaluation  the   project  has  had  a  significant   examine  the  impact  of  the   Gouley,  C.  &  Kanyatsi,  Q.,   µ6XSSRUWLQJD&RQYHUVDWLRQRQ the  evaluation  and   LPSDFWRIWKHµ6XSSRUWLQJD positive  impact  on  Ivorian   µ6XSSRUWLQJD&RQYHUVDWLRQRQ 20107 Youth  Leadership  in  Cote   systematically  addresses  a   Conversation  on  Youth   youth.  Areas  for  improvement   Youth  Leadership  in  Cote   G¶,YRLUH¶7KHWDUJHWHG series  of  identified  questions. /HDGHUVKLSLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUH¶ are  also  identified. G¶,YRLUH¶SURMHFW%RWK intervention  group  were  young   project. qualitative  and  quantitative   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 150 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 SHRSOHOLYLQJLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUH data  are  utilised  to  examine  the   Evaluation  also  represents   strengths  and  weaknesses  of   other  beneficiaries  (e.g.  people   the  project. who  listened  to  the  radio   programs,  community   members),  local  government,   project  evaluators,  project  staff   from  SFCG,  partner   organisations,  and  project   funders  (US  Department  of   State  Bureau  of  Democracy,   Human  Rights  and  Labor). Report  evaluates  the  impact  of   WKHµ3URPRWLQJ,QIRUPDWLRQDQG Voice  for  Transparency  on   EleFWLRQV¶3,927SURMHFW This  project  was  co-­ordinated   by  the  Department  for   International  Development   (DFID)  and  involved  a  number   The  impact  of  projects   of  International   Report  is  a  clear  and  concise   designed  to  promote  civic   non-­government  organisations   account  of  the  strengths  and   education  and  participation  in   who  were  partnered  with   weaknesses  of  each   the  lead  up  to  elections  can  be   A  brief  evaluation  that  provides   national  organisations  to   component  of  the  PIVOT   maximised  if  planning  and   The  evaluation  draws  on   a  clear  discussion  of  the   achieve  specific  outcomes.   program.  Because  of  the  short   support  starts  early  and  delays   primary  (qualitative  interviews,   factors  that  influenced  the   These  organisations  included;;   length  of  the  evaluation  and  the   are  avoided.  Hanson-­Alp   DQGµ/HVVRQV/HDUQLQJ¶HYHQWV effectiveness  of  the  PIVOT   Hanson-­Alp,  R.,  20089 Foundation  Hirondelle,  BBC   broad  scope  of  the  project,   (2008)  demonstrates  that   and  secondary  (project   project  and  identifies   World  Service  Trust  (BBC   each  output  is  not  assessed  in   co-­ordinating  a  large  project   documentation)  to  assess  the   improvements  that  could  be   WST),  Search  for  Common   great  detail.  However  despite   that  involves  multiple   impact  of  the  PIVOT  project. implemented  in  preparation  for   Ground  (SFCG),  the   its  brevity,  the  evaluation  is  a   organisations  poses  numerous   the  2012  elections. Independent  Radio  Network   well  written  consideration  of   challenges.  She  identifies   (IRN),  the  National  Democratic   the  factors  that  influenced  the   information  sharing  as  a  critical   Institute,  Oxfam,  Westminster   effectiveness  of  the  project factor  that  influences  the   Foundation  for  Democracy   success  of  complex  projects. (WFD),  Fourah  Bay  CoOOHJH¶V Department  of  Mass   Communications,  Sierra   /HRQH¶V1DWLRQDO(OHFWLRQ Watch  and  50/50.  The   evaluation  is  based  on   interviews  with  staff  from  these   Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 151 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 organisations  and  other  project   beneficiaries  and  stakeholders   including  the  councillor  of   paramount  chiefs.  In  addition,   the  report  also  draws  on   discussions  held  with  various   SHRSOHZKRDWWHQGHGµ/HVVRQV /HDUQLQJ¶HYHQWVLQFOXGLQJ community  radio  station  staff. Report  is  an  evaluation  of   A  number  of  clear   selected  CG  projects  (Conflict   This  report  clearly   recommendations  are  given   Transformation  Radio   demonstrates  the  importance   Participants  in  selected   and  the  authors  critically  reflect   Programme  (Meteng   of  local  participation  in  C4D   Common  Ground  (CG)   on  the  strengths  and   Pangkalan),  Conflict   SURMHFWV7KHDXWKRU¶VFRQWHQG The  report  is  insightful  and   projects  in  Indonesia,  and   weaknesses  of  the  project.   Transformation  Comic  Book   that  the  impact  of  Common   draws  on  empirical  evidence  to   project  beneficiaries  (e.g.   However,  some  of  the  findings   Programme  (Gebora)  and   *URXQG¶VDFWLYLWLHVLQ,QGRQHVLD assess  the  impacts  of  the   Tagor  Lubis,  I.  &  Nainggolan   people  who  read  the  comic   are  very  brief  and  could  have   Community  Based  Conflict   could  have  been  strengthened   project.  However,  there  are   SV.  M.,  200420 books,  community  members),   been  discussed  in  more  detail.   Transformation  Programme)   if  they  had  more  effectively   some  sections  that  could  have   local  government,  project   At  times,  not  enough   that  utilised  both  primary   liaised  with  locals  and  gained  a   been  more  carefully  edited  to   evaluators  and  project  staff   background  information  is   (qualitative  interviews,  focus   better  understanding  of  the   improve  their  clarity. from  CG. given  which  means  that  some   group  discussions,  participant   political,  cultural  and  economic   of  the  examples  are  difficult  to   observation)  and  secondary   context  in  which  their  projects   follow. (project  documents  etc.)   were  implemented. sources. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 152 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix VIII: Excluded studies QARI %DUNHU0-µ'HPRFUDF\RU3RO\DUFK\"86-funded media developments in Afghanistan and ,UDTSRVW¶,QMedia, Culture and Society, Vol. 30, Issue 1, pp. 109-130. Reason for exclusion: Poorly defined methodology, with no clear ethical statement. %RXOWRQ$ µ(GXFDWLRQIRU'HYHORSPHQW&'IRU3HDFH3URGXFLQJWKH³*OREDOO\&RPSHWLWLYH´ &KLOG¶,QGeoforum, Vol. 41, Issue 2, pp. 329-336. Reason for exclusion: No ethical statement provided. Plus, on assessment limited coverage of factors associated with successful C4D implementation found. %UDWLF 9 µ([DPLQLQJ 3HDFH-2ULHQWDWHG 0HGLD LQ $UHDV RI 9LROHQW &RQIOLFW¶ ,Q International Communication Gazette, Vol. 70, Issue 6, pp. 487-503. Reason for exclusion: Limited methodological quality and limited detail on factors that contribute to effective C4D implementation. %UHWKHUWRQ':HVWRQ- =EDU9µ6FKRRO-Based Peace Building in Sierra /HRQH¶,QTheory into Practice, Vol. 44, Issue 4, pp. 355-362. Reason for exclusion: Limited methodological quality, plus no clear coverage of C4D, paper examines formal education only. %UDXFKOHU % µ5HOLJLRXV &RQIOLFWV LQ &\EHUDJH¶ ,Q Citizenship Studies, Vol. 11, Issue 4, pp. 329-347. Reason for exclusion: Limited methodological quality and no coverage of C4D, paper examines religion conflict and the Internet. &HOGUDQ'µ7KH3KLOLSSLQHV606DQG&LWL]HQVKLS¶,QDevelopment Dialogue, Vol. 2002, Issue 1, pp. 91-103. Reason for exclusion: No evidence of methodological consideration. Paper is of marginal relevance to C4D in fragile states. Essien, E. J., Mgbere, O., Monjok, E., Ekong, E., Holstad, M. M., & Kalichman, S. C. (2011) µ(IIHFWLveness of a Video-Based Motivational Skills-Building HIV Risk-Reduction Intervention for )HPDOH0LOLWDU\3HUVRQQHO¶,QSocial Science and Medicine, Vol. 72, Issue 1, pp. 63-71. Reason for exclusion: On close examination the content of this paper was deemed to not be relevant to fragile states. In addition, the bulk of the findings are quantitative. *D]DOL(µ1HJRWLDWLQJ3XEOLFDQG&RPPXQLW\0HGLDLQ3RVW-6XKDUWR,QGRQHVLD¶,QJavnost, Vol. 10, Issue 1, pp. 85-100. Reason for exclusion: Limited e[SODQDWLRQRIHWKLFDOVWDQFHRUUHFRJQLWLRQRIWKHUHVHDUFKHU¶V own influence on the research. Also, lacks sufficient detail on C4D interventions, or implementation factors. *UHJRU\ 6 µ7UDQVQDWLRQDO 6WRU\WHOOLQJ +XPDQ 5LJKWV :,71(66 DQG YLGHR DGYRFDF\¶ ,Q Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 153 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 American Anthropologist, Vol. 108, Issue 1, pp. 195-204. Reason for exclusion: /DFNVSDUWLFLSDQWV¶YRLFHVDQGUHIOHFWLRQRQLQIOXHQFHRIWKHUHVHDUFKHU over the researched. Does not address implementation issues or constraints, though examines an interesting area. +DWWRWXZD 6 µ1HZ 0HGLD DQG &RQIOLFW 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQ LQ 6UL /DQND¶ ,Q IDS Bulletin, Vol. 40, Issue 2, pp. 28-35. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality and sufficient explanation, as well as providing insufficient detail on C4D interventions, or implementation factors. +LOKRUVW ' YDQ /HHXZHQ 0 µ*URXQGLQJ /RFDO 3HDFH 2UJDQLVDWLRQV $ &DVH 6WXG\ RI 6RXWKHUQ6XGDQ¶,QJournal of Modern African Studies, Vol. 43, Issue 4, pp. 537-563. Reason for exclusion: Lacks SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ YRLFHV DQG DOVR D clear focus on C4D in fragile states. +LQWRQ5.RSL0$SD$6LO$.LQL0.DL-*XPDQ< &RZOH\'µ7KH.XS:RPHQ for Peace Approach to Peacebuilding: Taking the Lead in the Papua New GuineD1DWLRQDO(OHFWLRQV¶,Q Gender and Development, Vol. 16, Issue 3, pp. 523-533. Reason for exclusion: Following methodological assessment the paper was excluded for lack of sufficient detail on C4D interventions or implementation factors. Hollander, E., HiGD\DW'1 '¶+DHQHQV/µ&RPPXQLW\5DGLRLQ,QGRQHVLD$5H-invention of 'HPRFUDWLF&RPPXQLFDWLRQ¶,QJavnost, Vol. 13, Issue 3, pp. 59-74. Reason for exclusion: The paper lack detail on the various implementation factors that contributed to its impact. ,EUDKLP 0 µ5HEHO 9RLFH DQG 5DGLR $FWRUV ,Q 3XUVXLW RI 'LDORJXH DQG 'HEDWH LQ 1RUWKHUQ 8JDQGD¶,QDevelopment in Practice, Vol. 19, Issue 4/5, pp. 610-120. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality, analytical depth and sufficient detail on C4D interventions, or implementation factors. -D\DVHNHUD5µ%DG+DELWVLQ%DJKGDG¶,QIndex on Censorship, Vol. 33, Issue 1, pp. 8-17. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality and analytical depth. Jenkins, K. & Jenkins, %µ&RRSHUDWLYH/HDUQLQJ$'LDORJLF$SSURDFKWR&RQVWUXFWLQJD/RFDOO\ 5HOHYDQW3HDFH(GXFDWLRQ3URJUDPPHIRU%RXJDLQYLOOH¶,QJournal of Peace Education, Vol. 7, Issue 2, pp. 185-203. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological rigour and does not provide a sufficient focus on C4D interventions to warrant data extraction. .DIHZR6$Dµ'LVFXVVLRQ,QWHUYHQWLRQ3URFHVVLQJ7KHDWUHDQG&LWL]HQVKLSLQ1LJHULD¶,QNew Theatre Quarterly, Vol. 25, Issue 2, pp. 178-186. Reason for exclusion: Lacks a clearly defined methodological approach and an insufficient focus on C4D interventions to warrant data extraction. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 154 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 .DIHZR 6 $ E µ*LYLQJ 9RLFH ,QVWLJDWLQJ 'HEDWH RQ ,VVXHV RI &LWL]HQVKLS 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ DQG $FFRXQWDELOLW\¶,QDevelopment in Practice, Vol. 19, Issue 4/5. Reason for exclusion: Lacks a clearly defined methodological approach and an insufficient focus on C4D interventions to warrant data extraction. .XPDU . µ,QWHUQDWLRQDO $VVLVWDQFH WR 3URPRWH ,QGHSHQGHQW 0HGLD LQ 7UDQsition and Post-FRQIOLFW6RFLHWLHV¶,QDemocratization, Vol. 13, Issue 4, pp. 652-667. Reason for exclusion: Lacks a clear methodological approach and analytical depth. /DSODQWH/- 3KHQLFLH.µ0HGLDWLQJ3RVW-&RQIOLFW'LDORJXH7KH0HGLD¶V5Rle in Transitional -XVWLFH3URFHVVHV¶,QMarquette Law Review, Vol. 93, Issue 1, pp. 251-284. Reason for exclusion: 6RPHPLQRUPHWKRGRORJLFDOFRQFHUQVRYHUODFNRISDUWLFLSDQWV¶YRLFHV as well as a focus on contexts not on AusAID list of fragile states. 0DFOXUH 5 µ3UDJPDWLVP RU 7UDQVIRUPDWLRQ" 3DUWLFLSDWRU\ (YDOXDWLRQ RI D +XPDQLWDULDQ (GXFDWLRQ3URMHFWLQ6LHUUD/HRQH¶,Q Canadian Journal of Program Evaluation, Vol. 21, Issue 1, pp. 107-129. Reason for exclusion: Some minor methodological concHUQVRYHUODFNRISDUWLFLSDQWV¶YRLFHV and lacks clear focus on C4D in fragile states. 0DGILV - 0DUW\ULV ' 7ULSOHKRUQ & µ (PHUJHQF\ 6DIH 6SDFHV LQ +DLWL DQG WKH 6RORPRQ ,VODQGV¶,QDisasters, Vol. 34, Issue 3, pp. 845-864. Reason for exclusion: After methodological assessment, the paper was excluded because it lacked a clear focus on C4D in fragile states. 0DOKRWUD' /L\DQDJH6µ/RQJ-7HUP(IIHFWVRI3HDFH:RUNVKRSVLQ3URWUDFWHG&RQIOLFWV¶,Q Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, Issue 6, pp. 908-924. Reason for exclusion: Methodology not suited to qualitative approach of this review (data principally quantitative). 0F&DIIHU\ - µ8VLQJ 7UDQVIRUPDWLYH 0RGHOV RI $GXOW /LWHUDF\ LQ &RQIOLFW 5HVROXWLRQ DQG Peacebuilding ProFHVVHV DW D &RPPXQLW\ /HYHO ([DPSOHV IURP *XLQHD 6LHUUD /HRQH 6XGDQ¶ ,Q Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education, Vol. 35, Issue 4, pp. 443-462. Reason for exclusion: Minor methodological concerns are evident associated with the lack of participants¶YRLFHVLQWKHZRUN$OVROacks clear focus on C4D in fragile states. 0XQGUDZDOD$µ)LWWLQJWKH%LOO¶&RPPLVVLRQHG7KHDWUH3URMHFWVRQ+XPDQ5LJKWVLQ3DNLVWDQ- The Work of Karachi-%DVHG7KHDWUH*URXSµ7HKULNH1LVZDQ´,QResearch in Drama Education, Vol. 12, Issue 2, pp. 149-161. Reason for exclusion: Lacks a clear methodological or theoretical framework. Findings of marginal relevance to the study. 0DNLQHQ 0 .XLUD 0 : µ6RFLDO 0HGLD DQG 3RVWHOHFWLRQ &ULVLV LQ .HQ\D¶ ,Q International Journal of Press/Politics, Vol. 13, Issue 3, pp. 328-335. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality and analytical depth. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 155 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 1DVVDQJD */ µ7ZHQW\ <HDUV RI &RQIOLFW LQ 1RUWKHUQ 8JDQGD 5HVKDSLQJ WKH $JHQGD IRU 7UDLQLQJDQG5HVHDUFK¶,QGlobal Media Journal - Mediterranean Edition, Vol. 3, Issue 2, pp. 12-20. Reason for exclusion: Provides some limited insights into media training and conflict but lacks methodological quality and original data. 3DOXFN(/µ5HGXFLQJ,QWHUJURXS3rejudice and Conflict using the Media: A Field Experiment in 5ZDQGD¶,QJournal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 96, Issue 3, pp. 574-587. Reason for exclusion: After methodological assessment, the source was found to lack analytical detail on the nature of the C4D interventions discussed. 3ODVWRZ-µ)LQGLQJ&KLOGUHQ¶V9RLFHV$3LORW3URMHFW8VLQJ3HUIRUPDQFHWR'LVFXVV$WWLWXGHVWR (GXFDWLRQ$PRQJ3ULPDU\6FKRRO&KLOGUHQLQ7ZR(ULWUHDQ9LOODJHV¶,QResearch in Drama Education, Vol. 12, Issue 3, pp. 345-354. Reason for exclusion: Limited detail on methodological and theoretical framework, no discussion/recognition of conflict. 5RELH'µ)URQWOLQH5HSRUWLQJ(WKRVDQG3HUFHSWLRQ0HGLD&KDOOHQJHVLQWKH6RXWK3DFLILF¶,Q Asia Pacific Viewpoint, Vol. 49, Issue 2, pp. 213-227. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality, as well as specific detail on C4D interventions. 6FKXOHQNRUI1µ6SRUW(YHQWVDQG(WKQLF5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ$WWHPSWLQJWR&UHDWH6RFLDO&KDQJH between Sinhalese, Tamil and Muslim Sportspeople in War-WRUQ6UL/DQND¶,QInternational Review for the Sociology of Sport, Vol. 45, Issue 3, pp. 273-294. Reason for exclusion: After methodological assessment, the paper was found to lack a clear focus on C4D in fragile states. 6HQ . µ5DGLR 'D\V 0HGLD-3ROLWLFV LQ ,QGRQHVLD¶ ,Q Pacific Review, Vol. 16, Issue 4, pp. 573-589. Reason for exclusion: 6RPHPHWKRGRORJLFDOFRQFHUQVDUHHYLGHQWLHODFNRISDUWLFLSDQWV¶ voices) and does not provide a sufficient focus on C4D interventions to warrant inclusion. 6KDKHHQ0$µ8VHVRI6RFLDO1HWZRUNVDQG,QIRUPDWLRQ6HHNLQJ%HKDYLRURI6WXGHQWV'XULQJ 3ROLWLFDO &ULVHV LQ 3DNLVWDQ $ &DVH 6WXG\¶ ,Q International Information and Library Review, Vol. 40, Issue 3, pp. 142-147. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality and analytical depth. 6LUL\XYDVDN8µ3HRSOH¶V0HGLDDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQ5LJKWVLQ,QGRQHVLDDQGWKH3KLOLSSLQHV¶,Q Inter-Asia Cultural Studies, Vol. 6, Issue 2, pp. 245-263. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality and analytical depth. 6OLHS<:HLQJDUWHQ. *LOEHUW$µ1DUUDWLYH7KHDWUHDVDQ,QWHUDFWLYH&RPPXQLW\$SSURDFK WR0RELOL]LQJ&ROOHFWLYH$FWLRQLQ1RUWKHUQ8JDQGD¶,Q Families, Systems and Health: The Journal of Collaborative Family HealthCare, Vol. 22, Issue 3, pp. 306-320. Reason for exclusion: Lacks methodological quality and provides limited coverage of factors Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 156 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 associated with successful C4D implementation. 