(PDF) DESIGNING A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR DEVELOPING TEACHING COMPETENCIES OF YEMENI UNIVERSITY ENGLISH TEACHERS

DESIGNING A PROPOSED TRAINING PROGRAMME FOR DEVELOPING TEACHING COMPETENCIES OF YEMENI UNIVERSITY ENGLISH TEACHERS A Thesis Submitted to SWAMI RAMANAND TEERTH MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, NANDED, INDIA In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In ENGLISH (ELT) Under the Faculty of Arts By MARWAN SAEED SAIF MOQBEL Under the guidance of DR. L. V. PADMARANI RAO Department of English Yeshwant College June 2014 DECLARATION I declare that the work entitled “Designing a Proposed Training Programme for Developing Teaching Competencies of Yemeni University English Teachers” submitted by me for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is the record of work carried out by me under the supervision and direction of Dr. L. V. Padmarani Rao and has not formed the basis for award of any degree, diploma, associateship, fellowship, titles in this or any other university or institution. I further declare that the material obtained from other sources has been duly acknowledged in this work. Date: June 2014 Researcher Marwan Saeed Saif Moqbel Email:

DEDICATION Dedicated TO My dearest parents, My beloved wife, My lovely daughters, My adorable son, My precious brothers and sisters, & To the soul of my brother (Taha). i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Praise and thanks be to Allah for helping me to accomplish this scientific study. I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to my supervisor Dr. L. V. Padmarani Rao. I cannot express how lucky I was to have worked under her guidance. She was a constant source of information, encouragement, guidance, and kindness at every stage of this work. My deepest love and gratitude goes to my loving parents, my wife, my brothers, my sisters, my daughters, and my little son for keeping my spirits up whenever I felt discouraged and depressed. I like to express my deepest sense of love and gratitude to Prof. Sultan Saeed Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Abdurrahman G. Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Lotf Al-Qahtani, and Mr. Abdulkareem Al-Duais. They have been a constant source of valuable and insightful comments and suggestions to me. I would like to express my deepest gratitude and appreciation to Prof. S. Mohanraj, Prof. Jayashree Mohanraj, and all the other referees of the questionnaire and the proposed training programme of this study. They were very cooperative to spend some of their valuable time reviewing, commenting, and making suggestions with a view to making this work better. I found their insightful ideas and suggestions very helpful. I am thankful for all my friends who supported and helped me whenever I wanted, in particular Mr. Abdo Mohammed Taleb, Mr. Zakariya Al-Dahwa, Ms Sahar Al-Hakimi, Mr. Abdulrahman Al-Imad, and Mr. Osama Ahmed Ali. My special thanks and gratitude go to all those who helped me to administer the questionnaire of this study, especially Dr. Mohammed Abdu Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Abdulsalam Al-Mekhlafi, Dr. Ali Al-Nuzaili, Dr. Abdulmalik Mansoor, Mr. Wadea Al-Salihi, Mr. Majeed Nu‘man, Mr. Nabil Abdullah, Mr. Khalil Naji, Ms Anwar Arsalan, Mr. Musa Abdullah, Mr. Al-Mu‘tasem Abdullah, Mr. Basel Al-Attab, Mr. ii Labeeb Mahyoub, and all the chairmen of English departments of Sana‘a University, Aden University, and Taiz University. I would also like to express my thanks to all the respondents from Yemeni universities (chairmen, doctors, and students) who devoted some of their valuable time to complete the study questionnaire. I appreciate their help and cooperation. Many thanks go to Dr. Mohammed Taher and Dr. Shawqi Al-Duais for helping me to do the statistical analysis of the study data. Finally, I would like to offer my thanks to the officials at Ibb University for their support and help, especially Dr. Abdullah Al-Falahi, the Dean of Postgraduate Studies and Scientific Research and Dr. Huda Al-Mansoob, the Dean of the Center of Languages and Translation, for her help, cooperation, and guidance while collecting the data of the study. Marwan Saeed Saif Moqbel Nanded, India June 2014 iii ABSTRACT The main objective of this study is to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in terms of identifying the degree of practicing these competencies from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students of English departments, and the chairmen of English departments with a view to designing a proposed training programme which aims at developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. The study primarily adopted the descriptive design and the quantitative approach. The data were collected through a questionnaire which consisted of (73) teaching competencies distributed among five main domains: planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technology; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. After making sure of its validity and reliability, it was administered to three Yemeni public universities (Sana‘a University, Aden University, and Taiz University). The sample consisted of (49) Yemeni university English teachers, (590) students of level four, and (6) chairmen of English departments. The data collected were computed and analysed using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (version 17.0). The current