7KRPSVRQ - µ8JO\ 8QJODPorous and Dirty: Theatre of Relief/Reconciliation Liberation in 3ODFHVRI:DU¶,QResearch in Drama Education, Vol. 7, Issue 1, pp. 108-114. Reason for exclusion: Lacks sufficient depth and methodological quality to warrant inclusion. Utterwulghe, S. (200µ&RQIOLFW0DQDJHPHQWLQ&RPSOH[+XPDQLWDULDQ6LWXDWLRQV3HDFHPDNLQJDQG 3HDFHEXLOGLQJ:RUNZLWK$QJRODQ,'3V¶,QJournal of Refugee Studies, Vol. 17, Issue 2, pp. 222-242. Reason for exclusion: Lacks sufficient depth and methodological quality to warrant inclusion. :LFNHWW(µ9LGHRIRU'HYHORSPHQW¶,QVisual Anthropology, Vol. 20, Issue 2/3, pp. 123-141. Reason for exclusion: After methodological evaluation the paper was found to provide some limited insights into the use of video as a C4D tool, but is mainly focused on public health and does not address aspects of conflict. <RGHU-%µ0LQRULW\/DQJXDJH'HYHORSPHQWDQG/LWHUDF\$PRQJ,QWHUQDOO\'LVSODFHG3HUVRQV ,'3V5HIXJHH¶VDQG:DUWLPH&RPPXQLWLHV¶,QCanadian Modern Language Review, Vol. 65, No. 1, pp. 147-170. Reason for exclusion: Lacks participants¶ voices and a clear focus on C4D in fragile states. NOTARI (OPTYLVW0 %DVWLDQ6µ3URPRWLQJ0HGLD3URIHVVLRQDOLVP,QGHSHQGHQFHDQG$FFRXQWDELOLW\ LQ6UL/DQND¶6,DA Evaluation 06/50, pp. 1-52. Reason for exclusion: Despite being methodologically rigorous, during assessment it was found that the focus of the source was too narrow from which to be able to draw wider conclusions. Elmqvist, M., Rylander, L., & Luwaso, /µ3HUIRUPDQFH$QDO\VHVRIWKH&RRSHUDWLRQEHWZHHQ Swedish Radio and Radio Republic Indonesia 2000±¶6,'$(YDOXDWLRQVSS-38. Reason for exclusion: Despite being methodologically rigorous, the sources recommendations are too specific to draw wider conclusions from. Gratton, M. (2010) Children and Youth Program Review - Summer 2010 - Democratic Republic of the Congo, Search for Common Ground, pp. 1-39. Reason for exclusion: Overlap with other SFCG interventions. Methodologically, there is a weak causal link between the interventions and their impact. .DODWKLO6ZLWK/DQJORLV- .DSODQ$µ7RZDUGVD1HZ0RGHO0HGLDDQG&RPPXQLFDWLRQLQ Post-&RQIOLFW DQG )UDJLOH 6WDWHV¶ 7KH ,QWHUQDWLRQDO %DQN IRU 5HFRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG 'HYHORSPHnt/The World Bank Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP), pp. 1-112. Reason for exclusion: The paper is designed to guide policy and therefore the findings are already synthesised. Lack of detailed information about specific programs/case studies. Monzani, B. & Adhikari, K. (2009). Final Evaluation Report: Radio for Peacebuilding Nepal, Search for Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 157 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Common Ground, pp. 1-22. Reason for exclusion: Despite a solid methodology, the evaluation contains some relevant material, but is brief and similar recommendations are covered elsewhere. Mytton, G. (2005) Evaluation and Review of Hannu Daya in Jigawa State, DFID. pp. 1-20. Reason for exclusion: Despite a solid methodology, after assessment the paper was found to lack specific information regarding C4D implementation factors. National Defence University & Quaid-e-Azam University (2011) Pakistan Radio: A Forum for Moderate Voices Project - Evaluation Report Search for Common Ground Pakistan, pp. 1-35. Reason for exclusion: Weak methodology and analysis. Findings are too generalised and lack clarity. Onuoha, A. & James, A. (2008) Report of Evaluation: Facilitating Civil Society Dialogue and Development to Foster Accountability and Good Governance in Liberia, Search for Common Ground (SFCG), Liberia and Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-20. Reason for exclusion: Poor quality report, with weak methodology and incoherent findings. 2UPH%µ%URDGFDVWLQJLQ81%OXH7KH8QH[DPLQHG3DVWDQG8QFHUWDLQ)XWXUHRI PeacekeHSLQJ5DGLR¶&HQWHUIRU,QWHUQDWLRQDO0HGLD$VVLVWDQFH&,0$)HEUXDU\SS-74. Reason for exclusion: Scope of the report is very narrow and methodologically, the case studies are too brief to extract suitable levels of evidence. Paluck, E. L. *UHHQ'3/D%HQHYROHQFLMD5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ5DGLR3URMHFW0XVHNZH\D¶V)LUVW Year Evaluation Report: Rwanda Reconciliation Radio: Does it Work?, pp.1-43 Reason for exclusion: Though methodologically sound, the report duplicates findings of studies included in QARI. Shepler, S., Omideyi, O., & Lue Clark, C. (2006). Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Programming in Liberia, Search for Common Ground (SFCG), Liberia, pp. 1-37. Reason for exclusion: Solid methodology, but after assessment the article was excluded because it focuses on an area that falls outside of the scope of this review. 6LJDO , µ'LJLWDO 0HGLD LQ &RQIOLFW-3URQH 6RFLHWLHV¶ &HQWHU IRU ,QWHUQDWLRQDO 0HGLD $VVLVWDQFH (CIMA), pp. 1-40. Reason for exclusion: A sound overview of the use of digital media in conflict prone environments. However, methodologically, each individual case study is not explored in detail and this limits the insightfulness of the report. Street, A., Smith, J. & Mollett, H. (2008) Consolidating the peace? Views from Sierra Leone and Burundi on the United Nations Peacebuilding Commission, Action Aid International, Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD) and CARE International, pp. 1-42. Reason for exclusion: Lacks a methodological on participants¶YRLFHVDQGWKHUHIRUHGoes not meet the requirements for data extraction. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 158 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Wahnyi, Eriyanto :DKQ\L(VWLµRadio: Connecting Papua: The Impacts of Radio Pikon Ane on &RPPXQLWLHVLQ.XULPD<DKXNLPR3DSXD¶SS-64. Reason for exclusion: The authors do explore the impacts of the radio station in a number of area's including health and education; however, these are not the central focus of the review. :RUOG%DQNµ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ&RPSOHWLRQDQG5HVXOWV5HSRUW,'$-38250) On a Credit in the Amount of SDR 15.7 Million (US $22 Million Equivalent) to the Government of the Islamic Republic of $IJKDQLVWDQIRUD(PHUJHQF\&RPPXQLFDWLRQV'HYHORSPHQW3URMHFW¶3ROLF\8QLW*OREDO,QIRUPDWLRQ and Communication Technologies Department, South Asia Regional Office, pp. 1-40. Reason for exclusion: Report is primarily quantitative with very little qualitative, contextual information provided. Report is not detailed enough and the author's do not adequately explore the strengths/weaknesses of the project. Lessons learned section is inadequate. :RUOG%DQNEµ,PSOHPHQWDWLRQ&RPSOHWLRQDQG5HVXOWV5HSRUW,'$-35810) On a Credit in the Amount of SDR 17.50 Million (US $22.56 Million Equivalent) to Nepal for a Telecommunications Sector 5HIRUP3URMHFW¶3ROLF\ Unit, Global Information and Communication Technologies Department, South Asia Regional Office, pp. 1-63. Reason for exclusion: In terms of method and approach, not enough data is provided to adequately assess the impact of the intervention. World Bank (2010c) Implementation, Completion and Results Report (IDA-39850) On a Credit in the Amount of SDR 17.1 Million (US $25.0 Million Equivalent) to the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia for an Information and Communication Technology Assisted Development Project (ICTAD), Transport, Water and ICT Sector Department, Ethiopia Country Department, pp. 1-106. Reason for exclusion: The 'Lessons Learned' section of the report is not especially detailed and the majority of information provided is designed for internal use by the World Bank. von Kaltenborn-6WDFKDX+µ7KH0LVVLQJ/LQN)RVWHULQJ3RVLWLYH&LWL]HQ-State Relations in Post-&RQIOLFW(QYLURQPHQWV¶7KH,QWHUQDWLRQDO%DQNIRU5HFRQVWUXFWLRQDQG'HYHORSPHQW7KH:RUOG Bank Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP), pp. 1-124. Reason for exclusion: Methodologically, the case studies set out to describe the media landscape in each context and the impact of media strengthening activities but do not provide enough detail. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 159 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix IX: List of study findings %HVW 0 / 7KDNXU ' µ7KH 7HOHFRPPXQLFDWLRQV 3ROLF\ 3URFHVV LQ 3RVW-Conflict 'HYHORSLQJ &RXQWULHV 7KH FDVH RI /LEHULD¶ ,Q Info: The Journal of Policy, Regulation and Strategies for Telecommunications, Information and Media, Vol. 11, Issue 2, pp. 42-57. Conventional understandings of the process by which public policy is developed and implemented Finding 1 in nations like the US may not apply to developing countries, and in particular to post-conflict developing countries. µWKHRUHWLFDO DVVXPSWLRQV RI VWDEOH DQG SOXUDOLVWLF GHFLVLRQ-making systems are difficult to apply Illustration ZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WRIDFRXQWU\ZLWKQDVFHQWSROLF\VXEV\VWHPVDQGDUHFHQWWXUEXOHQWSROLWLFDOSDVW¶ (Best and Thakur 2009, p. 43) There is a lack of studies that consider how the cultural context of post-conflict countries influences Finding 2 the policy process. µSUHYLRXVVWXGLHV KDYH QRWVRXJKW WRFRPSUHKHQVLYHO\ H[DPLQHWKH IDFWRUV LQIOXHQFLQJ WKH SROLF\ Illustration process in post-FRQIOLFWFRXQWULHV¶%HVWDQG7KDNXUS Six key factors influence the policy process in post-conflict countries. These are: Institutional Finding 3 Context, Technical and Human Resources, Political Support, International Support, Attributes of Elites, and, International Policy Networks. µ)DFWRUV,QIOXHQFLQJWKH3ROLF\SURFHVVLQSRVW-FRQIOLFW6WDWHV¶)LJXUH%HVWDQG7KDNXUS Illustration 46). In a post-conflict setting the legitimacy of the new government is often questioned and this can result Finding 4 in a lack of support for government policies and regulatory bodies. µ,QSRVWFRQIOLFWQDWLRQVTXHVWLRQVRIOHJLWLPDF\RIQHZJRYHUQLQJLQVWLWXWLRQVDUHRIWHQUDLVHG7KLV was particularly true for the nascent Liberian telecoms regulator and this perception strongly Illustration LQIOXHQFHGWKHSRVLWLRQVKHOGE\ORFDORSHUDWRUVWRZDUGVWKHWHOHFRPOHJLVODWLYHSURFHVV¶%HVWDQG Thakur 2009, p. 50). During periods of political instability and/or violence people often operate with minimal governance. Finding 5 This can create problems post-conflict because people who are accustomed to self-regulation or minimal regulation may resist change. In the telecommunications sector in Liberia, many mobile phone operators had been conducting Illustration business with few restrictions and they resisted new telecommunications policies that regulated their conduct (Best and Thakur 2009, p. 50). During conflict skilled workers may flee the country and this has an adverse effect on industries that Finding 6 are trying to re-build. In Liberia the lack of qualified personnel had a direct impact on data collection and policy analysis capabilities. µ2XU LQWHUYLHZV UHYHDOHG DQ RQJRLQJ SUREOHP WKDW H[LVWV LQ ERWK WKH 0LQLVWU\ RI 3RVW DQG Telecommunications (MPT) and Liberian Telecommunications Authority (LTA), which is the lack of Illustration sufficient technical and human resources to support the development and implementation of policy; (Best and Thakur 2009, p. 51). International support played a key role in facilitating the creation and delivery of government policy Finding 7 in the Liberian telecommunications sector. µ,QWHUQDWLRQDOVXSSRUWWKHUHIRUHZDVLQVWUXPHQWDOLQGHYHORSLQJERWK%LOO1RDQGWKH$FW¶ Illustration (Best and Thakur 2009, p. 51). In post-conflict settings elite actors play a greater role in policy processes than in stable nations. Finding 8 This can result in policies that represent the interests of elite actors and not the general public. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 160 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 µSRVW-conflict settLQJV KDYH JHQHUDOO\ YHU\ ZHDN LQVWLWXWLRQV¶ >L@Q WKH SUHVHQFH RI VXFK ZHDN LQVWLWXWLRQV¶WKHUROHDQGUHVSRQVLELOLWLHVRILQGLYLGXDOHOLWHVLVHQKDQFHG¶%HVWDQG7KDNXUS Illustration 52). µWKH DFWXDOVXEVWDQFH RI SROLF\ ZDV RIWHQ WKH UHVXOW RI D EDUJDLQLQJ SUocess between these elite LQWHUHVWVWKDWLVWKHQDGYDQFHGDVWKHSXEOLFLQWHUHVW¶%HVWDQG7KDNXUS Certain ethnic groups may have greater influence on governmental policy and be more likely to hold Finding 9 positions of power. µRXULQWHUYLHZVZLWKRUGLQDU\/LEHULDQVUHYHDOHGDSHULSKHUDOEXWKLVWRULFDQGFXOWXUDOLVVXH7KDWLV the distinction between Americo-Liberians (those Liberians that are descendants of the freed American slaves who founded the country) and the indigenous Liberians who comprise Illustration approximately 95 percent of the population (Sessay, 1996). Traditionally the Americo-Liberians KDYHKHOGSRVLWLRQVRISRZHULQPRVWVHFWRUVRIWKHVRFLHW\LQFOXGLQJJRYHUQPHQW¶%HVWDQG7KDNXU 2009, p. 52). When the policy process is not inclusive and participatory this can hinder the effectiveness of the Finding 10 policy. µ$ SROLF\ SURFHVV WKDW GRHV QRW LQFOXGH WKH ZLGHU SRSXODWLRQ FDQ FUHDWH SUREOHPV GXULQJ Illustration implementation. In this case, the inability to participatHFDQDOVRXQGHUPLQHHIIRUWVWREHLQFOXVLYH¶ (Best and Thakur 2009 p. 55). &RQQHOO\&µ+RZ'RHVWKH6KRZ*R2Q"7KHDWUHIRU'HYHORSPHQWLQ3RVW-Election .HQ\D¶,Q7KHDWUH+LVWRU\6WXGLHV9ROSS-72. Outbreaks of political and/or ethnic violence make it very difficult for Theatre for Development Finding 1 programs to continue. µ:KHQGDLO\OLIHLQWKHVHFRPPXQLWLHVEHFRPHVPDUNHGE\PXUGHUEHDWLQJVGHVWUXFWLRQRISURSHUW\ and displacement, as it did after the election, maintaining a theatre program in them becomes a very Illustration GDQJHURXV HQGHDYRXU¶ &RQQHOO\ S µ'XULQJ WKH ZLGHVSUHDG YLROHQFH GXH WR VDIHW\ concerns for audiences and performers alike, theatre groups were unable to enter areas where they had regularO\DQGUHFHQWO\SHUIRUPHG¶&RQQHOO\S Theatre for Development activities can play a role in promoting peace and changing individual Finding 2 beliefs and practices. µWKHDWUHSRSXODUWRWKHSHRSOHSOD\VDUROHLQVROYLQJWKHVRFLoeconomic, political, and moral conflicts Illustration LQWKHVRFLHW\¶&RQQHOO\S Theatre for development interventions held in non-theatre settings such as parks and markets can Finding 3 reach disadvantaged audiences that may be unable or unwilling to attend performances in traditional theatre venues. µ2IIHULQJWKHDWUHSHUIRUPDQFHVIRUWKHSRRUHVWLQVWHDGRIWKHZHDOWKLHVWDXGLHQFHVLVDQHVVHQWLDO part of many Theatre of Development projects. The purpose is to bring performances to the people Illustration in their own settings without the social and economic barriers often found in traditional theatre YHQXHV¶&RQQHOO\S Participation in Theatre for Development can create bonds between members of different ethnic Finding 4 groups. µRQHRIWKH.LNX\XVWXGHQWVZKRZDVFKDVHGIURP.HULFKRZDVKRVWHGE\WKHIDPLO\RID/XRIULHQG Illustration and classmate in Nairobi. The students and company members supported one another, sometimes ILQDQFLDOO\GXULQJWKHFULVLV¶&RQQHOO\S Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 161 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 &XUWLV'($µ%URDGFDVWLQJ3HDFH $Q $QDO\VLVRI/RFDO0HGLD3RVW-Conflict Peace EXLOGLQJ3URMHFWVLQ5ZDQGDDQG%RVQLD¶,Q&DQDGLDQ-RXUQDORI'HYHORSPHQW6WXGLHV9RO 21, Issue, 1, pp. 141-166. Donor agencies are increasingly utilising local media projects to promote peace-building. However, Finding 1 there is a lack of research that examines the effectiveness of these projects and their contribution to peace-building strategies. µZKLOH WKHUH VHHPV WR EH D JHQHUDO FRQVHQVXV WKDW Oocal media projects constitute an effective means of contributing to peace-building, there is a relative absence of work that explains why this is Illustration the case or that outlines the explicit linkages between local media and peace-building. Similarly, there have EHHQIHZDWWHPSWVWRPHDVXUHWKHVXFFHVVRIWKHVHNLQGVRISURMHFWV¶&XUWLVS 142). Broader factors that influence the success of peace-building also play a role in determining the effectiveness of local media peace-building projects. Peace building projects are more likely to Finding 2 succeed if they promote indigenous participation and understand the cultural and local context in which they operate. µVXFFHVVIXOpeace-building requires an emphasis on local populations, including a knowledge of the ORFDOFRQWH[WDQGFXOWXUHLQZKLFKWKHGRQRULVRSHUDWLQJDQGVLJQLILFDQWLQGLJHQRXVSDUWLFLSDWLRQ¶ &XUWLVSµ3URMHFWVZLWKpeace-building informational objectives or societal reconciliation Illustration objectives must be based on a thorough understanding of the political and social dynamics of the UHJLRQ«>G@RQRUVPXVWFDUHIXOO\H[DPLQHWKHLPSDFWRIWKHSURMHFWRQORFDOSROLWLFVDVZHOODVWKH LPSDFWRIORFDOSROLWLFVRQWKHSURMHFW¶&XUWLVS International actors and donor agencies are divided about how, when and if hate media should be prevented post-conflict. Thus, while some scholars argue that controlling hate media is a necessary Finding 3 step in the peace-building process, others raise concerns about the implications of media regulation, censorship and international interference. µ6WHSV WDNHQ WR FRQWURO KDWH PHGLD VXFK DV MDPPLQJ EURDGFDVWLQJ VLJQDOV RU GHVWUR\LQJ PHGLD Illustration equipment can create unexpected consequences, violate sovereignty and negatively impact donor RULQWHUQDWLRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKORFDODXWKRULWLHV¶&XUWLVS Ensuring the safety of journalists is an important component of an effective local media Finding 4 peace-building strategy. µ'XULQJ D FRQIOLFW MRXUQDOLVts are often among the first targets and in the delicate post-conflict environment, authorities will try to maintain a tight rein on the press. If journalists begin to broadcast Illustration alternative points of view, authorities or local leaders may feel threatened and may respond with non-violent or violent intimidation tactics against journalists. Improving the security environment for journalists is, therefore, an important post-conflict peace-building DFWLYLW\¶&XUWLVS Local media, in particular radio soap operas, can be used to directly promote conflict resolution and Finding 5 reconciliation. µ7KHUH KDYH EHHQVHYHUDO H[DPSOHV RI KLJKO\ SRSXODU UDGLR GUDPDV WKDW DLPWR SURPRWHVRFLHWDO reconciliation. New Home New Life is a radio soap opera broadcast on BBC in Afghanistan. Illustration Fictional characters in the soap opera comment on key social issues that are intended to create VWLPXOLIRUSHDFHDPRQJOLVWHQHUV¶&XUWLVS When donors implement local peace-building projects they must make difficult decisions about which outcomes they will prioritise and what the implications of that choice will be. Every strategy Finding 6 has strengths and weaknesses and donors should carefully consider these when developing local media peace-building projects. µGLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI PHGLD DFWLYLWLHV IDFH FRQVWUDLQWV DQG FRQWUDGLFWLRQV DQG ZKHQ VHWWLQJ WKHLU Illustration peace-building objectives, donors must have a clear idea of the trade-offs and choices that they will IDFH¶&XUWLVS Short term evaluations of local media peace-building projects may not capture long-term changes in Finding 7 behaviour or beliefs. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 162 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 µWKHIXOOLPSDFWRIORFDOPHGLDpeace-building SURMHFWVPD\QRWEHDSSDUHQWXQWLOODWHU¶&XUWLV Illustration p. 154). Internal evaluations of local media peace-building projects may be unreliable and this makes it Finding 8 difficult to accurately assess the impacts of these projects. µPDQ\ GRQRU DJHQFLHV DUH QRW DGHTXDWHO\ VWDIIHG WR XQGHUWDNH ORQJ-term evaluations. Similarly, Illustration donor agencies have an interest in presenting their activities in a favourable light, in order to PDLQWDLQRULQFUHDVHIXQGLQJ¶&XUWLVS In a post-conflict setting media outlets, such as radio stations, are often unable to meet the needs of Finding 9 diverse groups who have different expectations. This can result in their characterisation as biased or illegitimate, which threatens their ability to promote peace-building. µ(DFKJURXSLQ5ZDQGDKDGGLIIHUHQWexpectations regarding Radio Agatashya and all parties to the Illustration FRQIOLFWDFFXVHGWKHUDGLRRIVLGLQJZLWKWKHµHQHP\¶¶&XUWLVS A lack of local involvement in the development and implementation of local media projects can Finding 10 reduce their effectiveness. µERWK QHWZRUNV >2%1 WHOHYLVLRQ DQG )(51 UDGLR LQ %RVQLD-Herzegovina] encountered difficulties GXH WR WKH GRQRUV¶ ODFN RI DWWHQWLRQ SDLG WR SROLWLFV DQG ORFDO G\QDPLFV 2%1 ZDV SXW WRJHWKHU Illustration without very much influence from BoVQLDQVFRQVHTXHQWO\LWZDVYLHZHGDVEHLQJµIRUHLJQ¶¶&XUWLV 2000, p. 159). If local media peace-building projects are not seen to be impartial, they can be viewed with Finding 11 suspicion. µ2%1DQG)(51KDYHERWKIRFXVHGRQ%RVQLDF-controlled federation territory at the expense of the Serb Republic and Croat-controlled territory. Both networks were supposed to develop into Illustration pan-Bosnian initiatives, but their dominant presence in Sarajevo has prevented them from making a clear break from tKHWULSDUWLWHPHGLDVFHQHLQ%RVQLD¶&XUWLVSS-160). Local media projects in post-conflict settings face great challenges and will not necessarily result in Finding 12 immediate short-term changes. µUHEXLOGLQJWUXVWWKURXJKPHGLD programmes is a long-term process and the reconstruction of media Illustration structures in a war-torn country is bound to encounter obstacles and trade-RIIV¶ &XUWLV S 163). (UQL - 1 µ:DU µ,QFHQGLDU\ 0HGLD¶ DQG ,QWHUQDWLRQDO +XPDQ 5LJKWV /DZ¶ ,Q Media, Culture & Society, Vol. 31, Issue 6, pp. 867-886. The legal basis of media/information interventions is debatable. In particular, interventions that Finding 1 XWLOLVHPHDVXUHVWKDWFRXOGEHGHILQHGDVDµXVHRIIRUFH¶VXFKDVERPELQJEURDGFDVWLQJWowers may violate the UN Charter and other international norms (Erni 2009, p. 872). µ:KLOHWKHXOWLPDWHOHJDOLW\RIVXFKLQWHUYHQWLRQPHWKRGVFUHDWHGLQWKHQDPHRIUHFRQVWUXFWLRQZLOO Illustration continue to be debated, the legal ground for more aggressive measures taken in times of imminent RUSUHVHQWFRQIOLFWDSSHDUVWREHWHQXRXV¶(UQLS Finding 2 Media/information interventions may violate state sovereignty. µLWLVRQHWKLQJWRSUHYHQWYLROHQFHLWLVDQRWKHUIRUWKHLQformation intervention programme to intrude XSRQWKHWDUJHWVWDWH¶VDXWRQRPRXVSXEOLFVSKHUHDQGHYHQWRH[HUWLQIOXHQFHDQGDXWKRULW\LQWKH Illustration WDUJHW VWDWH¶ (UQL S +RZHYHU DV (UQL S GLVFXVVHV LQWHUQDWLRQDO OHJDO obligations meaQWKDWWKHµVRYHUHLJQW\RIDJLYHQVWDWHFDQQRWEHDEVROXWHRUH[FOXVLYH¶ The diverse agendas of the parties involved in media/information interventions can create rifts that Finding 3 hinder the success of the media reforms. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 163 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 µ&DVHV OLNH &Dmbodia, Bosnia and Kosovo show exactly the cleavages amongst these stake Illustration holders, in the end stifling a healthy development of the post-ZDUPHGLDVSDFHLQWKHVHFRXQWULHV¶ (Erni 2009, p. 878). Transitional governments in post-conflict societies may abuse their ability to control the media and Finding 4 begin to recreate the conditions that led to the intervention. µ7KHVHFRQGOHJDOSUREOHPFRQFHUQVWKHXQMXVWLILDEOHH[XEHUDQFHRIWKHWUDQVLWLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWVLQ post-conflict societies in expanding their power of control through their newly established media regulations, edging toward censorship and hegemony of control reminiscent of the totalitarian SRZHUWRSSOHGLQWKHZDU¶(UQLS Illustration µ)RU LQVWDQFH WKH LQWHULP JRYHUQPHQW LQ SRVW-war Iraq established media rules (and other administrative codes) that showed a tendency towards a hegemonic control of the information VSDFHLQVWHDGRISURPRWLQJIUHHIORZRILQIRUPDWLRQDQGGLYHUVLW\RIYLHZVLQWKH,UDTLPHGLD¶(UQL 2009, p. 878). EYDQV5µ7KH7ZR)DFHVRI(PSRZHUPHQWLQ&RQIOLFW¶,Q5HVHDUFKLQ&RPSDUDWLYH and International Conflict, Vol. 3, Issue 1, pp.50-64. The impact of peace education programs designed to encourage non-violence through µHPSRZHUPHQW¶ QHHG WR be empirically examined. It cannot be assumed that the skills and Finding 1 experiences gained through participation in these projects will necessarily be used to promote peace. µ,Q SUDFWLFH SURMHFW SDUWLFLSDQWV PD\ XWLOLVH WKHVH WRROV LQ ZD\V XQDQWLFipated by humanitarian Illustration DJHQFLHVIRUH[DPSOHWRSURPRWHSROLWLFDOYLROHQFHUDWKHUWKDQSHDFHIXOLGHDOV¶(YDQVS Participation in peace-building programs, such as the Bhutanese Refugee Children Forum (BRCF), Finding 2 and involvement in violent political activities, such as Maoist political activities, are not mutually exclusive. µ2IWKH\RXQJSHRSOHZKRKDYHVSRNHQWRPHDERXWWKHLULQYROYHPHQWLQ0DRLVWDFWLYLWLHVDOPRVWDOO DUHFXUUHQWRUIRUPHU%5&)PHPEHUV«>R@QH-year-old female activist, Dhan Maya, who received Illustration training in street theatre through the BRCF, took part in both BRCF performances on child protection LVVXHV DQG SHUIRUPDQFHV IRU D %KXWDQHVH 0DRLVW FXOWXUDO RUJDQLVDWLRQ«ODWHU 'KDQ 0D\D OHG attacks on the homes of WKLUGFRXQWU\UHVHWWOHPHQWDFWLYLVWV¶(YDQVS Young people who participated in the BRCF reported many positive impacts, including increased Finding 3 confidence and personal freedom, improved family relationships, and the development of new skills that could potentially earn them money. µDIWHUZRUNLQJLQWKH%5&),IHHOFRQILGHQWWRVSHDNLQIURQWRIRWKHUSHRSOHDQGVKDUHP\YLHZV¶ Illustration (young person in Evans 2008, p. 56). Peace education programs for young people can also have positive impacts on the broader Finding 4 community. µWKH %5&) PHPEHUV PDNH SHRSOH DZDUH RI VRFLDO LVVXHV VXFK DV DOFRKROLVP DQG JHQGHU Illustration GLVFULPLQDWLRQE\VKRZLQJVWUHHWGUDPDVGLVSOD\LQJSDPSKOHWVDQGSRVWHUV¶FRPPXQLW\PHPEHULQ Evans 2008, p. 56). The disparities between international child rights norms promoted by the BRCF and Bhutanese Finding 5 sociocultural values can create conflicts. µ%5&)SDUWLFLSDQWVDUHHQFRXUDJHGWRUHSRUWSDUWLFXODULVVXHVVXFKDVDQHDUO\PDUULDJHto agency Illustration staff. Such practices are viewed as harmful by donor agencies but are accepted by many members RIWKH%KXWDQHVHUHIXJHHFRPPXQLW\¶(YDQVS 6WUXFWXUDOIDFWRUVVXFKDVSRYHUW\SROLWLFDOLQVWDELOLW\DQGWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶UHIugee status limits the Finding 6 HIIHFWLYHQHVVRISHDFHHGXFDWLRQSURMHFWVGHVLJQHGWRµHPSRZHU¶\RXQJSHRSOHLQUHIXJHHFDPSV Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 164 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 µ7KHVHOLPLWDWLRQVUHVXOWIURPWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV¶VWDWXVDVUHIXJHHVDQGWRWKHLQDELOLW\RIWKHDJHQFLHV and the refugees to change the political situation that caused them to be displaced from Bhutan 17 Illustration \HDUVDJRDQGZKLFKKDVUHVXOWHGLQWKHLUEHLQJGHQLHGFLWL]HQVKLSDQGEDVLFULJKWV¶(YDQVS 57). BRCF staff teach young people that they can play an active role in improving their community. Finding 7 'HVSLWH WKH %5&)¶V HPSKDVLV RQ SHDFH HGXFDWLRQ VRPH %5&) SDUWLFLSDQWV VHH SROLWLFDO involvement, sometimes involving violence, as a viable way to make these improvements. µ$VWKHDJHQFLHVKRSHGPDQ\\RXQJproject participants do express their conviction that they can positively contribute to the development of their community, but some wish to do so through Illustration ensuring their right to return and to securing the rights of both the refugees and those Nepali BhutaQHVHUHPDLQLQJLQVLGH%KXWDQHYHQLIWKLVLQYROYHVYLROHQFH¶(YDQVS )LQNHO 6 ( 6PLWK $ ( µ&LYLF (GXFDWLRQ 3ROLWLFDO 'LVFXVVLRQ DQG WKH 6RFLDO 7UDQVPLVVLRQ RI 'HPRFUDWLF .QRZOHGJH DQG 9DOXHV LQ D 1HZ 'HPRFUDF\ .HQ\D ¶ In American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 55, Issue, 2, pp. 417-435. Following a democratic regime change, citizens need to learn about the norms and values that LQIRUPWKHGHPRFUDWLFSROLWLFDOV\VWHPDQGWRDFTXLUHQHZµFLYLFFRPSHWHQFLHVDQGDWWLWXGHV¶)LQNHO and Smith 2011, p. 417). While this process was initially thought to involve slow changes over time Finding 1 LQSHRSOH¶VNQRZOHGJHEHOLHIVDQGEHKDYLRXUVPRUHUHFHQWVWXGLHVVXJJHVWWKDWWKHVHFKDQJHVFDQ happen relatively quickly. Nonetheless, there are more direct ways to promote democratic values. The most effective way to directly educate citizens in new democracies may be through civic education programs. µ3HUKDSVWKHPRVWSURPLVLQJGLUHFWPHDQVIRUSURPRWLQJGHPRFUDWLFRUientation in new democracies is through civic education programs, which teach democratic citizenship to young people in Illustration FODVVURRPVHWWLQJVRUWRDGXOWVLQFRPPXQLW\ZRUNVKRSVOHFWXUHVRUSXEOLFIRUD¶)LQNHODQG6PLWK 2011, p. 418). Despite the increasing number of civic education interventions, there is a lack of evidence Finding 2 demonstrating the effectiveness of these programs. µ'HVSLWHWKHSUROLIHUDWLRQRIFLYLFHGXFDWLRQSURJUDPVLQQHZGHPRFUDFLHVWKHUHKDVEHHQUHODWLYHO\ Illustration little reVHDUFKRQWKHLUHIIHFWLYHQHVVLQFKDQJLQJGHPRFUDWLFRULHQWDWLRQVDPRQJFKLOGUHQRUDGXOWV¶ (Finkel and Smith 2011, p. 418). Evaluations of civic education programs need to consider both direct and indirect effects. Studies that solely focus on those who attended the programs fail to consider the indirect ways that Finding 3 information and ideas promoted in the education programs can influence non-attendees (e.g. through discussion with peers). µZHILQGILUVWWKDWWKH.HQ\DQ1DWLRQDO&LYLF(ducation Programme (NCEP) affected the knowledge, attitudes and participatory inclinations of those directly trained in the program. These individuals then became opinion leaders, communicating new democratic orientations to neighbors, family Illustration members, and friends within their network. We show that individuals with no personal exposure to WKH SURJUDP ZKR GLVFXVVHG RWKHUV¶ FLYLF HGXFDWLRQ H[SHULHQFHG VLJQLILFDQW JURZWK LQ SROLWLFDO knowledge, tolerance, and a sense of national versus tribal self-identificatioQ¶ )LQNHO DQG 6PLWK 2011, p. 419). Adults who attended the civic education showed a significant increase in all four dependent Finding 4 variables identified by the authors: Political knowledge, Political participation, Political tolerance and, National versus tribal identification. µ7KHUHVXOWVLQGLFDWHWKDWDGXOWVWUDLQHGLQ1&(3DFWLYLWLHVVKRZHGVLJQLILFDQWLQFUHDVHLQSROLWLFDO Illustration knowledge and participation, and in such critical democratic values as the sense of Kenyan versus tribal identLILFDWLRQDQGSROLWLFDOWROHUDQFH¶)LQNHODQG6PLWKS The NCEP civic education program had widespread indirect effects. Many Kenyans who did not attend the programs were exposed to the civic education messages through discussions with Finding 5 attendees in their social network. Although the authors estimate that 14% of the Kenyan population attended the training, they state that approximately 40 to 50% were exposed to the program Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 165 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 messages in some way (Finkel and Smith 2011, p. 433). This had a measurable statistical impact on all of the dependant variables except political participation. µ7KH UHVXOWV WKXV SURYLGH VWURQJ VXSSRUW IRU D WZR-step process of social diffusion of democratic Illustration PHVVDJHVWKURXJKFLYLFHGXFDWLRQ¶)LQNHODQG Smith 2011, p. 432). Civic education programs that utilise open, participatory teaching methods more effectively change SDUWLFLSDQWV¶NQRZOHGJHEHOLHIVDQGEHKDYLRXUWKDQWKRVHWKDWGRQRW7KHDXWKRUVJURXSYDULRXV Finding 6 participatory methods into six categories: small group discussions, role playing, stage plays or dramatisations, game playing, problem solving and developing proposals, and mock elections. µDWWHQGLQJ D SXUHO\ OHFWXUH-based workshop that made use of none of the six participatory methodologies had effects that were statistically distinguishable from zero only in the case of Illustration imparting factual political knowledge. For the three other democratic orientations, it was only when workshops made use of active methods that any sigQLILFDQWHIIHFWVZHUHREWDLQHG¶)LQNHODQG6PLWK 2011, p. 430). Although civic education training has positive effects it is important to recognise that the impact of Finding 7 programs like NCEP are constrained by other factors that also influence the success of democratic transitions. µ6XFFHVVIXOGHPRFUDWLFWUDQVLWLRQVGHSHQGRQDJRRGPDQ\RWKHUIDFWRUVDVLGHIURPDVXSSRUWLYH mass political culture, most importantly elite behavior and the crafting of institutions that can Illustration ameliorate ethnLFDQGRWKHUSRWHQWLDOO\GHVWDELOL]LQJVRFLDOFOHDYDJHV¶)LQNHODQG6PLWKS 433). The ethnic violence that broke out after the 2007 Kenyan election may have been worse if the 2002 Finding 8 NCEP program and a 2007 civic education program had not been implemented. µ2XUUHVXOWVLPSO\WKDWWKHYLROHQFHZRXOGOLNHO\KDYHEHHQZRUVHLQWKHFRXQWHUIDFWXDODEVHQFHRI Illustration SURJUDPVVXFKDVWKH1&(3DQGLWVVXFFHVVRU¶)LQNHODQG6PLWKS )UHUH 0 6 µ$IWHU WKH +DWH 0HGLD 5HJXODWLRQ LQ WKH '5& %XUXQGL DQG 5ZDQGD¶ ,Q Global Media and Communication, Vol. 5, Issue 3, pp. 327-352. Over the past 15 years the media has played a central role in exacerbating ethnic and political Finding 1 tensions and inciting violence and hatred in the Central African nations of Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). µ7KH 'HPRFUDWLF 5HSXEOLF RI &RQJR 5ZDQGD DQG %XUXQGL KDYH LQ FRPPRQWKDWIRU WKH SDVW Illustration years they have been through murderous wars notable for the use of what have been described as µKDWHPHGLD¶¶)UpUHS The establishment and strengthening of communications regulatory bodies in the DRC, Rwanda Finding 2 and Burundi was intended to facilitate the development of a more accountable and democratic media sector. µ'XULQJ WKH YDULRXV SHDFH SURFHVVHV ZKLFK IROORZHG WKH DUPHG FRQIOLFWV WKH HVWDEOLVKPHQW RI communications regulatory bodies, and the strengthening of the already existing body in Burundi, Illustration were seen as essential in order to encourage a responsible attitude from the media and avoid any IXWXUHGULIWWRZDUGVLQFLWHPHQWRIHWKQLFKDWUHG¶)UpUHS Internal divisions within communications regulatory bodies can lead to conflicts and ineffective regulation as members with diverse political affiliations seek to serve their own political interests. Finding 3 Members can be unwilling to sanction media outlets that support their own political views, even when these outlets are producing extremist propaganda. µ,WZDVDUHDOFKDOOHQJHIRULQVWDQFHWRJHWWKHPHPEHUV¶DJUHHPHQWRQDQ\VDQFWLRQDJDLQVW&&79 and CKTV (which belonged to Vice-President Jean-Pierre Bemba) or against RTGA, Digital Congo Illustration and the national public broadcaster, RTNC (Radio Television Nationale Congolaise), all three of ZKLFKVXSSRUWHG3UHVLGHQW-RVHSK.DELOD¶)UpUHS Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 166 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Struggles for power in post-conflict settings can hinder the activities of communications regulatory bodies whose authority may not be recognised by the government. Governmental ministries can Finding 4 XQGHUPLQH WKH DFWLYLWLHV RI FRPPXQLFDWLRQV UHJXODWRU\ ERGLHV &5%¶V E\ PDNLQJ GHFLVLRQV WKDW contradict their resolutions. µ7KH+$0¶VDFWLYLWLHVZHUHDOVRKDPSHUHGE\FRQVWDQWFRQIOicts of responsibility with the Minister for Information and the Press, who clung to the prerogatives which had traditionally belonged to his Illustration RIILFH«WKH PLQLVWU\ UHIXVHG WR DFNQRZOHGJH WKH H[LVWHQFH DQG SRZHUV RI WKH QHZ LQGHSHQGHQW regulator and regularly took decisions and carried out measures contrary to those decided by the UHJXODWRU¶)UpUHS Communications regulatory bodies (CRBs) are unable to regulate the media sector effectively when Finding 5 their legitimacy is not recognised and the media outlets they seek to control have more resources, popular support and power than themselves. µ7KH &1& DQQRXQFHGWKDW LW ZDVVXVSHQGLQJWKH 53$¶V RSHUDWLQJ OLFHQFH LQGHILQLWHO\ 7KH UDGLR sector as a whole (radio stations and professional associations) united to defend their colleague, all Illustration stopped broadcasting, and forced the President of the CNC to resign. This incident confirmed that WKHPHGLDZLWKWKHLUSRSXODUVXSSRUWZHUHVWURQJHUWKDQWKHUHJXODWRU¶)UpUHS A lack of resources can reduce the ability of communications regulatory bodies to function Finding 6 effectively. In Burundi, the members of the CNC (Conseil National de la Communication) had limited access to transport and no generator and this significantly affected their ability to monitor the media. µ$ UHSRUW E\ WKH &1&¶V PRQLWRULQJ WHDP HPSKDVL]HG WKDW LW KDG QR WUDQVSRUW µWKH WHDP FDQQRW remain at work until the stations close down, but is obliged to go home after the 6pm news Illustration SURJUDPPH¶DQG that, having no generator, it could not work during the power cuts that happened µVHYHUDOWLPHVDGD\¶¶)UpUHS Many radio stations in Burundi are reliant on foreign aid and the withdrawal of this aid may threaten Finding 7 their survival and the impartiality of the media sector. µ1RZWKDWSHDFHKDVEHHQUHVWRUHGWKRVHUHVSRQVLEOHIRUWKHUDGLRVWDWLRQVDUHFRQFHUQHGWKDWWKH IXQGHUVPD\ZLWKGUDZZKLFKPD\WKUHDWHQWKHVXUYLYDORIWKHPHGLD«DQLPSRYHULVKPHQWRIWKH Illustration media may be harmful not only to professional standards but also to the integrity and independence of journalists, which are an important prerequisite for effective self-UHJXODWLRQ¶)UpUHS The Rwandan communication regulatory body, the High Council of the Press (HCP), is not a Finding 8 decision-making body and relies on the government to enforce their recommendations. This means that the HCP has very little power and is not independent from government influence. µ«MRXUQDOLVWVKDYHGHSOored the propensity of some politicians to interfere in the affairs of the HCP in order to try and get rid of particular journalists. As the Committee to Protect Journalists has Illustration stressed, journalists remain sceptical RIWKH+&3¶VLQGHSHQGHQFHIURPJRYHUQPHQWLQIOXHQFH¶ (Frére 2009, p. 345).   Communications regulatory bodies can play a vital role in the peace process in post-conflict countries where the media has contributed to the violence. However, their influence is often Finding 9 mitigated by their lack of power, minimal resources, the unwillingness of governments to concede control of the media and the ethnic, national and political divisions that still exist in post-conflict settings. µ$FRPPXQLFDWLRQ UHJXODWRU\ ERG\ FDQ SOD\ D FHQWUDO Uole in the reconfiguration of the sector, in creating media which are accountable and a part of a real project of democratization. But these bodies remain today somewhat powerless, because of a lack of resources, because of the enormity Illustration of the challenge facing them, and because of the significant contradictions between the proclaimed desire of the political authorities to see freedom of expression flower and the concern of those same DXWKRULWLHVWRH[HUFLVHFRQWURORIWKHPHGLD¶)UpUHS Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 167 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 GaPDJH 3 +DOSLQ ( ) µ(-6UL /DQND %ULGJLQJ WKH 'LJLWDO 'LYLGH¶ ,Q (OHFWURQLF Library, Vol. 25, Issue 6, pp. 693-710. A clear digital divide exists in Sri Lanka, with access to Information and Communication Finding 1 Technologies (ICTs) being very unequal. µWKHYDVWPDMRULW\RIUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVLQ6UL/DQNDZKLFKFRPSULVHVRYHUSHUFHQWRIWKHWRWDO Illustration population, do not presently have access to ICT and for that same reason do not reap the benefits of ,&7¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQ07, p. 697). 