study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one includes an introduction to the study. It describes the problem of the study, offers its questions and highlights its significance. It also presents the aims and objectives of the study and its scope and delimitations. Moreover, it defines the terms related to the present study and spells out the outlines of the subsequent chapters. Chapter two provides a theoretical and conceptual background for the current study. It is divided into two parts. The first part deals with teaching and teaching competencies. The second part deals with training and procedures and stages of designing training programmes. Chapter three sheds light on some previous studies related to the two domains of the study: teaching competencies and constructing or evaluating the effectiveness of teacher training programmes. In each domain, the previous studies are classified into two groups: Arabic studies (studies conducted in the Arab countries) and foreign iv studies (studies conducted abroad). This chapter also describes the previous studies in terms of their objectives, sample, tools used to collect data, results, and benefits with a view to highlighting the similarities and differences between the previous studies and the current one. Chapter four describes the approach and the design of the study and its population and sample. It also describes the procedures followed to construct the study instrument and measure its validity and reliability as well as the procedures followed to construct the proposed training programme and measure its validity. In addition, the statistical tools used to answer the questions of the study are presented in this chapter. In chapter five, the study analyses the data obtained with a view to answering the study questions. It presents and discusses the results of that analysis to come up with facts about the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies in question. In general, the study revealed that the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies is low. It also revealed that there are statistically significant differences in the means of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variable of sample type (university English teachers, students, and chairmen of English departments) at the (0.05) level of significance. These significant differences were found in the means of the target sample responses between teachers and students on the one hand and between students and chairmen on the other hand. However, the study showed that there are no statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses between teachers and chairmen. Moreover, the study showed that there are no statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses according to the variable of geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz). Based on the results of the study which highlighted the need of Yemeni university English teachers for training in teaching, a training programme was proposed and presented in this chapter. Chapter six presents a summary of the whole study and its major conclusions. Based on the findings of the study, this chapter suggests some recommendations concerning improving the process of teaching and learning in the English departments v of Yemeni universities and conducting the proposed training programme. It also presents some suggestions for further research. It is hoped that the current study will significantly contribute to developing teaching English and English courses at university level in Yemen. It is for the first time to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. This may draw some attention to the importance of training university English teachers in teaching, improving the instructional environment of teaching English at university level, and setting some norms for appointing new university teachers to teach in English departments, including all the competencies required by a university English teacher. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page DEDICATION i ACKOWLEDGEMENTS ii ABSTRACT iv TABLE OF CONETETS vii LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF FIGURES xiv CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduction …………………………………..………....……...…… 1 1.2. Statement of the Problem …………………...……….……...…...….. 4 1.3. Objectives of the Study ………………………………..............……. 8 1.4. Significance of the Study ………………………..……...…............... 8 1.5. Scope and Delimitations ………………..……………......……...….. 10 1.6. Definition of Terms ………………….………....…………..…......... 11 1.7. Organization of the Study ……………………..…..…….…..…...…. 13 CHAPTER II: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1. Introduction ……………………...………….……….…..…….......... 15 2.2. University Functions ……………………...……………...…..……... 15 2.3. The Concept of Teaching ………………………….……..……….... 17 2.3.1. The nature of university teaching …………………………. 19 2.3.2. The changing perspectives towards university teaching ….. 20 2.3.3. University teachers of 21st century ………………………... 22 2.3.4. Teaching English in English departments of Yemeni 23 universities …………………………………….………….. 2.3.5. Teaching competencies ……………………..…………….. 24 2.3.6. The nature of teaching competencies …...……….………... 25 2.3.7. The importance of possessing teaching competencies …..... 26 vii 2.4. Teaching Competencies Domains of the Proposed Training 27 Programme …………………………………………………..……… 2.4.1. Planning teaching ………………………………....…......... 28 2.4.2. Implementing teaching ………………………………....…. 