2XWEUHDNVRIYLROHQFHLQIUDJLOHVWDWHVFDQFUHDWHVHFXULW\WKUHDWVWKDWUHVWULFWUHVHDUFKHUV¶DFFHVVWR Finding 2 particular regions. µ7KH 1DQDVDODV VLWXDWHG LQ WKH 1RUWK (DVW UHJLRQ KDG WR EH H[FOXGHG IURP WKH VWXG\ GXH WR WKH resumption of hostilities between the Government of Sri Lanka and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Illustration (HODP/77(DQGDFRUUHVSRQGLQJODFNRIDFFHVVDQGVHFXULW\LQWKHUHJLRQ¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQ 2007, p. 702). An evaluation of the telecentres set XS DV SDUW RI WKH 6UL /DQNDQ JRYHUQPHQW¶V 7HOHFHQWUH Finding 3 Development Program (TDP) revealed that 90 percent of telecentre users are under 35 years of age and no older people used the service. µ0RUHWKDQSHUFHQWRI1DQVDODXVHUVDUH\RXWKVDQG DGXOWV\RXQJHUWKDQ\HDUVRIDJH«>LW@ Illustration ZDVREVHUYHGWKURXJKRXWWKLVVXUYH\WKDWROGHUSHRSOHZHUHQRWDPRQJWKHXVHUV¶*DPDJHDQG Halpin 2007, p. 702-703). Finding 4 Many people were unaware of the telecentres and did not use the services offered by them. µRQO\DVPDOOSHUFHQWDJHRIWKHWRWDOSRSXODWLRQDUHDZDUHRI1DQVDODVDQGXVHWKHIDFLOLWLHVRIIHUHG Illustration E\WKHP¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQS Poor publicity and awareness programs have contributed to the small number of telecentre users. Finding 5 The current promotion and awareness strategy utilises a medium (a television channel) that is not accessible in many parts of the country and is, therefore, not very effective. µ$OWKRXJK WKH ,&7$ >6UL /DQND ,QIRUPDWLRQ DQG &RPPunication Technology Agency] telecasts a weekly program on one of the television channels, since it is telecast in the early evening it does not reach its desired clients. Also, some of the respondents disclosed that this particular channel cannot Illustration be viewed in certain areas of the country. Therefore, even if ICTA spends a considerable amount of money on publicity and awareness programmes, it seems that the purpose has not been served and WKHLUHIIRUWVDUHSRRUO\WDUJHWHG¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQS Although the telecentres offer a wide range of services, many are not utilised. Thus, instead of Finding 6 providing the same sets of equipment to all centres, the needs of each individual centre should be considered. µ$OWKRXJKWKHUHLVDZLGe range of services offered by the centres, their level of use is extremely Illustration ORZ«>D@VPDOOSHUFHQWDJHRIFHQWUHVZHUHJLYHQDZHEFDPHUDLWZDVUHSRUWHGWKDWPDQ\RIWKH FHQWUHVKDYHQHYHUXVHGWKHP¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQS Many telecentres are situated in remote locations, are inadequately staffed and are poorly Finding 7 maintained. These factors contribute to their limited use and lack of functionality. µZKHQ WKH SHUVRQ LQ FKDUJH LV QRW WKHUH QRERG\ KDV DFFHVV WR WKH FHQWUH 7KH researcher HQFRXQWHUHGWKLVSUREOHPDWPDQ\FHQWUHVGXULQJYLVLW>VLF@«>L@WZDVREVHUYHGGXULQJWKHVXUYH\WKDW Illustration WKH PDMRULW\ RI 1DQDVDOD FHQWUHV DUH PDLQWDLQHG XQGHU SRRU SK\VLFDO FRQGLWLRQV¶ *DPDJH DQG Halpin 2007, p. 705). Finding 8 Telecentres lose customers to competitors who can offer the same services for lower prices. µ$VWKHUHDUHSOHQW\RIFKHDSHUSODFHVWKDWRIIHUWKHVHUYLFHDWDORZHUFRVWWKH\ORVHFXVWRPHUV¶ Illustration (Gamage and Halpin 2007, p. 706). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 168 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Telecentre operators are heavily reliant on government subsidies and, therefore, the sustainability Finding 9 of the telecentres is questionable. µ7KH VXUYH\ GDWD FRQILUPV WKDW DOO 1DQDVDODV DUH KLJKO\ SHU FHQW GHSHQGHQW RQ VXEVLGLHV Illustration SURYLGHGE\WKH,&7$¶*DPDJHDQG+alpin 2007, p. 706). The telecentres do not adequately cater for non-English speaking groups such as Sinhala and Tamil Finding 10 speakers. Off-line computer based training materials that were going to be made available to the telecentres by the ICTA in Sinhala, Tamil and English were not provided. µWKHXOWLPDWHDLPRIHVWDEOLVKLQJ1DQDVDODVLVWRSURYLGHDFDWDO\WLFHIIHFWIRUUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVLQ poverty reduction and social and economic development, this has not been addressed properly Illustration through the programme. If rural communities have access to material chiefly in English while they FKLHIO\XVH6LQKDODRU7DPLOWKLVVLWXDWLRQZLOOQRWFKDQJH¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQS ICT4D projects need to identify and solve the needs of their target population. Interventions that are Finding 11 poorly designed, implemented and promoted will not achieve their desired outcomes and the money spent to fund them will have been wasted. µ,I WKH QHHGV RI WKH UXUDO FRPPXQLWLHV DUH QRW FRUUHFWly identified and solutions are not found Illustration immediately to ensure sustainability, then the huge amount of money invested on bridging the digital GLYLGHZLOOGHILQLWHO\EHDZDVWH¶*DPDJHDQG+DOSLQS .DPDO6µ'HYHORSPHQW2Q-air: WomeQ V5DGLR3URGXFWLRQLQ$IJKDQLVWDQ¶,Q*HQGHU and Development, Vol. 15, Issue 3, pp. 399-411. Central government organisations may be unable to enforce their policies in locations where warlords or local militia have strong power bases. Donor agencies cannot solely rely on government Finding 1 support in these situations. The success of C4D initiatives in these contexts may be dependent on the backing of key political and/or military figures. µ:KLOHWKHUDGLRVWDWLRQKDGRIILFLDOO\EHHQJUDQted a licence from the Ministry of Information and in .DEXO,VPDLO.KDQ¶VSRZHUEDVHLQWKHZHVWZDVYHU\VWURQJDQGWKHFHQWUDOJRYHUQPHQWKDGYHU\ little power to enforce its policies in Herat. As a result, during the process of setting up the radio station, there was much concern when Ismail Khan chose not to offer any written guarantee that the Illustration RSHUDWLRQ ZRXOG UHFHLYH KLV VDQFWLRQ«>E@\ GHVFULELQJ WKH ZRPHQ¶V UDGLR VWDWLRQ DV D WRRO IRU ZRPHQ¶VLQVWUXFWLRQDQGFXOWXUHDQGLQYLWLQJWKH&DQDGLDQDPEDVVDdor to Afghanistan to the radio VWDWLRQ¶VODXQFK5DGLR6DKDUZDVDEOHWRUHFHLYH,VPDLO.KDQ¶VODVWPLQXWHVXSSRUW¶.DPDOS 400-401). Time restraints can mean that members of radio stations have very little time to plan their programming schedule and produce their own content. This can lead to a heavy reliance on Finding 2 pre-packaged programming created by donor agencies, which may not be representative of the target audience. µ:H KDYH IRXU PLQXWHV¶ 6HGGLTHK DQQRXQFHV DV VKH KXQWV IRU D SHQFLO µ:KHUH¶V WKH ZHHNO\ VFKHGXOH" «WKHUH ZDV YHU\ OLWWOH WLPH IRU GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ«>G@XULQJ WKHLU QRQ-stop eight-hour Illustration VFKHGXOHWKHZRPHQZHUHOLYHWRDLUIRUVL[KRXUVDQGDEOHWRSODQDQGSURJUDPPHIRUWZR«>W@KH\ had very little time to prepare programmes, and hence tended to rely on music and pre-packaged SURJUDPPLQJWRHDVHWKHLUKHDY\ZRUNORDG¶.DPDOS-402). 0HPEHUV RI 5DGLR 6DKDU KDG OLPLWHG DFFHVV WR GDWD DERXW ZRPHQ¶V UDGLR OLVWHQLQJ KDELWV Therefore, they made decisions about program content based on their own life experiences and social networks. However, their own perspectives and needs were not reflective of the majority of Finding 3 the Afghan female population. C4D initiatives need to consider whether or not the cultural, social and economic backgrounds of participants such as radio hosts and producers, are representative of the broader target population. µ5DGLR6DKDUZDVPDQGDWHGZLWKSURGXFLQJDQGEURDGFDVWLQJPDWHULDORILQWHUHVWWRZRPHQDQGWKH larger community, but had limited resources for finding out how its audience and especially women, Illustration OLVWHQHG WR WKH UDGLR«>W@KH IRXU IRXQGLQJ PHPEHUV RI WKH UDGLR VWDWLRQ DV XUEDQ KLJK VFKRRO graduate, dollar-earning radio professionals, comprised a tiny elite in the 80 per cent rural, 80 per FHQWLOOLWHUDWHRYHUZKHOPLQJO\µKRXVHZLIH¶$IJKDQIHPDOHSRSXODWLRQ¶.DPDOS Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 169 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Some of the women at Radio Sahar initially hid their inclusion of religious programming from Kamal because they assumed that she would disapprove of the content. Her role as an employee of a secular funding body Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society (IMPACS) led them to believe that Finding 4 she would inform the donor agency of their religion-inspired programming which may lead to their funding being cut. This demonstrates that the perceived interests and aims of donor agencies can influence the actions of C4D participants. µWKHZRPHQREVHUYHGP\VHFXODUELDV«VRPHRIWKHWHDPPHPEHUVUHVSRQGHGE\VKLHOGLQJWKHLU heavily religion-inspired programming. I believe this was, in large part, because they were worried Illustration that I would transmit that information to their also clearly secular western donors, who would in turn FXWRIIWKHLUIXQGLQJ¶.DPDOS Radio Sahar members self-censored their content in order to avoid scrutiny from male political and Finding 5 religious leaders. This self-FHQVRUVKLSKLQGHUHGWKHVWDWLRQ¶VDELOLW\WRDGGUHVVJHQGHULQHTXDOLWLHVLQ Afghanistan because potentially controversial topics were avoided. µFRQWHQWWKDWZDVOLNHO\WRLQFXUWKHZUDWKRIORFDOLQWHUHVWVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHZRPHQDWWKHUDGLR VWDWLRQLQFOXGHGµSOD\LQJWRRPXFKPXVLF¶DQGFULWLFLVLQJWKHORFDOPLOLWLDEHOLHYLQJWKDWWKH\ZHUH Illustration subject to heightenHGVFUXWLQ\DVDZRPHQ¶VUDGLRVWDWLRQWKHZRPHQSURGXFHUVFKRVHWRSURFHHG ZLWKFDUHDQGIRFXVRQZRPHQ¶VµVDIH¶HGXFDWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJIRUWKHEXONRIWKHLUFRQWHQW¶.DPDO 2007, p. 405). The pre-scripted nature of Radio Sahar content meant that illiterate people were excluded from the production process. The reliance on written scripts also meant that the radio content and Finding 6 presentation style was formal and official rather than conversational. This focus on the written word UDWKHUWKDQWKHµRUDOFXOWXUHPRUHGRPLQDQWLQ$IJKDQLVWDQ¶.DPDOSOLPLWHGWKHDSSHDO of the program to Afghan women who were not highly educated. µ,03$&6WUDLQLQJLQZHVWHUQVWDQGDUGRISURIHVVLRQDOMRXUQDOLVPDQGVRFLHWDOSUHIHUHQFHVIRUWKH urban and educated in Afghanistan pressed the radio station towards adopting a scripted and more Illustration formal radio voice over spontaneous conversational dialogue in its programming. The formal and privileged context that emerged as a result of the above influences led to radio that was often distant IURPWKHHYHU\GD\FRQFHUQVRIPRVW$IJKDQV¶.DPDOS-408). Creating opportunities for women to participate in the media sector will not necessarily change their Finding 7 unequal social status. C4D interventions that effectively promote gender equality should be holistic, culturally and socially specific and part of a long term vision. µ0HGLDDQGJHQGHUGHYHORSPHQWWKHQLQYROYHVPRUHWKDQVHWWLQJXSZRPHQ¶VUDGLRVWDWLRQV:KLOH often a useful tool for promoting gender equality, the media as a system can maintain inequality and Illustration be resistant to change. Gender and media objectives should be conceptualised with local understanding and expertise, long-term vision, and a more holistic approach for their interventions WREHHIIHFWLYH¶.DPDOS .DUDQ.*LPHQR-'0 7DQGRF(-Uµ7KH,QWHUQHWDQG0RELOH7HFKQRORJLHVLQ (OHFWLRQ&DPSDLJQV7KH*$%5,(/$:RPHQ¶V3DUW\'XULQJWKH3KLOLSSLQH(OHFWLRQV¶,Q Journal of Information Technology and Politics, Vol. 6, Issue 3-4, pp. 326-339. New communications technologies can be used in conjunction with traditional media to increase Finding 1 public engagement and generate political support during election campaigns. µ7KH*:3>*$%5,(/$:RPHQ¶V3DUW\@FRPELQHGJUDVVURRWVFDPSDLJQLQJWUDGLWLRQDOPHGLDDQG Illustration ,&7V LQ JHQHUDWLQJ VXSSRUW IRU WKH SDUW\ 7KLV VWUDWHJ\ DSSDUHQWO\ ZRUNHG¶ .DUDQ *LPHQR DQG Tandoc Jr. 2009, p. 336). Finding 2 Political parties with limited funds may be unable to adequately maintain and promote a website. µ)RU D :HE VLWH WR EH SRSXODU \RX KDYH WR GHYHORS LW DQG DGYHUWLVH LW«>Z@H KDG D SUREOHP Illustration PDLQWDLQLQJWKHZHEVLWHEHFDXVHZHGLGQRWKDYHHQRXJKIXQGV¶3DODED\LQ.DUDQ*Lmeno and Tandoc Jr. 2009, p. 332). Finding 3 The cost of airing television commercials on national television is prohibitive. Political Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 170 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 advertisements that are hosted on YouTube can generate widespread political exposure for less financial cost. µ7KLV><RX7XEHYLGHR@KHOSHGRXUFDPSDLJQDORW,WJRWZLGHUH[SRVXUHVLQFHRXUUHVRXUFHVIRU Illustration putting up these videos on TV [were] very limited and we could only afford very few exposures on TV DQGUDGLR¶3DODED\LQ.DUDQ*LPHQRDQG7DQGRF-U9, p. 333). New communications technologies are not effective if they are inaccessible. Members of the Finding 4 GABRIELA party thought that their mobile phone electoral campaign was more effective than their use of the Internet because mobile phones have a higher penetration rate in the Philippines. µXQIRUWXQDWHO\WKHUHDOLW\LVWKDWPDQ\)LOLSLQR¶VHVSHFLDOO\WKRVHDWWKHJUDVVURRWVVWLOOGRQRWKDYH Illustration DFFHVVWRWKH,QWHUQHW¶6DOYDGRULQ.DUDQ*LPHQRDQG7DQGRF-US The effectiveness of Internet based political campaigns can be increased if the medium is used Finding 5 early in the campaign. µ3URPRWLRQDOYLGHRVRQ<RX7XEHZRXOGKDYHKDGDELJJHULPSDFWKDGWKHPDWHULDOEHHQXSORDGHG Illustration HDUO\LQWKHFDPSDLJQ¶.DUDn, Gimeno and Tandoc Jr. 2009, p. 336). 0LFKDX / µ$SSURDFKLQJ 2OG 3UREOHPV LQ 1HZ :D\V &RPPXQLW\ 0RELOLVDWLRQ DV D 3ULPDU\ 3UHYHQWLRQ 6WUDWHJ\ WR &RPEDW 9LROHQFH $JDLQVW :RPHQ¶ ,Q *HQGHU DQG Development, Vol. 15, Issue 1, pp. 95-109. Stand alone awareness campaigns designed to address and change practices around violence are Finding 1 unlikely to succeed without a more systematic approach to addressing the social and cultural factors that drive violence. 'The task of challenging an entrenched value system is complex, and in efforts to make it manageable, a 'do what you can' strategy is often adopted, with the underlying assumption being that doing something is better than doing nothing. Raising Voices' experience over the past six Illustration years in East Africa has been that ad hoc activities and short-term engagement, where individuals and communities are provoked to question the status quo, but are not supported to find workable alternatives, can be counterproductive. They can build hope and then demoralise' (Michau 2007, p. 96-97). Community mobilisation can provide an alternative to media-based campaigns. Because they are Finding 2 more responsive and participatory they have better chance of addressing the root causes of violence. 'Community mobilisation adds up individual interventions, sequences them into a logical Illustration progression, strives to build on what is achieved, and has an overview of how various activities will slowly come together to change the social climate' (Michau 2007, p. 97). Social mobilisation efforts should be realistic about what can be achieved and engage across Finding 3 communities and the institutions that support them systematically and over the long-term if change is to occur. 'We failed to recognise several key factors: (a) thrusting rights messages into communities where people do not yet recognise that violence is a problem often creates defensiveness, confusion and rejections; (b) focusing on an end result (i.e. cessation of physical violence) is meaningless when Illustration the context of a relationship is not explored; (c) sporadic engagement with different sectors (e.g. religious leaders, police, health care providers, local government officials) results in fragmented and often counter-productive interventions' (Michau 2007, p. 97). Individuals can only sustain behaviour change if the communities around them support and endorse Finding 4 that change, i.e. social norms have to shift for change to be sustainable. 'VAW [violence against women] is normalised in many communities, so much so that women and men do not identify it as a problem or a violation of rights... We found that a focus on prevention, and Illustration on the root causes of VAW, rather than its diverse manifestations, means that the framework for community mobilisation can be used across cultures' (Michau 2007, p. 99). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 171 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Assessing the effectiveness of long-term social mobilisation campaigns is challenging because it is Finding 5 often difficult to link activities to changes in community held beliefs. '...there is a lack of knowledge and skills in carrying out operations research in the field of violence Illustration prevention. This area has fertile potential for collaborations between researchers and activist organisations' (Michau 2007, p. 106). 0LOOHU6µ-RXUQDOLVP7UDLQLQJLQ6UL/DQND0HHWLQJWKH1HHGVRI:RUNLQJ-RXUQDOLVWV¶ In Changing English: Studies in Culture and Education, Vol. 13, Issue 2, pp. 173-178. High levels of partisanship in media play a key role in dividing the wider journalism community, Finding 1 especially when it is divided along ethnic lines. 'There was almost no interaction (except on a small scale in the capital Colombo) between Sinhala Illustration and Tamil journalists during the war years' (Miller 2006, p. 173). Journalism training must be systematic with: (i) follow up if face-to-face training dominates; or (ii) Finding 2 additional face-to face training if the dominant mode of delivery is online learning. '... it had a strong distance-learning component. Previous courses in other places had run into Illustration continuity and relevance problems. We realised that many of our face-to-face training courses, however successful at the time, did not have sufficient follow up' (Miller 2006, p. 174). Developing a cadre of trained trainers through a training of trainers (TOT) process in addition to Finding 3 training staff within individual organisations helps to strengthen the pool of available professionals to work across the entire sector. '...we provided train-the-trainer courses and then practical experience of working alongside a BBC Illustration trainer. In many ways, this proved the toughest part of the programme to implement, because our partner institutes...underwent many staff changes over this period' (Miller 2006, p. 177). 0LOOLJDQ6 0\WWRQ*µ)URP0RXWKSLHFHWR3XEOLF6HUYLFH'RQRU6XSSRUWWR5DGLR %URDGFDVWHUV LQ 1HZ 'HPRFUDFLHV¶ ,Q 'HYHORSPHQW LQ 3UDFWLFH 9RO ,VVXH SS 491-503. State-run media are often ill-prepared and equipped for the public-service role that they are Finding 1 expected to take in democratic society. Funding deficits and a lack of capacity hamper the effectiveness of the support they can offer during democratic transition, i.e. in post-conflict states. 'They are ... still bound by the same 'rules of the game' that governed them prior to the democratic era. The voices that are heard, are interests that are promoted, and the 'spin' that is attached to Illustration various news items continue to closely reflect the agenda of the ruling party' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 492). Legislative reform of the media alone will not necessarily deliver change unless it is supported by Finding 2 meaningful capacity development. '... improved 'rules of the game' can take many years to evolve. Targeted donor support to state Illustration broadcasters can help to break down the established practices that serve to restrict debate and fair and balanced reporting' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 492). The rural poor are especially reliant on state broadcasting and many commercial outlets see little Finding 3 point in trying to reach such audiences. '...people in many parts of rural Africa remain reliant on the state broadcaster, despite the rapid and Illustration widespread growth of the independent broadcasting sector since 1990' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 492). Finding 4 Effective civil society engagement with state broadcasters remains problematic in many contexts Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 172 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 (due to domination by governing powers), in turn this can hamper the diversity of media voices available. 'The content of state-owned electronic media remains heavily state controlled, with limited Illustration opportunities for civil society or opposition parties to express their views or to stimulate debate' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 494). There is a strong correlation between poverty and: (i) a lack of electricity (i.e. power does not extend Finding 5 to poor remote areas); (ii) illiteracy; (iii) poor access to television and print media. In turn this places a particular emphasis on radio as a medium capable of reaching the poor. 'Successive surveys...show that radio is growing faster than all other media in audience reach... Illustration Radio has the potential to be a key medium for creating and establishing dialogue and debate between government and civil society' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 496). State media can be slow (or unwilling) to reflect democratic changes in their media content in Finding 6 transition/post-conflict societies. '...it was also apparent that citizens felt that the existing radio programmes did not provide the scope Illustration or have the legitimacy to air the views of 'ordinary people' regarding government, service delivery, or other topical matters' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 496). The introduction of a talk-show format to state media, one that addresses the role of government Finding 7 and its service delivery, helped to increase openness and accountability and allowed for greater diversity of voices to be heard. 'Hannu Daya [the talk-show] is viewed by listeners ... and staff of the radio station as a good Illustration example of openness and accountability where the voices of citizens could be heard, not least about so-called 'sensitive issues' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 497). Donor supported C4D interventions may struggle to be sustainable when external funding is no Finding 8 longer available. Developing realistic sustainability and phase-out strategies are important to ensuring local ownership of initiatives in the long-run. '...the momentum and interest generated by the successful completion of the pilot phase should have triggered the development of a realistic phase-out strategy. This should have been built on the Illustration notion of equal partnership, and an explicit statement of respective expectations, responsibilities, and obligations' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 499). C4D initiatives need to consider the wider institutional setting when building capacity and skills and Finding 9 not just focus on stand alone initiatives. Attention should be paid to complementary activities that help improve the organisational/institutional context for media freedoms. '...Radio Jigawa remain insufficiently engaged with and interested in Hannu Daya. Moreover, with ... Illustration [the initiative] ... focusing on the production, senior management may even resent the perceived 'benefits' made available to the (junior) staff' (Milligan and Mytton 2009, p. 499). 3DOXFN ( / µ,V ,W %HWWHU 1Rt to Talk? Group Polarization, Extended Contact, and 3HUVSHFWLYH 7DNLQJ LQ (DVWHUQ 'HPRFUDWLF 5HSXEOLF RI &RQJR¶ ,Q 3HUVRQDOLW\ DQG 6RFLDO Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 36, Issue 9, pp. 1170-1185. Listeners who listened to both the talk-show and soap opera discussed the soap opera more than Finding 1 those who only listened to the soap opera. This suggests that multiple-media broadcasting similar content can have a compound effect, i.e. increase potential impact. 'An overwhelming majority reported that the fictional program inspired discussions about actual Illustration situations in eastern DRC...Talk show listeners were more likely to report that their discussions were contentious' (Paluck 2010, p. 1177). Exposure to the talk-show appeared to harden attitudes towards outgroups and decrease tolerance, Finding 2 rather than increase it. The author cautions that either the methodological design or the quality of the media content could have influenced this finding, i.e. the content lacked a clear behaviour Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 173 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 change focus and offered no course of action associated with conflict reduction. 'The talk show did not affect tolerance of outgroups in general, however, exposure to the talk show Illustration was associated with less tolerance for disliked groups' (Paluck 2010, p. 1177). The format of C4D and the need for pretesting audience feedback prior to broadcast is essential to ensuring that content achieves the desired effect. The lack of clear goals associated with the Finding 3 discussions mean that testing outcomes is problematic and points to need for clear objectives, goals and impact indicators. 'Talk for talk's sake can make discussants feel impotent, and this sense of 'cheap talk' can fuel Illustration frustration and anger' (Paluck 2010, p. 1181). PalucN ( / *UHHQ ' 3 µ'HIHUHQFH 'LVVHQW DQG 'LVSXWH 5HVROXWLRQ $Q ([SHULPHQWDO,QWHUYHQWLRQ8VLQJ0DVV0HGLDWR&KDQJH1RUPVDQG%HKDYLRULQ5ZDQGD¶,Q American Political Science Review, Vol. 103, Issue 4, pp. 622-644. In the short-term, radio soap opera can improve the ability of individuals and communities to Finding 1 express dissent, increase self-reliance and collective action in post-conflict societies. 'Our findings suggest that certain aspects of political culture are susceptible to short-term change in Illustration the wake of non-institutional interventions, such as media programs' (Paluck and Green 2009, p. 623). Radio soap opera that focuses on social and political conflict can help to increase social trust within discrete social and cultural groups, but may do little to close the social distance between groups Finding 2 affected by conflict. This is especially relevant to conflict characterised by ethnic cleansing or genocide. '...the behavioral changes...described were not accompanied by a more general willingness to Illustration affiliate with members of other groups...We found no reduction in social distance...' (Paluck and Green 2009, p. 630). Conflict and reconciliation focused edutainment (as role-played from a partial radio script) can lead Finding 3 to a reduction in dependency on external institutions and bodies (NGOs and government) and an increase in social action. '...participants decided to welcome the refugees and to shame and sometime punish those who wanted to keep them out...The two dominant motifs were to handle the problem from within the Illustration community, by collectively organizing shelter and gathering resources from each family' (Paluck and Green 2009, p. 633). The use of mass media (i.e. C4D interventions) can be an important tool in promoting how Finding 4 institutions are understood by the public, how they work and how they can be challenged to improve. Further studies are required to verify the role media plays in this dynamic. 'Deepening our understanding of media influence, behavioural change and political culture requires Illustration more studies in a variety of media and institutional settings' (Paluck and Green, 2009, p. 638). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 174 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Sengupta, A., Long, E. G., Singhal, A. & Shefner-Rogers, C. L µ7KH 6DGD 6D\V :H :RPHQ +DYH 2XU 5LJKWV $ *HQGHU $QDO\VLV RI DQ ,&7 ,QLWLDWLYH LQ $IJKDQLVWDQ¶ ,Q International Communication Gazette, Vol. 69, Issue 4, pp. 335-353. Undertaking gender analysis in the context of ICT or C4D interventions is critical if equity and rights Finding 1 issues are to be addressed and, in particular, the empowerment of women is to be realised. 'We hold that technology is not gender neutral and that gender and technology are dynamic cultural Illustration processes that impact the diffusion of technologies and individuals' differential access to technology' (Sengupta et al. 2007, p. 336). Women's access to ICTs is constrained by a range of contextual and cultural factors, including Finding 2 demands on their time and economic constraints. In the context of Afghanistan, illiteracy also constrains access to information. 'Reports showed that: (1) women are underrepresented in all forms of ICT initiatives; (2) younger Illustration women have more opportunities to access ICTs than older women; and (3) access to and training in basic skills are inadequate for women to equally use ICTs' (Sengupta et al, 2007, p. 338). Women found the information contained on the Sada device to be culturally appropriate, easy to understand and were enjoyable (being listened to many times) as the content used simple language Finding 3 and a variety of genres (jokes, drama, etc.). The device was also found to be easy to use and cost effective as it required no batteries (due to the solar power). '... the content of the Sada did not seem to offend Afghan cultural and religious beliefs, even though Illustration it challenged prevailing social norms by promoting women's equality in a patriarchal society' (Sengupta et al, 2007, p. 341). The Sada device became a focus for collective listening and engagement around the content contained on the device. In simple media contexts or contexts constrained by a lack of electricity or Finding 4 mainstream media, such devices could have a potentially important role to play in bringing information about civic and human rights, and in starting dialogue in information-poor environments. 'Four or five people sat around together...and we listened to it. Then our neighbours heard the Sada Illustration and came and joined us. At other times we invited them to listen. If it was around dinnertime, we forced them to stay on for dinner' (Sengupta 2007, p. 342). The media content (which was relevant to both men and women) contained on the Sada device had an impact on women's understanding of their rights, though it is noted that open discussion of Finding 5 women's rights is still constrained by the conservative cultural context. Nonetheless, there is evidence of the media content empowering women and increasing their confidence to act over rights denial or abuse. 'Now we understand our rights through Sada. So when we see any women in trouble we can go and Illustration discuss things and tell them that this is the right way. And these are our rights' (Sengupta 2007, p. 344). C4D interventions that target gender inequality can positively affect social norms regarding the Finding 6 social mobility, roles and rights of women in conservative society. This was found to be especially significant in the areas of early and forced marriage and the right to education and employment. 'Several women spoke about how their husbands and fathers, after listening to Sada, became more Illustration open minded about what women could and could not do' (Sengupta 2007, p. 345). Civic education targeted at women through Sada led to an increase in knowledge of civics and in Finding 7 electoral participation. 'We went to the voting center and voted. Sada helped us decide to vote...We didn't know we could Illustration vote before' (Sengupta 2007, p. 347). Where information and communication technologies are socially constructed as 'male', such as in Finding 8 Afghanistan, thought needs to be put in to how the design or styling of the ICTs can enhance the potential for ownership and use by women. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 175 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 'The color-coding helped to prevent the men from taking women's Sadas; a male seen with a pink Illustration Sada would be considered inappropriate, and others would know that he had taken what was supposed to belong to his wife' (Sengupta 2007, p. 348). When working in culturally conservative contexts, access to primary stakeholders may be Finding 9 constrained and consideration should be given to how such constraints can be mitigated. 'Our inability to speak to women in their homes meant that we had a somewhat biased sample of Illustration 'progressive' women who frequented the women's centers' (Sengupta 2007, p. 350). Impacts were found to be greatest in areas that were deemed to be more secure and progressive Finding 10 that others. '...the research participants were possibly more favorable to the Sada messages than listeners who Illustration lived farther from Kabul in areas with continued conflict and stronger Taliban influence' (Sengupta 2007, p. 351). Tacchi, J., Watkins, J., & Keerthirathne, K. (20 µ3DUWLFLSDWRU\ &RQWHQW &UHDWLRQ 9RLFH &RPPXQLFDWLRQ'HYHORSPHQW¶,Q'HYHORSPHQWLQ3UDFWLFH9RO,VVXH-5, pp. 573-584. ICT access and content creation by the poor can be characterised by exclusion, leading to Finding 1 voicelessness. Using participatory research techniques, trusted local intermediaries and relevant combinations of ICTs, initiatives can be optimised to promote inclusion and voice. 'Much of the effectiveness of these creative engagements can be attributed to an understanding that access to ICT does not automatically lead to access to useful and useable information and voice. Illustration Access requires not simply physical proximity, but an understanding of the culture of the information systems, the rules that govern information technology, and its potential' (Tacchi et al. 2009, p. 580). Community access to and effective use of ICTs requires a systematic approach to building digital Finding 2 literacy amongst stakeholders. '...access to ICT, certainly for fully engaged citizens, requires a degree of digital literacy that Illustration includes the ability to produce as well as consume information and content' (Tacchi et al. 2009, p. 580). When considering the use of intermediaries used to link ICT initiatives to poor and marginalised communities it is essential that power dynamics and the potential for them to exacerbate exclusion Finding 3 is considered. An intermediary that is not trusted by the community will result in poor uptake of the ICT initiative by the community. '...the basic idea of intermediaries - while it has great potential to link communities to technology and media - nonetheless can prove to be highly problematic. The social and political contexts in which Illustration the technological or human intermediaries operate shape the processes that emerge' (Tacchi et al. 2009, p. 580). Participatory media content creation does not necessarily lead to either voice or empowerment. There must be an audience for a voice to be heard, therefore in consideration of such interventions Finding 4 as they might relate to conflict reduction, it is important that an emphasis is placed on participatory dialogue and sharing, i.e. using media to bridge the gap between opposing sides and to build trust and ultimately dialogue. '...participatory [media] content creation can be an effective mechanism for participatory Illustration development. It does not, however, escape the many challenges and barriers that other forms of participatory development face' (Tacchi et al. 2009, p. 581). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 176 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 9ROOKDUGW - &RXWLQ 0 6WDXE ( :HLVV * 'HIODQGHU - µ'HFRQVWUXFWLQJ +DWH 6SHHFK LQ WKH '5& $ 3V\FKRORJLFDO 0HGLD 6HQVLWL]DWLRQ &DPSDLJQ¶ ,Q -RXUQDO RI +DWH Studies, Vol. 5, Issue 1, pp. 15-35. Amongst mass media, radio broadcasting has played a central and historic role in generating Finding 1 conflict and instability across the developing world, but especially in Africa, over the past twenty years. '...the media has become an effective tool in propagating hatred and ethnic divisions, thereby Illustration increasing existing tensions between and within the countries by reinforcing nationalistic sentiments, or heightening and politicizing ethnic identities' (Vollhardt et al. 2006, p. 15-16). In contexts in which conflict is occurring, enhancing media literacy (i.e. the ability to critically assess Finding 2 media content for its truth and voracity) can play an important role in countering hate speech. '...it is crucial to provide citizens with...tools for a critical assessment of political broadcasts that Illustration empower them and enable them to analyse, detect and deconstruct hate speech in media' (Vollhardt et al. 2006, p. 19). Developing a comprehensive understanding of conflict is critical to the deployment of counter hate speech strategies and campaigns that empower and support groups affected by violence. Hate Finding 3 speech builds on stereotypes, societal beliefs and cultural preconceptions which need to be understood before hate speech can be effectively countered. 