32 2.4.2.1. Physical classroom environment ….…….…....… 32 2.4.2.2. Instructional strategies …………………..…..…. 36 2.4.2.3. Communication …………………………..….…. 44 2.4.2.3.1. Nonverbal communication ................. 45 2.4.2.3.2. Verbal communication ……………... 50 2.4.3. Using technology ………….………....………………......... 51 2.4.3.1. The computer …………………………………... 52 2.4.3.1.1. Stages of using computer in language 53 learning ............................................... 2.4.3.1.2. Multimedia ......................................... 54 2.4.3.2. The Internet …………………………………….. 56 2.4.3.2.1. Synchronous tools ………………….. 57 2.4.3.2.2. Asynchronous tools ………………… 60 2.4.3.2.3. Synchronous and asynchronous tools.. 62 2.4.4. Human relations …………..………..…................................ 66 2.4.5. Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback ……..…....… 69 2.4.5.1. Formative assessment ………………………….. 70 2.4.5.2. Summative assessment …………………………. 75 2.4.5.3. Teaching, courses, and tests evaluation ….…….. 78 2.5. Training ………………………….…………..…..….......................... 85 2.5.1. The concept of training ……………………………...…….. 85 2.5.2. Teachers‘ need for training …………………..…….…..…. 86 2.5.3. Significance of training for teachers …………….………… 88 2.5.4. Making training effective ………………………….……... 89 2.5.5. Strategies and techniques for delivering training ….…..….. 90 2.5.6. Types of training ………………...……..………..…............ 91 2.5.6.1. Formal training vs. informal training …………... 92 viii 2.5.6.2. Pre-service training vs. in-service training .......... 92 2.5.7. Teacher training in higher education …………………....… 92 2.5.8. Training programme ………………….…….………..…..... 94 2.5.8.1. The concept of training programme ……………. 95 2.5.8.2. Principles of designing training programme ….... 96 2.5.8.3. The general framework for designing a training 97 programme ……………………………………... 2.5.8.4. Designing a training programme for professional 100 development of university teachers …………..... 2.5.8.4.1. Analysis stage ..................................... 100 2.5.8.4.2. Design stage ........................................ 102 2.5.8.4.3. Implementation stage .......................... 116 2.5.8.4.4. Evaluation stage .................................. 119 2.5.8.5. Designing a training session plan ………...……. 122 CHAPTER III: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 3.1. Introduction ………………………………………….……………... 124 3.2. Previous Studies Related to Teaching Competencies or Skills …...... 124 3.2.1. Arabic studies …………………...………………………… 124 3.2.2. Foreign studies …………………………..………….…….. 133 3.3. Previous Studies Related to Designing or Evaluating Teacher 139 Training Programmes …………………………………..…………... 3.3.1. Arabic studies ………………………...…………………… 139 3.3.2. Foreign studies …………………………………………….. 149 3.4. Previous Studies Discussion ……………………………..…………. 154 3.4.1. Objectives ………………...……………………………….. 155 3.4.2. Sample ……………………………..……………………… 157 3.4.3. Tools used to collect data …………………………………. 159 3.4.4. Results ……………………..…………………………...…. 160 3.4.5. Benefits of the previous studies …………………………… 162 ix CHAPTER IV: METHODOLOGY & PROCEDURES 4.1. Introduction …………………………………………...…………….. 164 4.2. The Study Approach and Design ……………………..…………….. 164 4.3. The Study Population and Sample ……………………..…………… 165 4.4. The Study Instrument …………………………...………..………… 167 4.4.1. Constructing the study instrument ………………………… 167 4.4.2. Verifying the validity of the study instrument ……….…… 169 4.4.3. Conducting a pilot study …………………………………... 172 4.4.4. Measuring the reliability of the study instrument …….…… 173 4.4.5. Administration of the Study Instrument ……………...…… 175 4.5. The Proposed Training Programme ……………………….…...…... 178 4.5.1. Constructing the proposed training programme ……...…… 178 4.5.1.1. Preparing the first version of the proposed 178 training programme .............................................. 4.5.1.2. Verifying the validity of the proposed training 179 programme ……………………………………... 4.5.1.3. Preparing the final version of the proposed 182 training programme …………………………….. 4.6. Statistical Tools Used in the Study ……………………………..…... 182 CHAPTER V: PRESENTATION & DISCUSSION OF FININDINGS 5.1. Introduction …………………………………………….…………... 185 5.2. Presentation and discussion of findings ………………………..…… 186 5.2.1. The first question ……………………………...…………... 186 5.2.1.1. The first domain: Planning teaching ……....…… 187 5.2.1.2. The second domain: Implementing teaching …... 191 5.2.1.3. The third domain: Using technology …….....….. 202 5.2.1.4. The fourth domain: Human relations ……….….. 206 5.2.1.5. The fifth domain: Assessment, evaluation, and 209 giving feedback …............................................… 5.2.2. The second question ………………………………………. 217 x 5.3.3. The third question …………………………….………….... 224 5.3.3.1. Rationale behind designing the proposed training 225 programme ……………………………………... 5.3.3.2. Vision of the proposed training programme ….... 226 5.3.3.3. Components of the proposed training programme 227 CHAPTER VI: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS & SUGGESTIONS 6.1. Introduction ………………………………………….….…………... 256 6.2. Summary of the Study ………………………………….…………... 256 6.3. Conclusions ……………………………………………..….……….. 260 6.4. Limitations of the Study …………………………………….……… 262 6.5. Recommendations …………………………………………..………. 263 6.6. Suggestions …………………………………………………..……... 266 REFERENCES 267 LIST OF APPENDICIES 298 І The Questionnaire before Refereeing ……………………... 299 ІІ List of the Questionnaire‘s Referees ………………...