'understanding the roots of violence will enhance violence prevention and reconciliation. The goals Illustration include healing from the complex trauma that such violence creates and promoting justice processes in post conflict societies' (Vollhardt 2006, p. 20). The central characteristics of hate speech have been identified and focus on: (i) instigating elements; (ii) derogatory elements and; (iii) strategies designed to promote self-interest or political gain while causing harm to others (see Vollhardt et al. 2006, p. 29-30 for a full list of hate speech Finding 4 characteristics). The implication of the availability of such characteristics is the potential to undertake discourse and textual analysis of media text to analyse the extent to which they promote hatred. 'While not all [characteristics] must be present in a given piece of communication in order to define it as hate speech, this classification provides a tool that allows us to analyze any given statement, Illustration speech, or article for elements that typically distinguish neutral communication from hate speech (Vollhardt 2006, p. 31). :KDODQ - µ7KH 3RZHU RI )ULHQGV 7KH 5HJLRQDO $VVLVWDQFH 0LVVLRQ WR 6RORPRQ ,VODQGV¶,Q-RXUQDORI3HDFH5HVHDUFK9RO,VVXHSS-637. Conflict reduction and peace-building interventions may be hampered in contexts where weak investment in research constrains understanding of the socio-cultural dynamics or Finding 1 politico-economic dimensions of conflict. Ongoing examination of the relationships between peace operation and local people can help to ensure effective operations. 'The failure of local and international actors to systematically document the scale of violence in Illustration Solomon Islands means that conflict data is woefully adequate' (Whalan 2010, p. 630). The RAMSI [Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands] intervention's potential to be effective was enhanced by the large-scale deployment of military personnel which had a substantial Finding 2 'coercive' effect and removed the impetus for local people to 'self-defend', abandon personal weapons and thereby created better public security. 'RAMSI immediately began strengthening the criminal justice system; the threat and use of legal Illustration sanction proved crucial to security provision, enabling arrest and detention as well as deterring future criminality' (Whalan 2010, p. 631). Unilateral conflict reduction and peace-building initiatives may stand a greater chance of success Finding 3 because they are easier to coordinate and support. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 177 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 'RAMSI was also legitimized by the institutional capacity derived from its single-state leadership, which ensured substantial financial resources, a firm commitment to sustained support and the Illustration efficiency advantages of fast deployment, clear and simplified chains of command, and easier coordination' (Whalan 2010, p. 632). The deployment of Pacific Islander personnel helped to legitimise the intervention and helped to Finding 4 ensure that communications between RAMSI and the general public were effective. 'Pacific Islander personnel brought cultural familiarity, which assisted communications and helped Illustration to diffuse inevitable tensions between traditional practices and RAMSI's rule of law approach' (Whalan 2010, p. 632). The development of effective communication strategies helped to support the legitimacy of the RAMSI intervention. Communication occurred face-to-face in the context of ceremonies to destroy weapons, national radio broadcasting, through newly established police posts, press conferences Finding 5 and public meetings. This supports the notion that multi-channel communications is effective and that interventions can be more effective if the general public is clear about how they work and the ways in which they exercise power. 'Given that public support was considered by the operation to be its greatest asset, the process of Illustration publicly justifying RAMSI's actions worked as an important check on the institution's exercise of power' (Whalan 2010, p. 634). Public perceptions of RAMSI eroded as the intervention sought to bolster local leadership and reduce its own influence. This has lead to claims that RAMSI is a foreign policy tool of the Australian Finding 6 Government, rather than a helping hand. In turn this highlights the challenge associated with long-term peace-building and in the transfer of power to local actors. 'Attempts to reduce RAMSI's public profile after 2004 aimed to promote local leadership; highlighting the dilemmas of state-building, this had the unintended consequence of eroding Illustration RAMSI's popular accountability and the quality of its relationships with various local actors' (Whalan 2010, p. 635). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 178 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Appendix X: List of publication conclusions Bright, D. and Monzani, B. (2010). Final Evaluation Report: Youth and Non-Violence in Guinea, Search for Common Ground with support from US Agency for International Development (USAID), pp. 1-37. Missing project documentation or records that are not standardised can make it difficult for Finding 1 evaluators to assess the full impact of a C4D project. µ:KLOHSURMHFWGRFXPHQWDWLRQZDVE\DQGODUJHDYDLODEOHDQGDFFXUDWH6RPHHOHPHQWVZHUHWRGDWH missing, including the output figures for the last project quarter (Jan-Mar 2010). Also, data about Illustration SDUWLFLSDQWV DQG ZKHUH DYDLODEOH EHQHILFLDULHV ZDV QRW V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ DJJUHJDWHG¶ %ULJKW DQG Monzani 2010, p. 7). If questionnaires are not conducted correctly they may be incomplete or inaccurate. This can lead to Finding 2 their exclusion from the study and can create information gaps. µ«WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUHV ZHUH FRPSOHWHG ZLWKRXW VXSHUYLVLRQ DQG LQ WKH FDVH RI .LQGLD WKH\ ZHUH Illustration given to the local facilitator to be distributed to different participants. As a result some of the TXHVWLRQQDLUHVKDGWREHYRLGHG¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS The everyday living situations and responsibilities of women may preclude them from participating in C4D projects or make it more difficult for them to participate. For example, women who are Finding 3 primary child carers may be unable to attend project events and training. This can result in an imbalanced gender ratio, with more male participants than female participants. µ7KHJHQGHUUDWLRRIWKHTuestionnaire sample is not balanced (26% female to 70% male), and the LPEDODQFH VHHPV WR EH UHIOHFWHG LQ SURMHFW DFWLYLWLHV«WKH DFWLYLWLHV PLJKW QRW KDYH WDNHQ LQWR Illustration sufficient consideration the daily situation and challenges faced by women (taking time off from ZRUNOHDYLQJFKLOGUHQEHKLQG¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS 3DUWLFLSDWLRQ LQ WKH µ<RXWK DQG 1RQ-9LROHQFH LQ *XLQHD¶ SURMHFW LQFUHDVHG \RXWKV¶ NQRZOHGJH RI Finding 4 human rights, civic duties and conflict resolution. µ7KHSUH- and post-training questionnaires that SFCG [Search for Common Ground] staff used after HDFK ZRUNVKRS VHH 4XDUWHUO\ 5HSRUWV KDYH WUDFNHG WKH SRVLWLYH FKDQJHV LQ SDUWLFLSDQWV¶ Illustration knowledge of human rights, civic duties and conflict resolution throughout the life of the project. This ILQGLQJ LV FRQILUPHG E\ WKH UHVXOWV RI WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUH XVHG GXULQJ WKH HYDOXDWLRQ¶ %ULJKW DQG Monzani 2010, p. 12). 7KH µ<RXWK DQG 1RQ-9LROHQFH LQ *XLQHD¶ SURMHFW SURPRWHG FROODERUDWLRQ EHWZHHQ GLIIHUHQW \RXWK Finding 5 organisations in Guinea. µ«WKH SURMHFW KDV DOORZHG WKHP WR ZRUN WRJHWKHU DQG LQFUHDVH FROODERUDWLRQ DPRQJ \RXWK DVVRFLDWLRQVZKLFKZDVQRWWKHFDVHEHIRUHWKHVWDUWRIDFWLYLWLHV«µZHJDLQHGFROODERUDWLRQDPRQJ Illustration RXUVHOYHV¶VWDWHGD\RXQJSDUWLFLSDQWIrom Mamou, when asked about what he liked best about the SURMHFW¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS 7KHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-9LROHQFHLQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWLQVSLUHGVRPHSDUWLFLSDQWVWRRUJDQLVHWKHLURZQ Finding 6 conflict resolution initiatives and other activities. This suggests that the project effectively empowered and equipped young people to continue non-violence education. µ$VSDUWRIWKHVHQVLWL]DWLRQFDPSDLJQLQ.LQGLDWKH\RXQJSDUWLFLSDQWVRUJDQL]HGDFRQIHUHQFHDWD ORFDO VFKRRO«>I@ROORZLQJ WKLV HYHQW WKH VFKRRO SULQFLSDO VHQW D OHWWHU WR 6)&*¶V ORFDO IDFLOLWDWRU Illustration WKDQNLQJKHUDQGWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQIRUKROGLQJVXFKHYHQW>VLF@«>W@KHSULQFLSDOZHQWRQWRVD\WKDW following the event the students decided unanimously to set up a committee for the peaceful UHVROXWLRQRIFRQIOLFWV¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS The implementation of C4D projects that utilise radio can be hampered by a lack of resources, Finding 7 equipment and poor infrastructure. µWKHODFNRIDGHTXDWHUHVRurces and equipment caused a few problems. Other challenges, like fuel Illustration shortages, are linked to the poor state of infrastructure in Guinea. The Directors in Kindia and Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 179 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Konkan lamented the poor state of their current equipment and how this should be replaced to LPSURYHWKHTXDOLW\RISURJUDPV¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS The radio programs (Barada magazine and interactive shows) were highly valued by the project participants, community leaders and the radio stations. In particular, respondents indicated that they Finding 8 enjoyed the responsibility of facilitating the discussion in the interactive show, a format that encouraged listeners to call in to discuss a particular topic. µ7KHUDGLRSURJUDPVERWKWKHPDJD]LQH%DUDGDDQGWKHLQWHUactive show) were very appreciated by young participants, community leaders and the radio stations themselves. Young participants Illustration enjoyed the opportunity to participate in the production of the show and even more so the responsibility of facilitating discuVVLRQVLQWKHLQWHUDFWLYHVKRZ¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS The interactive radio format involves the risk that callers will make derogatory comments live on air Finding 9 WKDWLQFLWHYLROHQFHDQGKDWUHG2QO\RQHVXFKLQFLGHQWRFFXUUHGGXULQJWKHµYouth and Non-Violence LQ*XLQHD¶SURMHFWVXJJHVWLQJWKDWWKHEHQHILWVRILQWHUDFWLYHUDGLRRXWZHLJKWKHULVNV µ,Q0DPRXDFDOOHUGXULQJRQHRIWKHVHVKRZVPDGHGHURJDWRU\UHPDUNVDERXW3UHVLGHQW'DGLV Camara, leading to the suspension of broadcasts for two months. This has been the only such Illustration LQFLGHQWUHPDUNHGDQG5DGLR'LUHFWRUVDUHDGDPDQWDERXWWKHULVNRIVXFKRFFXUUHQFHVEHLQJORZ¶ (Bright and Monzani 2010, p. 16). No one reported any major violent incidents in the three cLWLHVZKHUHWKHµ<RXWKDQG1RQ-Violence in *XLQHD¶ ZDV FRQGXFWHG DQG DOO SHRSOH LQWHUYLHZHG QRWHG SRVLWLYH FKDQJHV LQ \RXWK EHKDYLRXU including increased mediation skills. This is significant given that there was a violent protest and Finding 10 massacre in the city of Conakry in 2010. Some project participants in Mamou reported that they received rallying calls from their peers in Conakry which they rejected because of their involvement in the Youth and Non-Violence project. µ$OOSHRSOHLQWHUYLHZHG\Rung participants, beneficiaries, local authorities and civil society leaders) stated that no major instances of violence have occurred in their respective cities after the events of 2007. They all acknowledged that violence has decreased considerably, and all appreciated how the youth in Kindia, Mamou and Kankan have started playing a more positive role in their Illustration FRPPXQLWLHV«ORFDO DXWKRULWLHV UHFDOOHG WKHLU FRQFHUQ DERXW WKH SRWHQWLDO IRU YLROHQFH E\ \RXQJ people, most notably after the 28 September stadium PDVVDFUH LQ &RQDNU\«VRPH \RXQJ participants in Mamou, when asked about this, even mentioned having received rallying calls from WKHLUSHHUVLQ&RQDNU\ZKLFKWKH\UHMHFWHGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHZRUNLQZKLFKWKH\ZHUHIXOO\HQJDJHG¶ (Bright and Monzani 2010, p. 17). The impact of C4D projects can be more effectively gauged if monitoring systems are developed Finding 11 that are tailored to the specific project. µ,PSURYHWKHFROOHFWLRQRIUHOHYDQWRXWSXWDQGRXWFRPH-level data by creating a monitoring system Illustration EHWWHUWDLORUHGWRWKHSURMHFW¶VVSHFLILFIRUPXOD¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS The low number of female participants in the project could be addressed by an explicit gender Finding 12 strategy. µ'HYHORSDPRUHH[SOLFLWJHQder strategy to ensure greater participation by women and young girls Illustration LQDOOSURMHFWDFWLYLWLHV¶%ULJKWDQG0RQ]DQLS 7KHUH LV D ODFN RI GDWD DERXW WKH LPSDFW RI WKH µ<RXWK DQG 1RQ-9LROHQFH LQ *XLQHD¶ SURMHFW RQ Finding 13 beneficiaries. The benefits of the program for community members in project locations need to be more consistently measured. µ6)&* KDV VXFFHVVIXOO\ HVWDEOLVKHG D SUHVHQFH LQ HDFK FLW\ DQG HIIHFWLYHO\ OLDLVHV ZLWK SURMHFW participants and partners. Beneficiaries have, however, remained largely out of this loop, making it difficult to judge what changes the project is promoting in them. This could easily be corrected by Illustration ensuring a more regular collection of feedback (letters, call-ins) and the organization of regular TXDUWHUO\)RFXV*URXS'LVFXVVLRQV)*'VZLWKFRPPXQLW\PHPEHUVLQSURMHFWORFDWLRQV¶%ULJKW and Monzani 2010, p. 21). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 180 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Dahal, J., Kafle, K. & Bhattarai, K. (2008) 'Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups Program - (YDOXDWLRQ5HSRUW¶ Search for Common Ground, pp. 1-53. Poor communication and a lack of collaboration between different project partners and Finding 1 organisations can result in duplication and inadequate information sharing which reduces the effectiveness of C4D projects. µ7KRXJK WKHUH LV &$$)* >&KLOGUHQ $VVRFLDWHG ZLWK $UPHG )RUFHV DQG $UPHG *URXS@ ZRUNLQJ JURXSV¶PHHWLQJDQGVKDULQJJRLQJRQDWWKHFHQWUDOOHYHOWKHSUDFWLFHZDVIRXQGWREHPLQLPDODW the district level. In accordance with the respondents from the local partner organization in Surkhet, Illustration there was occasional informal sharing of child protection issues among the child protection organizations but in Dang there was no such mechanism. Organizations were found to be working in isolation and on iQGLYLGXDOEDVLV¶'DKDO.DIOHDQG%KDWWDUDLS Radio programs that incorporate local content and involve local participants in their production are Finding 2 more popular than centrally produced and disseminated programs. µ,Q6XUkhet, all of the respondents expressed that locally produced Sunau Bolau radio program was WKHPRVWHIIHFWLYHDLUHGIURPWKHORFDO)0UDGLRVWDWLRQ³/RFDOLVVXHVDQGDFWLYHLQYROYHPHQWRIWKH Illustration local children including CAAFAG are the secrets of its populariW\´VDLGRQHUHVSRQGHQW«¶'DKDO Kafle and Bhattarai 2008, p. 17). In some regions, there may be no or limited access to FM radio coverage. This needs to be Finding 3 considered in the design of C4D projects that utilise FM radio. Children in the Dang districts were unable to access the radio programs, despite the fact that they lived in a designated project area. µ'HVSLWHEHLQJDSURMHFWDUHDWKHFDVHRI'DQJZDVGLIIHUHQWDVWKHUHZDVQRDFFHVVWRWKH)0UDGLR coverage from Deukhuri FM station in Dang and Tinau station in Butwal. The respondents from the Illustration ORFDOFRPPXQLW\DQGFKLOGUHQUHSRUWHGWKDWWKH\FRXOGKDUGO\OLVWHQWR6XQDX%RODX¶'DKDO.DIOH and Bhattarai 2008, p. 18). The incorporation of English terms and the use of formal and complex language in radio programs Finding 4 made the programs more difficult for Nepali children to understand and less appealing. µ«WKH\ VDLG ³7KH ODQJXDJH LV QRW FKLOG IULHQGO\ DV WKH SUHVHQWHUV XVH WKH FRPSOH[ VHQWHQFH Illustration structures with frHTXHQW(QJOLVKWHUPLQRORJLHV´'DKDO.DIOHDQG%KDWWDUDLS Finding 5 Radio programs that use lengthy interviews and discussions may not be entertaining for children. µ«WKHUHZHUHVRPHFRPSODLQWVRIWKHUDGLRSURJUDPEHLQJOHVVHntertaining due to more focus on Illustration GLVFXVVLRQDQGLQWHUYLHZV¶'DKDO.DIOHDQG%KDWWDUDLS The timing of radio programs needs to be carefully considered so that the target audience can be Finding 6 effectively reached. Sunau Bolau was broadcast in the morning, a time when children were often working or preparing to go to school and unable to listen to the program. µ$ERYHDOOWKHPRUQLQJWLPHZDVQRWDSSURSULDWHIRUFKLOGUHQDVLWZDVWKHWLPHWRZRUNRUEHUHDG\WR Illustration go to school for WKHP(YHQLQJWLPHFRXOGEHDSSURSULDWHIRUFKLOGUHQ¶'DKDO.DIOHDQG%KDWWDUDL 2008, p. 19). &XOWXUDOO\VSHFLILFRUµORFDO¶PHGLDIRUPVVXFKDV'RKRUL>D1HSDOLIRONWUDGLWLRQRIGLDORJXLQJWKURXJK Finding 7 songs] can be an effective way to deliver C4D messages and promote community participation. µ'RKRUL KDG SOD\HG DQ LPSRUWDQW UROH WR UDLVH DZDUHQHVV WR WKH FRPPXQLW\ DERXW UHWXUQ DQG Illustration reintegration of Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups (CAAFAG) by providing touchy [VLF@PHVVDJHV¶'DKDO.DIOHDQG%KDWWDUDLS The availability of project materials such as posters and cassettes and the organisation of project activities can vary widely across districts. The effectiveness of C4D interventions may differ greatly Finding 8 depending on the activities and materials available in each location, as such, generalisations about the impact of projects at the national level may be unreliable. µ«LQ WKH FDVH RI &KLWZDQ LW ZDV IRXQG WKDW WKHUH ZHUH QR ,(& >Information, Education, Illustration &RPPXQLFDWLRQ@PDWHULDOVGLVWULEXWHGWRWKH81,&()ZRUNLQJSDUWQHUVLQWKH&$$)*LVVXHV>VLF@¶ Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 181 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 (Dahal, Kafle and Bhattarai 2008, p. 27). µ7KHUHLVQRXQLIRUPLW\LQWKHIUHTXHQF\DQGWLPLQJRIWKHLQIRUPDWLRQUHFHLYHGLQDOOSURMHFW DUHDV¶ (Dahal, Kafle and Bhattarai 2008, p. 28). Everitt, P., Williams, T., & Myers, M. (2004) Evaluation of Search for Common Ground Activities in Sierra Leone, Search for Common Ground (SFCG), Sierra Leone and Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-46. The success of C4D projects and the trustworthy reputation of development organisations can create problems, including dependency, sustainability and high demand. Many