……. 305 ІІІ The Final Version of the Questionnaire ……………….….. 306 IV The Proposed Training Programme before Refereeing …… 312 V List of the Proposed Training Programme‘s Referees ……. 342 VI Responses to the Statement of the Questionnaire According 345 to the Variable of Sample Type ……………..….……….… VIІ Responses to the Statement of the Questionnaire According 352 to the Variable of Geography ……………………….…….. xi LIST OF TABLES No Title Page 4.1 The Sample of the Study ………………………………………….. 166 4.2 Domains and Numbers of Statements of the First Version of the 168 Study Instrument ……………………………..……….…………… 4.3 Domains and Statements of the First and the Revised Versions of 171 the Study Instrument with the Modifications of the Referees …….. 4.4 Domains and Numbers of Statements of the Revised Version of the 172 Study Instrument ……………………………………...…………… 4.5 Reliability Statistics Using Test-retest Method …….…..………….. 174 4.6 Cronbach‘s Alpha Coefficients of the Study Instrument and Its 175 Domains ………………………………………………..…………... 176 4.7 Questionnaire Distribution ………………………………..……….. 4.8 Components of the First Version of the Proposed Training 179 Programme ……………………………………………..…………. 4.9 Modifications Suggested by the Referees of the Proposed Training 180 Programme …………………………………………………..……. 4.10 Components of the Revised Version of the Proposed Training 182 Programme ………………………………………..…….…………. 5.1 The Norm Used to Present and Discuss the Results of the First 187 Question …………………………………….…………………….. 5.2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement 188 of the Domain ‗Planning Teaching‘ Sorted in Descending Order ... 5.3 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement 192 of the Sub-domain ‗Physical Classroom Environment‘ Sorted in Descending Order ……………………………………………… 5.4 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement 195 of the Sub-domain ‗Teaching Strategies‘ Sorted in Descending Order ………………..………………………………………….… 5.5 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of 199 the sub-domain ‗Communication‘ Sorted in Descending Order …... xii 5.6 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of 203 the domain ‗Using Technology‘ Sorted in Descending Order ….…. 5.7 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of 206 the Domain ‗Human Relations‘ Sorted in Descending Order ……... 5.8 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of 210 the Domain ‗Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback‘ Sorted in Descending Order …………………………….……………….… 5.9 Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Domain of 214 the Study Instrument Sorted in Descending Order ……………...… 5.10 Results of One-way ANOVA Analysis for the Variable of ‗Sample 218 Type‘ ………………………………………………………………. 5.11 Results of Scheffé test for the Differences in the Averages 220 According to the Variable of ‗Sample Type‘ ………………..…..… 5.12 Results of One-way ANOVA Analysis for the Variable of 223 ‗Geography‘………………………………………………………… xiii LIST OF FIGURES No Title Page 1.1 Structure of the study ……………………………………………... 14 2.1 Domains of the proposed training programme …………………… 28 2.2 The cycle of designing a training programme …………………….. 98 4.1 Scatterplot of the first and the second administration of the study 174 instrument ………………………………….……………………… 4.2 Stages of constructing and administering the study instrument …... 177 5.1 Means of the degree of practice of the five domains of the study 214 instrument …………………………………………………………. 5.2 Means of the degree of practice according to the variable of 219 ‗sample type‘ .................................................................................... 5.3 Diagrammatic representation of the proposed training programme.. 228 xiv CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1.1. Introduction Universities are the most important institutions in any society. They are responsible for preparing and qualifying students who will work in the various institutions of society later on. They have to provide students with the necessary skills and knowledge that they may need in their personal and practical life. In other words, during their study at university, students have to be well qualified to be able to reflect what they have learnt in their life. This requires teachers who are well-qualified, not only academically and scientifically, but also pedagogically and personally. In fact, university teachers need more than maintaining a high level of specific academic discipline knowledge to make good classroom practice (Silva, 2001) as the discipline knowledge is not enough to enable them to make effective teaching which is the most important function of university teachers from the perspective of students (Wardlow & Johnson, 1999, p. 47). In other words, university teaching requires teachers who maintain a high level of subject matter knowledge and who are able to plan and implement teaching (Al-Ser, 2004, p. 279), to develop good student-teacher relationships, to transmit knowledge to their students (Silva, 2001), to communicate the objectives of the course to students, to use alternative instructional methods or strategies, to select the effective methods and strategies that meet the needs of students, to create effective learning environments for different types of students, to design instruction that facilitates students learning, to establish good rapport with students, to assess and correct students properly, and to give students the kind of feedback that supports their learning (Murray, Gillese, Lennon, Mercer, & Robinson, 1996). The changes that have occurred in society have affected the work of teachers to a large extent. Teachers need now to develop themselves professionally, and such development can happen only through a systematic training process (Québec, 2001, pp. 8-9). In today‘s world, training has become very important. According to Murillo 1 (1999), in-service training is the only tool to face the continuous changes in society (as cited in Lera, Cela, & de Andalucía, 2001, p. 1). It is an effective tool that can be used by any company, institution, or corporation not only to increase productivity, but also to motivate the staff members, to provide them with all the information that they need to perform their jobs (Anonymous, 1998, p. 53), and to strengthen and enhance their skills continually (Anyamele, 2007, Theoretical framework section, para. 2). Its importance comes out of the fact that no one can achieve any particular aim unless he or she has the abilities and skills and knows how to use them effectively to do so. Most universities all over the world use such an effective tool to develop and improve the performance of their faculty. For example, in UK, Norway, Sri Lanka, and in many other countries; training of university teachers is now established in every university (Gibbs, 2004, p. 88). In Australia, training faculty members has been given a lot of concern since a long time. It is believed that training is essential for them. Peter and Lousdale (1975) indicated that the Commission on Advanced Education in Australia produced a report, stating that it is highly desirable that all the faculty members receive training in educational methods, especially the new ones who must undertake a training course in educational methods before commencing teaching. For old faculty members, it stated that they should receive refresher training course in educational methods to keep them up-to-date in modern techniques and approaches of teaching (p. 35). Most universities in the world have centres or units responsible for developing their faculty members professionally. Through these centres or units, universities can use training programmes or any other methods of training to train their faculty in the various competencies that they need. For example, Australian universities were among the first universities which established central development units for developing teaching responsibilities of their faculty members (Dearn, Fraser, & Ryan, 2002, p. 53). Another example is that of Abdul-Aziz King University in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia which established the Centre of University Instruction Development. This center has many functions including curricula and scientific materials preparation, teaching methods, and assessment methods (Al-Thubaiti, 1993, p. 349). In this way, universities can assure continuous learning and development for their staff, which is central to the quality of education as a whole (Fielden, 1998, p. 11). In 2 fact, in this changing environment, one of the most important responsibilities of university administration is to develop its staff professionally in order to be able to support students learning and improve their performance (Bank & Mayes, 2001 as cited in Anyamele, 2007). According to Stoll and Fink (1996), teachers who are professionally developed and have the skills and knowledge required by teaching profession are more likely to motivate their students to learn (as cited in Anyamele, 2007). Yemeni universities should do the same, especially that the criteria of appointing new faculty members to teach in the academic departments focus only on the academic knowledge of teachers, regardless whether they have the ability to teach effectively or not. Yemeni universities should commit themselves to providing opportunities for their faculty members to gain the knowledge and teaching competencies that they need to be able to achieve the targeted objectives of these institutions, which is ultimately the students learning. Through their directorates or centres of professional development, Yemeni universities can use training programmes to train their faculty members in the various competencies that they need. By doing this, they can participate in developing and improving the performance of their staff and, in return, improving and developing the education process as a whole. According to Ho, Watkins, and Kelly (2001), ―a development in teaching conceptions can lead to improvements in teaching practices and in student learning, and that this can happen within a short period of time‖ (p. 165). Yemeni university English teachers are similar to Yemeni university teachers of other disciplines in terms of the criteria used to appoint new faculty members to teach in English departments. Therefore, they may need to be trained to teach effectively and a training programme that reflects their training needs can be used for such a purpose. It can help them to acquire the teaching competencies required to make effective teaching, such as the competencies of planning teaching, managing classroom, communicating effectively with students, integrating technologies into teaching, building constructive teacher-student and student-student relationships, and assessing students and giving them constructive feedback. 