individuals and groups approach TDS [Talking Drum Studios, used in this report to describe all SFCG activities in Finding 1 Sierra Leone] for assistance with a wide range of issues and this places pressure on the organisation. TDS needs to educate people about the roles and responsibilities of other institutions, and where they can go to address their problems. Furthermore, TDS needs to implement processes to increase the capacity and confidence of people to conduct activities without support from TDS. µ«7'6QHHGWRWDNHGHOLEHUDWHVWHSVWRLQFUHDVHWKHFDSDFLWy and confidence of alliances like the Transport Stakeholders Task Force to ensure that it is capable and confident enough to carry on its DFWLYLWLHVZLWKRXWDQ\RXWVLGHVXSSRUW«7'6KDVEHHQDYLFWLPRILWVRZQVXFFHVV7'6RIILFHVVHHP to have a constant flow of individuals at the door seeking clarity about an issue or a course of UHGUHVV IRU D SUREOHP RU D FRPSODLQW :KLOH WKHVH SHUVRQDO SUREOHPV DUH QRW HVVHQWLDOO\ 7'6¶ Illustration people come to them because they are perceived to be independent and trustworthy. This puts TDS under a lot of pressure. TDS should seek ways in which to ensure information in the public domain include the roles and responsibilities of other agencies such as the courts, police, social welfare, RWKHU1*2VZRPHQ¶VJURXSVHWFDQGHQOLJKWHn people as to where they should go to address their VSHFLILFSUREOHPV¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS As the post-conflict situation in Sierra Leone began to change, the priorities and aims of SFCG (Search for Common Ground) also shifted from peace-EXLOGLQJ WR D µULJKWV EDVHG¶ DSSURDFK Finding 2 designed to further encourage social cohesion. Successful C4D initiatives need to respond and adapt to developments in post-conflict settings. µ7'6¶PRYHDZD\IURPSHDFH-building and towards building of accountability and good-governance Illustration LVDQHQWLUHO\DSSURSULDWHVWUDWHJ\DWWKLVVWDJHRI6LHUUD/HRQH¶VGHYHORSPHQW¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG Myers 2004, p. 4). An appropriate exit strategy for TDS needs to be developed to ensure the long term sustainability of Finding 3 funded and supported initiatives such as community radio stations. A clear exit strategy will help staff and project partners to plan more effectively. µ7'6QHHGVWRGHYHORSDQH[LWVWUDWHJ\7KHUHLVDULVNWKDW without one, longer term sustainability LVVXHVPD\EHPDUJLQDOLVHG¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS Illustration µ7KH GHYHORSPHQW RI DQ H[LW VWUDWHJ\ SHUKDSV LQFOXGLQJ EHQFKPDUNV DQG LQGLFDWRUV WKDW UHIOHFW anticipated progress in Sierra Leone, would further assist both TDS staff and its partners to plan PRUHHIIHFWLYHO\LQWKHORQJWHUP¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS The activities of organisations like TDS can be strengthened by building strategic alliances with local and international partners, such as ministries, government commissions, NGOs [Non-Governmental Organisations], and other CSOs [Civil Society Organisations]. Alliance building Finding 4 enables TDS to tackle issues that they could not effectively address alone and to pass on skills and experience to local organisations which will benefit Sierra Leone when TDS leaves the region. The collective strength of an alliance may be greater than the influence of an individual organisation. µ7'6FHUWDLQO\FRXOGQRWGRWKHVHWKings alone. Coalitions have more power to address issues than individual Non-*RYHUQPHQWDO2UJDQLVDWLRQV1*2¶V«WKHDOOLDQFHEXLOGLQJDSSURDFKKDVDOORZHG TDS to respond to issues as they arise in a flexible manner which gives strength in numbers and Illustration presents a more credible, even formidable front to government on policy matters. Furthermore, by forging alliances TDS is ensuring that their work has more change of being sustained as they are ensuring that they pass on skills and experience to local organisations and institutions which will UHPDLQLQSODFHZKHQ7'6HYHQWXDOO\OHDYHV¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 182 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 $OOLDQFH SDUWQHUV PXVW EH FKRVHQ FDUHIXOO\ WR HQVXUH WKDW 7'6¶V WUXVWZRUWK\ DQG LQGHSHQGHQW Finding 5 reputation is not jeopardised and that potential partners share the same values and vision as TDS. µ7KH\ >7'6@ KDYH EHHQ FDUHIXO QRW WR SDUWQHU ZLWK RUJDQLVDWLRQV VHHQ DV WRR SDUW\-political (for example TDS has not formed a partnership with the Civil Society Movement (CSM) in Bo because CSM is not seen by the public as sufficiently independent of the ruling Sierra Leone Peoples Party (SLPP). In other cases the selection of partners is done on the basis of shared vision. In the case of Illustration the Independent Radio Network (IRN), one radio station, the Voice of the Handicapped (VoH, FM ZDVQRWVHOHFWHGIRULQFOXVLRQEHFDXVHLWZDQWHGWRFKDUJHIRUWKHDLULQJRI7'6¶SURJUDPPHV ZKLFK7'6ULJKWO\VDZDVLQLPLFDOWRWKHVSLULWRIWKHQHWZRUN¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS 15). 6)&*¶VDFWLYLWLHVLQ6LHUUD/HRQHLQFUHDVHGDFFRXQWDELOLW\DQGWUDQVSDUHQF\E\H[SRVLQJFRUUXSWLRQ Finding 6 practices, holding government officials and public figures to account, and fostering improved civil/police relationships that promoted the reporting of crimes. µ,Q PDQ\ FRPPXQLWLHV LW LV HYLGHQW WKDW VPDOO-scale corruption practices are being exposed and PDQ\RIWKHVHFDQEHOLQNHGGLUHFWO\ZLWK7'6¶LQSXWV¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS 'In the past, the police were viewed with distrust by ordinary people, but now, in Kailahun, for Illustration H[DPSOHDVHQLRUSROLFHRIILFHUVWDWHGWKDWSDUWO\EHFDXVHRIWKHORFDOUDGLRVWDWLRQ¶VZRUNWKHORFDO SRSXODWLRQQRZIHHOVPRUHFRQILGHQWUHSRUWLQJFULPHWRWKHSROLFH«>O@RFDOUDGLRLV increasingly able to hold government officials and other public figures to account' (Everitt, Williams and Myers 2004, p. 18). TDS programs have encouraged greater levels of inclusion and participation by all community Finding 7 members in local decision making, in particular by providing spaces for women, children and youth to make their voices heard. µ,QPDQ\DUHDV\RXQJSHRSOHDQGZRPHQUHDOLVHGIRUWKHILUVWWLPHWKDWWKH\KDGWKHULJKWWRDVSLUHWR be councillors - and there is strong eYLGHQFHWKDWWKH\GLGVWDQGIRUHOHFWLRQDQGWKDW7'6¶UDGLR Illustration SURJUDPPHVDQGOLYHHYHQWVFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHPEHLQJHOHFWHGLQVHYHUDODUHDV¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPV and Myers 2004, p. 18). Radio programs can be used to quickly restore order after an isolated violent incident by transmitting Finding 8 accurate information about the event. µ«WKHFRQILGHQFHRIIOHHLQJUHVLGHQWVRI.DLODKXQWRZQIROORZLQJDVKRRWLQJLQFLGHQWZKLFKOHIWRQH Illustration solider dead, was quickly restored by Radio Moa through the dissemination of accurate information UHODWLQJWRWKHLQFLGHQW¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS Combining outreach work and media (live drama, video and radio) is a highly effective way to Finding 9 engage rural, largely illiterate populations and promote peace-building. µ7'6VWDIIVVWDWHWKDWWKHFRPELQHGXVHRIPHGLDDQGRXWUHDFKZRUNWRUHDFKUXUDOFRPPXQLWLHVKDV an enhanced impact and should be strengthened. The technique, they say, allows easier access to Illustration largely illiterate populations especially in rural communities and becomes a platform from which to PRUHHDVLO\GLVVHPLQDWHUDGLRPHVVDJHV¶(YHULWW:LOOLDPVDQG0\HUVS Gordon, G. (2008). A UNHCR Evaluation of Search For A Common Ground Programming in the DRC: OCTOBER (2008), UNCHR and Search for Common Ground (SFCG), pp. 1-51. A lack of baseline data and prior randomisation means that collected statistical data intended to measure the impact of SFCG programming in the DRC can only be used to suggest correlation not Finding 1 causation. This limitation could be avoided through the implementation of new evaluation and monitoring procedures. µZLWKRXW UDQGRPL]LQJ WKH SURJUDP EHIRUHKDQG DQG ZLWKRXW EDVHOLQH GDWD WR PDNH FRPSDULVRQV against, the collected data can only suggest correlation, not causation. Myriad confounding factors exist that range from partner organization presence to different reporting rates. This evaluation will Illustration be able to make strong claims about those who listen to SFCG radio or see SFCG theater, however the limitations of data only offer this snapshot. Changes in evaluation and monitoring methodologies are suggested in the recommendations section in order to surpass these constraints in future Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 183 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 HYDOXDWLRQV¶*RUGRQS 6)&*¶V WKHDWUH DQG UDGLR SURJUDPPLQJ KDV D SRVLWLYH LPSDFW RQ SHRSOH¶V LQIRUPDWLRQ VHHNLQJ Finding 2 KDELWV DQG WKHLU NQRZOHGJH /LVWHQHUV DQG YLHZHUV RI 6)&*¶V SURJUDPPLQJ DUH PRUH OLNHO\ WR dismiss rumours and to obtain information from the radio, local NGOs and the government. µ2YHUDOOGDWDVXJJHVWWKDWWKURXJKRXW6RXWK.LYXDQG.DWDQJD6)&*KDVDQH[WUHPHO\VLJQLILFDQW impact on the ways in which people obtain information, and the knowledge they have. SFCG is fundamentally changing the way listeners and viewers obtain their information. The impacts are Illustration positive: listeners and viewers of SFCG programming are disinclined to believe rumors and more LQFOLQHGWRREWDLQLQIRUPDWLRQIURPWKHUDGLRORFDO1*2VDQGWKHJRYHUQPHQW¶*RUGRQS 10). SFCG staff are unaware of the geographic dimensions of their radio programming coverage. Finding 3 Establishing the potential overlaps and holes in radio coverage is essential if SFCG want to continue to expand and improve their radio programming. µ,WLVLPSHUDWLYHWKDW6)&*HVWDEOLVKWKHJHRJUDSKLFFRYHUDJHRIWKHLU>UDGLR@SURJUDPPLQJLQRUGHU Illustration to understand where programming overlaps and does not in order to strategically and effectively H[SDQG¶*RUGRQS People prefer radio and theatre content that is produced by local staff and locally selected Finding 4 journalists. In communities marked by conflict and ethnic tension, where people can be very VXVSLFLRXVRIµRXWVLGHUV¶VLJQLILFDQWDPRXQWVRIPHGLDFRQWHQWVKRXOGEHORFDOO\ produced. µ.H\LQIRUPDQWLQWHUYLHZVDQGTXDOLWDWLYHDQDO\VLVVXJJHVWVWKDWFRQWHQWFUHDWHGE\ORFDOVWDIIDQG locally chosen journalists are better received among local populations than content produced in Bukavu. This is particularly pertinent to Moba and Katangan communities, where Illustration µRXWVLGHU-SURJUDPPLQJ¶ UXQ E\ .LYXWLHQV LV D SDUWLFXODUO\ VHQVLWLYH LVVXH ,Q RUGHU WR DYRLG exacerbating Katangan-.LYXWLHQFRQIOLFWDVLJQLILFDQWDPRXQWRIFRQWHQWVKRXOGEHSURGXFHGORFDOO\¶ (Gordon 2008, p. 31). 6XUYH\GDWDLOOXVWUDWHVWKDW6)&*¶VWKHDWUHSURJUDPPLQJZDVPXFKPRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHDQHJDWLYH LPSDFWRQYLHZHU¶VWROHUDQFHOHYHOVZKHUHDV6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPPLQJZDVPRUHOLNHO\WRKDYHD SRVLWLYHRUQRLPSDFWRQOLVWHQHUV¶WROHUDQFHOHYels. This illustrates that different media forms may Finding 5 have varying impacts that need to be accounted for during project design. Given the negative impacts of theatre, SFCG must carefully examine the content of its theatre programming and continue to evaluate its effectiveness. 'Aggregating the overall impact of these various tolerance oriented questions, SFCG radio programming has a positive impact 37.5% of the time, no negative impact, and no impact 62.5% of Illustration the time. Theater programming has a positive impact 37.5% of the time, negative impact 37.5% of the time, and no impact 25.0% of the time' (Gordon 2008, p. 13). 6)&*¶VSULPDU\DXGLHQFHLVKLJKO\HGXFDWHGDQGDGXOW$PRUHFRQFHUWHGHIIRUWVKRXOGEHPDGHWR Finding 6 reach young people and uneducated viewers/listeners. 'Analysis reveals that SFCG radio listeners are highly educated and adult while theater viewers are Illustration adult. Programming should be specifically tailored towards youth and the uneducated and target sites accordingly' (Gordon 2008, p. 32). Increased communication between SFCG, the UNHCR and other partner organisations would Finding 7 HQKDQFH SURMHFW VXFFHVV DQG FUHDWH PRUH RSSRUWXQLWLHV IRU FROODERUDWLRQ 6)&*¶V FXUUHQW inter-organisational communication practices are weak and this can strain partner relationships. 6)&*¶VJUHDWHVWZHDNQHVVLVLQFRPPXQLFDWLRQZLWK81+&5DQGSDUWQHURUJDQL]DWLRQVERWKLQ sharing information and informing organizations of current programming. To avoid partner Illustration frustration and increase project reinforcement and synergistic opportunities, SFCG should set up internal standardized processes for inter-organizational communication' (Gordon 2008, p. 32). Key terms need to be clearly defined and very specific to avoid miscommunication, ambiguity and Finding 8 inappropriate impact expectations. µ&RPSOH[ DQG VRPHWLPHV DPELJXRXV WHUPV VXFK DV µ0DVV ,QIRUPDWLRQ¶ µ&RQIOLFW 5HVROXWLRQ¶ Illustration µ5HFRQFLOLDWLRQ¶ DQG µ3RVLWLYH DQG 1HJDWLYH &RQIOLFW¶ WKDW 6)&* HPSOR\V VKRXOG EH QDrrowly Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 184 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 GHILQHGWRUHGXFHPLVFRPPXQLFDWLRQDQGLQDSSURSULDWHH[SHFWDWLRQV¶*RUGRQS The bias towards publishing positive project data means that information about what does not work Finding 9 is not always shared. This can result in a limited understanding of the factors that influence project success and the re-creation of poor programming. 'Currently, there is a bias towards publishing positive data, however it is important to know what Illustration GRHVQ¶WZRUNDQGZKDWKLQGHUHGVXFFHVVLQorder to avoid re-creating poor programming' (Gordon 2008, p. 34). The evaluation of the impact of SFCG programming was conducted in relatively peaceful areas, Finding 10 Uvira, Fizi and Moba. When these programs are implemented in more volatile areas they will need to be assessed to determine what works in these contexts. 'Given the relative calm of Uvira, Fizi, and Moba Territory at the moment of the survey, SFCG programming that scales up into more volatile areas should be evaluated to analyze which context Illustration programming works best. Contextualizing the impact of SFCG programming in violent situations will shed light on the comparative efficacy of SFCG programming and facilitate strategic expansion' Gordon 2008, p. 35). Gouley, C. & Kanyatsi4)LQDO(YDOXDWLRQRIWKH3URMHFW³6XSSRUWLQJD&RQYHUVDWLRQ RQ<RXWK/HDGHUVKLSLQ&{WHG¶,YRLUH´6HDUFKIRU&RPPRQ*URXQG&{WHG¶,YRLUHDQG86 Department of State Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor, pp. 1-65. More men participated in the project than women. Factors that may make it difficult for women to attend project events such as their daily household tasks were not considered in the project design. Finding 1 A more explicit gender strategy that considers the specific needs of young women is required if SFCG wants to ensure their greater participation. «WKHUH LV QR HYLGHQFH RI D JHQGHU VWUDWHJ\ LQ WKH SURMHFW <RXQJ PHQ DQG ZRPHQ SUREDEO\ experience different challenges as regards to conflict transformation, leadership and political Illustration violence: this point has not been taken into account in the project' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 35). Short evaluation time frames can limit the amount of data that can be gathered and can result in Finding 2 information gaps. 'While a two-hour focus group has been organized in Daloa with SFCG staff, the evaluation team did not have the time or the opportunity to conduct individual or group interviews with all of those who Illustration have been involved in the project. Therefore, there may be some information gap, as well as unanswered questions related to the challenges SFCG faced in the project implementation' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p.14). The evaluators were reliant on SFCG staff to organise meetings and focus groups, and administer Finding 3 questionnaires. While this increased the involvement of SFCG staff in the evaluation process it also reduced the ability of the evaluation team to act independently. 'The evaluation team was dependent upon SFCG staff to organize meetings and focus groups, and administer survey questionnaires. On the one hand, it enhanced the participation of SFCG Cote Illustration G¶,YRLUH VWDIILQWKH HYDOXDWLRQ SURFHVV RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG LW UHGXFHG WKHPDUJLQ RILQGHSHQGHQW action of the evaluators - for example in the participants and interviewees selection process' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 14). The relevance of projects that are designed to address a specific event, such as upcoming Finding 4 elections, must account for changes in the political lDQGVFDSH ,Q &RWH G¶,YRLUH WKH µXSFRPLQJ¶ elections were never held. 7KHSURMHFWZDVGHVLJQHGLQLWLDOO\LQZLWKLQWKHFRQWH[WRIµXSFRPLQJHOHFWLRQV¶,WZDVEDVHG on the assumption that the elections would present an opportune moment to engage youth as Illustration leaders for positive change. The elections initially scheduled on the 30th of November 2008, and WKHQSRVWSRQHGWRWKHWKRI1RYHPEHUGLGQRWRFFXU«EXWWKHSROLWLFDOXQFHUWDLQW\GLGQRW DIIHFWWKHSURMHFW¶VUHOHYDQFH *RXOH\DQd Kanyatsi 2010, p. 20). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 185 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 Finding 5 Key terms used by SFCG, such as 'Youth' were not adequately defined. 'SFCG may need to define more explicitly[sic] the key terms they use in the project (e.g. youth, Illustration beneficiaries, leadership, etc.)' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 41). Radio programs that are not broadcast in local languages can have unforeseen positive impacts. In some villages, informal listening clubs emerged that helped community members who did not speak Finding 6 French to understand the programs. Summaries and translations of programs were created and shared amongst the villages. These activities created important opportunities for community dialogue and cooperation. «YLOODJHUV KDYH RUJDQLVHG WR VKDUH WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ LPSarted through SFCG radio programs - through informal listening clubs and by providing summaries and translations of the programs to Illustration WKRVHZKRGRQ¶WXQGHUVWDQGWKHP5DGLRSURJUDPPLQJKDVWKXVFUHDWHGRSSRUWXQLWLHVIRUGLDORJXH and cooperation within the community in an unforeseen manner' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 23). Radio programs can provide youth with new and creative tools for conflict resolution and generate Finding 7 peer-to-peer discussion. 