3 1.2. Statement of the Problem Universities should select their teachers carefully according to various criteria, taking into account all the necessary competencies that are required for university teachers. In addition to mastery of subject matter, university teachers should have the necessary competencies to communicate information and knowledge to their students effectively because, as a matter of fact, university teachers who do not possess the necessary teaching competencies will not be able to teach effectively even if they are perfect in their disciplines (Afana, 1997, p. 42). According to Mellish, Brink, and Paton (2001), the success of teaching is affected by the teaching skills and competencies of the teacher (as cited in Rudman, 2007, p. 13). This point was highlighted by many previous studies which indicated how university teaching was perceived by students and the faculty members themselves to be weak due to the lack of the faculty members for teaching competencies and skills. Here, the researcher reports on some of these studies: - The study of Silva (2001), which investigated the difficulties that professors at the Federal University in Brazil face in their teaching, showed, based on the responses of professors, that their pedagogical competence was not enough. For example, the professors cited difficulties in using different teaching methods, stimulating students to participate in classes, and in assessing students. They recognized that such difficulties indicated the need for pedagogical training. The researcher explained this case, stating that the professors did not have pedagogical disciplines during their study, their position is more concerned with research than teaching, and the criteria of employment give more importance to academic discipline knowledge than pedagogical competence. - The study of Al-Gifri (2002), which investigated the teaching performance of the faculty members of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, revealed that the teaching performance of the faculty members was not at the required level from the perspective of female postgraduate students. 4 - The study of Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), which investigated the practice of the faculty members of the Faculty of Education at Sultan Qaboos University for the basic teaching skills and their needs to improve their performance, revealed that the practice of the faculty members for teaching skills was low from the perspective of postgraduate students. - The study of Malik, Hassan, and Sultan (2003), which investigated the extent to which the faculty members of University of Agriculture, Faisalabad–38040, Pakistan were competent in the performance of their duties as teachers; revealed that the students were not satisfied with their university teachers regarding their competencies in subject matter, teaching techniques, understanding of human psychology, and impartiality. - The study of Jan (2010), which investigated the teaching competencies of female faculty members in educational departments of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah, revealed that female postgraduate students were not satisfied with the use of the faculty members for traditional methods of teaching and evaluation and inhumane treatment of students as well. - The study of Al-Subaiei (2010) indicated that the practice of the faculty members of Sciences Departments for sciences teaching skills, in the light of the total quality standards, was weak from the perspective of the students in the Faculty of Applied Sciences, Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah. - The study of Al-Kubaisi (2011), which investigated the reality of university teaching quality from the perspective of the faculty members of Al-Anbar University, indicated that there was a decline in the quality level of university teaching which might be attributed to the fact that some of the faculty members of scientific branches did not receive enough educational preparation. All the researchers of these studies recommended carrying out training courses and workshops for university teachers in order to develop their teaching performance. In Yemen, the increase of university education and the number of students who join universities have played a negative role in accepting most Ph. D. holders as 5 university teachers regardless whether they have the abilities to teach or not (M. S. Al-Mekhlafi, 2002, p. 114). In other words, Yemeni universities pay attention only to the academic knowledge of teachers when appointing new teachers to teach in the academic departments including English department, regardless whether these teachers have the necessary teaching competencies to create appropriate instructional environments for their students or not. What makes this worse is the absence of a system for evaluating, improving, and developing the teaching competence of the faculty members (M. S. Al-Mekhlafi, 2002, p. 114). This means that Yemeni university teachers may not have the necessary teaching competencies required to make effective teaching and may teach in a traditional way. As a matter of fact, university teachers who do not possess the necessary teaching competencies will not be able to teach effectively even if they are perfect in their disciplines. In the researcher‘s opinion, this may negatively affect the educational process and the level of graduates of Yemeni universities. Another factor that makes training university teachers necessary is the continuous changes and developments of this age. These changes require university teachers to be excellent teachers. University teachers are required now to be able to design courses and use various teaching methods to suit the different groups of students, to integrate technology into their teaching (Ramsden, 2004, p. 4), to facilitate learning, to assess students authentically, to advise students, and to manage courses (Chan, 1996, p. 1). Such new competencies for university teachers make training all the more important for them to enable them to reflect these competencies in their teaching because being unable to do that will affect their teaching negatively which will, in turn, affect the learning level of students. The result then is graduates who cannot work in an environment characterized by globalization. This made the researcher think of how Yemeni universities can participate in improving and developing the teaching performance of their faculty members of English departments, especially that setting them to teach without having the necessary teaching competencies can affect the education process and, in turn, the educational outcomes negatively. This does not match with the desire of Yemeni universities to improve their outcomes in response to the demands of globalization. Therefore, there have to be training programmes that aim either at improving the 6 competencies which teachers have or at providing them with new ones in the light of developments in the field of education. In the light of this, the researcher can state the problem of the current study in the following questions: Main Question: What is the proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics? Sub-questions: 1. What is the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments? 2. Are there any statistically significant differences in the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz)? 3. What are the components of the proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics? In other words, the problem of the current study is limited to investigating the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers; identifying the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments; identifying if there are any statistically significant differences in the mean scores of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz); and determining and setting the components of the 7 proposed training programme that can be used to help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics. 1.3. Objectives of the Study This study aims at investigating the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers to identify the degree of their practice for these competencies. The researcher will design a proposed training programme based on the training needs of Yemeni university English teachers. This programme can be used to make the desirable changes in the behaviours of Yemeni university English teachers by training them in the various teaching competencies that they need in their teaching in the light of this age characteristics. It also aims at achieving the following objectives: - Identifying the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments. - Identifying if there are any statistically significant differences in the mean scores of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz). - Determining and setting the components of the proposed training programme that can be used to help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics. 1.4. Significance of the Study The significance of this study emerges from the importance of teaching competencies for faculty members of universities. Universities are the basis of development and education in any society. Their faculty members and their development are central to the quality of education that they present. In addition to 8 mastery of the subject matter, the faculty members of universities have to possess some instructional competencies in order to be able to perform their functions as teachers and play an active role in achieving the goals and objectives of universities. programmes and in students learning. What is specific about the current study is that – to the best of the researcher‘s knowledge – it is the first study of its kind on the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. No one has covered this area before although it is very crucial for developing English teaching at Yemeni universities. This indicates the lack of awareness of the importance of English teaching competencies in making teaching English more effective at Yemeni universities. The current study sheds light on the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers display or lack in their teaching. It presents a clear picture of the level of their teaching performance from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and chairmen of English departments. It also proposes a training programme based on the teaching competencies that a Yemeni university English teacher may need. This proposed training programme can be used by Yemeni universities to improve and develop the teaching competencies of the faculty members of English departments in various domains: planning teaching; implementing teaching; integrating technologies into teaching; human relations; and assessmen, evaluation, and giving feedback. In other words, Yemeni universities, through their directorates or centres in charge of professional development, can use the proposed training programme to develop an important aspect of their English faculty members: the pedagogical aspect. What gives this study more importance is the fact that Yemeni universities do not pay attention to teaching competence when they appoint new English teachers to teach in English departments. This means that Yemeni university English teachers may not possess the necessary teaching competencies and teach in a traditional way. Therefore, Yemeni universities need now to think seriously about how to solve this problem which can affect students learning negatively. The proposed training programme is expected to help in this regard. 