5DGLRSURJUDPVVHUYHDVDµVRXUFHRILQVSLUDWLRQ¶IRU\RXWKWRXVHFUHDWLYHZD\VWRSUHYHQWYLROHQFH Illustration and foster dialogue among their peers' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 25). The visual and oral nature of theatre means that it is a particularly effective C4D method to use in Finding 8 rural areas where there are high illiteracy rates. 'They [youth] observed that theater is a particularly appropriate tool in rural area, where illiteracy is KLJKHUWKDQLQXUEDQDUHDV«>W@KH³VSHFW-DFWRUV´DUHDOZD\VVXUSULVHGWRUHFRJQL]HVLWXDWLRQVthey Illustration have lived or that they[sic] neighbours are living. Translating this reality not only into words, but also into gesture or images, is an appropriate way to reach the population in rural areas' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 25). The realistic nature of SFCG interactive theatre performances enhances their ability to effectively Finding 9 promote community discussion, self-reflection and sensitisation. 'Youth view theatre as a very useful tool to sensitize their communities about non violent ways to PLWLJDWHFRQIOLFWVDQGEXLOGWROHUDQFHDQGUHVSHFW«LWKHOSVSHRSOHUHIOHFWRQWKHLURZQEHKDYLRXUV Illustration IURPDQRXWVLGHU¶VSHUVSHFWLYH«WKHNH\WRWKHVXFFHVVRILQWHUDFWLYHWKHDWHULVWKDWLWUHSUHVHQWV real-life conflicts and situations' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 25). Although the project was designed to address political violence, the participants used the project to discuss and address many other forms of conflict including familial conflict and student/teacher Finding 10 conflict. The scope of the project was expanded to meet the needs of the participants suggesting a high level of project ownership. 'The project has opened windows of opportunities for youth to shift the way they are engaged in conflict transformation in their comPXQLWLHV EH\RQG WKH VSHFLILF FRQWH[W RI WKH HOHFWLRQV«WKH Illustration SURMHFW GLG QRW RQO\ DGGUHVV SROLWLFDO YLROHQFH DV LW KDG LQWHQGHG ,Q &RWH G¶,YRLUH WKLV UHVXOW LV largely explained by the political stalemate and the continued postponement of the elections. But it DOVRDFFRXQWVIRU\RXWK¶VVHQVHRIRZQHUVKLSRIWKHSURMHFW« *RXOH\DQG.DQ\DWVLS The perceived neutrality and professionalism of SFCG produced radio programs has a flow on Finding 11 effect on the radio stations that aired them, resuOWLQJLQLQFUHDVHGOLVWHQHUFRQILGHQFHLQWKHUDGLR¶V impartiality. 'A radio Program Director stated that broadcasting SFCG-produced programs has raised the Illustration DXGLHQFH¶VFRQILGHQFHLQWKHUDGLR¶VLPSDUWLDOLW\DQGSROLWLFDOQHXWUDOLW\ *RXOH\Dnd Kanyatsi 2010, p. 34). 6)&*UDGLRSURJUDPVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHZKHUHSROLWLFDODQGPLOLWDU\OHDGHUV frequently use the radio to incite ethnic hatred and have the power to influence media coverage, Finding 12 including radio coverageRISDUWLFXODUHYHQWV%URDGFDVWLQJ6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPVKDVUHGXFHG these incidences. «SROLWLFDOOHDGHUVDQGPLOLWDU\FRPPDQGHUVRIWHQLQWHUUXSWHGWKHSURJUDPVWRSDVVRQ[HQRSKRELF Illustration messages or settle their scores with other commanders. Moreover, they often instrumentalized the Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 186 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 0HGLDLQFOXGLQJUDGLRWRFRYHUHYHQWVLQWKHZD\WKH\ZDQWHG7KLVLVZK\6)&*¶VUDGLRSURJUDPV are particularly relevant to the crisis context' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 34). Finding 13 It is difficult to inYROYH\RXWKZKRµEHQHILW¶IURPWKHSUHVHQWSROLWLFDOVLWXDWLRQLQSURMHFWDFWLYLWLHV <RXWK ZKR ³EHQHILW´¶ IURP WKH SUHVHQW SROLWLFDO VLWXDWLRQ DQG SROLWLFDO OHDGHUV¶ ³PDJQDQLPLW\´ DUH Illustration more difficult to reach than those who feel excluded and particularly vulnerable to social injustice (particularly unemployed youth)' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 35). Some project achievements or challenges are highly context-specific. Despite this, the differences Finding 14 between rural and urban areas were not adequately accounted for in the project design. «WKHSURMHFWKDVQRWLPSOHPHQWHGGLIIHUHQWLDWHGVWUDWHJLHVLQUXUDODQGXUEDQDUHDV7KHHYDOXDWLRQ found out that some achievements or challenges are highly context-specific, either through a Illustration dichotomy of urban/rural areas or government-controlled/Forces nouvelles-controlled areas' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 35). The project had less impact in areas where SFCG were not as active. The visibility of SFCG in each Finding 15 region influHQFHVWKHSURMHFW¶VHIIHFWLYHQHVVLQWKDWDUHD 'For example, in Brobo (Vallee du Bandama), where SFCG was only occasionally present, the Illustration results are less convincing than in other areas where SFCG has been more active (e.g. in Sassandra or Djebonoua)' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 35). 6)&*¶VZRUNLQ&RWHG¶,YRLUHGLGUHVXOWLQDUHGXFWLRQLQYLROHQFHDQGSRVLWLYHFKDQJHVLQ\RXWKV Finding 16 attitudes and behaviours. However, these findings need to be confirmed during a presidential election campaign where tensions are likely to increase. µWKH HYDOXDWLRQ FRQFOXGHV WKDW WKHUH KDYH EHHQ VLJQLILFDQW JDLQV LQ WKH ULJKW GLUHFWLRQ LQ Bas-Sassandra and Vallee du Bandam. In both regions, a great majority of the stakeholders Illustration observed tKDWWKH YLROHQFH KDV EHHQ UHGXFHG VLQFH \RXWK SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ6)&*¶V DFWLYLWLHV 7KLV REVHUYDWLRQQHHGVWREHFRQILUPHGE\\RXWKV¶DWWLWXGHGXULQJSUHVLGHQWLDOHOHFWLRQVFDPSDLJQZKLFK ZLOOSUREDEO\KHLJKWHQWHQVLRQV¶*RXOH\DQG.DQ\DWVLS Building partnerships with local authorities may improve the long term sustainability and Finding 17 effectiveness of SFCG projects. ,W PD\ LPSURYH WKH SURMHFW¶V HIIHFWLYHQHVV DQG VXVWDLQDELOLW\ WR EXLOG D SDUWQHUVKLS ZLWK ORFDO Illustration authorities, particularly those in charge of youth at the national, regional and local level' (Gouley and Kanyatsi 2010, p. 41). Hanson-Alp, R. (2008) Promoting Information and Voice for Transparency on Elections (PIVOT): End of Programme Assessment, Department for International Development (DFID), pp. 1-20. Radio stations can help to reduce practices such as the intimidation of female election candidates Finding 1 E\EURDGFDVWLQJGLVFXVVLRQSURJUDPVWKDWSURPRWHZRPHQ¶VHOHFWRUDOSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGE\SURYLGLQJ information about the harassment of female candidates. 'The shocking level of intimidation of female candidates prior to both Parliamentary and Local Council elections was addressed through discussion programmes and news reports of harassment. In Moyamba district, for example, a female candidate was being threatened by a political party who WULHGWRXVHWKHZRPHQ¶VVHFUHWVRFLHW\WRSUHVVXUHKHUWRVWDQGGRZQ&RPSODLQWVUHDFKHGRQHRI Illustration WKH,51>,QGHSHQGHQW5DGLR1HWZRUN@µVWULQJHUV¶ZKREURDGFDVWLt on radio in a name and shame ploy. This was successful in helping stall further intimidation until party symbols were awarded. The candidate was eventually elected and wrote a letter of thanks to IRN and SFCG [Search for Common Ground]' (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 6). When donors provide equipment, funding and/or deliver training this can create tensions between Finding 2 those who receive the benefits and those who do not. Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 187 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 'BBC-World Service trust (WST provided state-of-the-art equipment and technical skills to 7 radio stations, although the selection process was not clear and there seems to have been some level of Illustration tension between stations [radio stations] who received equipment and those who did not' (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 5). Poor infrastructure, such as roads, and short project time frames can contribute to the Finding 3 over-representation of urban district participants in radio programming. µSRRUURDGQHWZRUNVDQGOLPLWHGSURMHFWWLPHIUDPHUHVXOWHGLQSURJUDPPLQJFRYHULQJSUHGRPLQantly Illustration urban district voices and did not capture enough of the grass roots or community voices as was LQLWLDOO\KRSHG¶+DQVRQ-Alp 2008, p. 6). The maintenance of satellite equipment can be a frustrating burden in a country like Sierra Leone Finding 4 where replacement parts are unavailable and there are limited technicians. 'There have been significant challenges in maintaining and repairing satellite equipment in the provinces as replacement parts are unavailable in Sierra Leone and have to EH LPSRUWHG«>W@KLV Illustration created some frustration for both FH [Fondation Hirondelle) and the community radios as there was a near continuous need to maintain station equipment and a limited number of technicians' (Hanson-Alp 2008, pp. 6-7). A weakness of CTN (Cotton Tree News) radio programming was a lack of local language programs. Finding 5 This led some listeners to critique the station for only representing Freetown and being inaccessible. FH recognises the need to provide more local language programmes following some listener Illustration responses that claimed 'CTN is only for Freetown' and they could not understand programmes as they were in English (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 7). Given the cost of establishing CTN, a more sustainable option may have been to build up the Finding 6 capacities of an existing radio station rather than creating a new independent news agency. «JLYHQWKHOHYHORILQYHVWPHQWLQ&71LWPLJKWKDYHEHHQDPRUHVXVWDLQDEOHRSWLRQWREXLOGRQ H[LVWLQJ VWDWLRQV¶ FDSDFLW\ WR SUoduce independent news reporting rather than creating a new Illustration independent news agency. FH have since acquired further funding from Irish Aid' (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 7). Some PIVOT initiatives could have been more effective if they were implemented earlier. It takes Finding 7 WLPHWREXLOGFLWL]HQV¶FRQILGHQFHDQGSURPRWHEHKDYLRXUFKDQJH 'NDI's [National Democratic Institute's] Resource Centre that offered voter education and resource materials for candidates was not fully utilised by civil society or political parties which NDI attributes to it being established too late in the campaigning calendar. The Resource Centre was used more as a training centre and as a space for civil society and candidates to hold meetings' (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 7). Illustration «LI FRQWLQXHG RQ D ORQJ-term basis would likely be effective in increasing the percentage of >ZRPHQ¶V@UHSUHVHQWDWLRQ+RZHYHUERWKSDUWQHUVUHFRJQLVHWKDWWKHWLPHIUDPHZDVWRRVKRUWWR adequately build the confidence and skills of new aspirants and as a result there are some reports of successfully elected women raising concerns about their capacity to hold their positions' (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 8). 7KH HIIHFWLYHQHVV RI WKH µ3URPRWLQJ D &XOWXUH RI (TXDO 5HSUHVHQWDWLRQ¶ 3$&(5 SURMHFW ZDV hindered by staff changes within the partner organisations (Oxfam and 50/50), and a lack of clear Finding 8 project goals. These factors contributed to the slow implementation of the project and its limited impact in its first year. 'As highlighted in PIVO7¶VDQQXDOHYDOXDWLRQFRRUGLQDWLRQDQGVWDIIFKDQJHVZLWKLQERWK2[IDPDQG 50/50, combined with a limited understanding and focus of the project's goals resulted in an Illustration extremely slow and largely ineffective start to implementation in the first year' (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 8). Poor communication and a lack of information sharing between partner organisations can result in Finding 9 the duplication of information and missed opportunities for collaboration. Illustration WFD [Westminster Foundation for Democracy] conducted an opinion poll prior to the Presidential Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 188 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 and Parliamentary elections, but did not share the results from the poll with partners. There was some duplication in surveys as BBC-WST and SFCG conducted a baseline survey, collected similar information on information source preferences as the opinion poll. More effective communication with partners might have identified this as an opportunity for collaboration (Hanson-Alp 2008, p. 9). Donors need to have a sound understanding of the political context in which projects are funded and Finding 10 the risks that may pose serious challenges to project success and participant safety. ,QUHYLHZLQJ6LHUUD/HRQH¶VHOHFWLRQVDQGWKHOHVVRQOHDUQHG>VLF@LWEHFDPHFOHDUWKDWWKHDFXWH political landscape and its effect on programme implementation was not a risk fully addressed by Illustration 3,927«3,927 ZDV WURXEOHVKRRWLQJ UDWKHU WKDQ DGGUHVVLQJ VRPH RI WKH URRW FDXVHV RI 6LHUUD Leone's divided political environment' (Hanson-Alp 2008, pp. 10-11). Tagor Lubis, I. and Nainggolan SV, M. (2004). Common Ground Indonesia Full Program Evaluation Report, Common Ground Indonesia, pp. 1-40. Recruitment and selection procedures were not transparent and this created animosity and jealousy Finding 1 within the community and negatively impacted on the legitimacy of Common Ground (CG) Indonesia. µ$VSHFWVRIOHJLWLPDWLRQDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIDFWRUVUHFUXLWHGZHUHTXHVWLRQHGE\VRPHSHRSOH:H found that participants in some activities came from one family: contact person appointed its families WRWDNHSDUWLQ&*,¶VDFWLYLWLHV,QYROYHPHQWLQWKH&*,QGRQHVLDDFWLYLWLHVZHUH³JUHDWRFFDVLRQWR Illustration WUDYHOWR-DYD´WRVRPHSDUWLFLSDQWV7RVRPHRWKHUVLWFUHDWHGMHDORXV\,QWKLVFDVHWKHFULWHULDRI recruitment of participants and control on its implementation would be important issue that the SURMHFWWHDPVKRXOGKDQGOHFDUHIXOO\¶7DJRU/XELVDQG1DLQJJRODQS The relationship between CG Indonesia and local partners was not always clear. This lack of clarity Finding 2 created tensions and dissatisfaction. µ,QVRPHFDVHVSDUWQHUVIHOWWKHUHZDVQRFOHDUSRVLWLRQZKHQZRUNLQJZLWK&*,QGRQHVLDZHUHWKH\ counterparts or sub-contracting institutions of CG Indonesia? From the very beginning it was not Illustration discussed properly, which created different interpretations of the partnership that resulted in tension DQGGLVVDWLVIDFWLRQRIVRPHORFDO1*2¶V¶7DJRU/XELVDQG1DLQJJRODQS The appointment of a partner organisation that was associated with a particular political party Finding 3 threatened the impartiality of CG Indonesia and created frictions in the already divided local political context. µ,Q6DPSDQJ&*,QGRQHVLD¶VUHFUXLWPHQWSROLF\LQVHOHFWLQJORFDOSDUWQHUVZDVDlso questioned by the local government. The case of appointing one partner institution associated with a certain Illustration SROLWLFDO SDUW\ LQ 0DGXUD LQ IDFW FUHDWHG WHQVLRQ LQ WKH ORFDO SROLWLFDO FRQWH[W¶ 7DJRU /XELV DQG Nainggolan 2004, p. 19). CG Indonesia did not adequately incorporate local suggestions and ideas into their comic book programme. CG included a sensitive phrase in the comic that generated complaints from local Finding 4 children and resulted in several local people protesting the edition arguing that it should be withdrawn. In a pre-release workshop session in Pontianak the sensitive nature of the wording had been raised but this issue was not adequately addressed by CG. µWKHFRPLFSDUWQHUVKDYHEURXJKWWKHLVVXHRIWKHVHQVLWLYHZRUGs used in Gebora edition 01 during the try-out workshop session in Pontianak and gave suggestion on it. Yet, CG Indonesia project WHDPKDVQRWSURSHUO\WDNHQWKHLUIHHGEDFNLQWRDFFRXQW«WKH0DGXUDNLGVFRPSODLQHGWRZDUGVWKH Illustration sensitive words used in edition DQG,QWKHLURSLQLRQWKLVLVXQIDLUWR0DGXUHQHVH«7KHSURMHFW team did not anticipate the case in Sampang, Madura that several local informal leaders - including ex-participants of Kalimadu dialogues - protested the Gebora Comic edition 01 and 02 and asked CG Indonesia to withdraw them from the audience. . De-FHQWUDOLVDWLRQ ZRXOG LPSURYH &* ,QGRQHVLD¶V DELOLW\ WR UHVSRQG WR ORFDO SUREOHPV $W WKH Finding 5 moment, local partners are reliant on CG management who are based in Jakarta. Poor communication between CG staff in Jakarta and local partners exacerbates this issue. Illustration µ%DVHGRQRXUILHOGREVHUYDWLRQDQGGLVFXVVLRQZLWKORFDOSDUWQHUV&*,QGRQHVLD¶VPDQDJHPHQW Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 189 JBI Database of Systematic Reviews & Implementation Reports JBL000566 2013;11(3)1-190 team should consider the decentralization of decision-making mechanisms to the lower level to DQWLFLSDWHWKHG\QDPLFRIORFDOFRQGLWLRQV¶7DJRU/XELVDQG1DLQJJRODQS µ)DFHGZLWKWKLVQRQ-DQWLFLSDWHG³KHDY\´SUREOHP,NDWDQ3HODMDU1DKGODWXO8ODPD,318DVORFDO partner felt the CG Indonesia comic project team left it out. Because of lack of communication between project team and local partner, IPNU did not know that in that time CG Indonesia PDQDJHPHQWKDGWDNHQVRPHDFWLRQVLQ-DNDUWDWRVROYHWKHSUREOHP¶7DJRU/XELVDQG1DLQJJRODQ 2004, p. 26). TKHTXDOLW\RI&*,QGRQHVLD¶VSURJUDPVZDVUHGXFHGE\UDSLGH[SDQVLRQ'RQRUVQHHGWRHQVXUH Finding 6 that existing projects are sufficiently established before they are scaled up into new regions. µ7RRPDQ\DFWLYLWLHVLQRQHSURJUDPPHLQGLIIHUHQWDUHas made it difficult for CG Indonesia to focus on the quality of the work. For example, local partners of the comic project in Western Kalimantan Illustration and Madura still need capacity and technical assistance, while the comic project team has started with the PapXDFRPLFSURMHFW¶7DJRU/XELVDQG1DLQJJRODQS Outcomes or recommendations made in dialogue forums or community workshops need to be Finding 7 followed up. µ<HWWKHUHDUHVRPHLVVXHVHPHUJLQJLQWKHVHSURJUDPPHVVRPHUHFRPPHQGations resulted from each dialogue workshop have not been done by the ex-participants. For example, we did not see Illustration any evidence that the grassroots and religious leader had implemented the shared-information meeting or had done peace education for their coPPXQLWLHV¶7DJRU/XELVDQG1DLQJJRODQS 28). A sound understanding of the social, cultural and political context in which C4D projects will be Finding 8 implemented contributes to their effectiveness. The characteristics and roles of local parties and stakeholders need to be considered in project design. µ7KHSURJUDPPHZRXOGEHQHILWIURPEHWWHUDVVHVVPHQWRIWKHFXUUHQWVLWXDWLRQLQWKHILHOGEHIRUH each activity, particularly of the sensitivity around particular issues and activities¶7DJRU/XELVDQG Nainggolan 2004, p. 25). Illustration µ7KHUH KDV QRW EHHQ DGHTXDWH FRPSUHKHQVLYH DVVHVVPHQW WR GHWHUPLQH WKH FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI SDUWLHVDQGVWDNHKROGHUVDQGWRGHYHORSVRFLDOFXOWXUDODQGSROLWLFDOPDSSLQJ¶7DJRU/XELVDQG Nainggolan 2004, p. 37). Skuse et al. Communication for Development Interventions in Fragile States: A Systematic Review © the authors 2013 Page 190