9 In other words, the training programme proposed by the researcher can be used as a starting point for in-service training of Yemeni university English teachers and the results of this study may be a starting point for improving English teaching at Yemeni universities and changing the traditional methods and techniques used for teaching English courses at Yemeni universities. In addition, based on reviewing the related literature and considering the opinions of some experts, the current study presents a list of the teaching competencies required by a university English teacher to teach effectively. This list can be used as a checklist for evaluating the teaching performance of Yemeni university English teachers and then suggesting the appropriate remedies for them. Moreover, the study, based on reviewing the related literature in the field of designing training programmes, presents a systematic model for constructing training programmes for professional development in higher education which can be utilized by professionals while designing training programmes. Finally, the results of this study may motivate those who are in charge of appointing teachers to teach in Yemeni universities to rethink about the rules and regulations in this regard and focus not only on the level of subject matter knowledge of these teachers but also on some other competencies required by such a job, especially teaching competencies. 1.5. Scope and Delimitations This study is confined to the following: - Investigating the teaching competencies of university English teachers and designing a proposed training programme that can be used to help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies that they need in the light of this age characteristics. - Yemeni university English teachers, English students of level four, and chairmen of English departments at three Yemeni public universities: Sana‘a University, Aden University, and Taiz University. - The study instrument was administered to the target sample during the academic year 2012-2013. 11 1.6. Definition of Terms 1.6.1. University teacher  M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002) defined a faculty member as any Ph. D. holder who practices the teaching profession at university whether he/she is an assistant professor, an associate professor, or a professor (p. 122).  Procedurally, the researcher defines a university English teacher as any Yemeni university English teacher who teaches English courses in the English departments of Yemeni public universities whether he/she is an assistant professor, an associate professor, or a professor. 1.6.2. Teaching competencies  Hirst and Bailey (1983) defined teaching competencies as ―those effective teaching behaviours instructors exhibit in classroom teaching‖ (p. 3).  In Tigelaar, Dolmans, Wolfhagen, and van der Vleuten (2004), teaching competencies are defined as ―an integrated set of personal characteristics, knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed for effective performance in various teaching contexts‖ (p. 255).  Khawagah and Al-Sayeh (2008) defined teaching competencies as a set of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which direct the teaching behaviour of a teacher and help him to capably perform his work inside and outside the classroom at a certain level. They can be measured by special standards which are agreed on (as cited in Al-Rubaiei, Mahmood, & Ali, 2010, p. 47). 1.6.3. Training  According to McClelland (2002), training, simply ―is an activity that changes people‘s behaviour‖ (p. 7).  Silberman and Auerbach (2006) defined training as ―a method of enhancing human performance. Whenever a person‘s ability to perform a job is limited by a lack of knowledge or skill, it makes sense to bridge that gap by providing the required instruction‖ (p. 1). 11  Bray (2009) defined training as ―a process designed to facilitate learning in the target audience‖ (p. 35). 1.6.4. Training programme  Aqeeli (1996) defined training programme as a planned process which uses methods and tools with a view to creating, improving, refining the skills and capacities of individuals, and broadening the extent of their knowledge for the effective performance through learning in order to raise their efficiency and thus the efficiency of the institution (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 9).  According to Idrees (2001), a training programme is those practical and theoretical instructional experiences organized and supported by activities, methods, and techniques for the training subject presented by training experts (p. 12).  Procedurally, the researcher defines the training programme as an organized and comprehensive plan developed with a view to developing the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers need in the light of the current age characteristics, containing the training goals and objectives, the training topics, the schedule, the methods and aids of training, the tools required for evaluation, and the procedures required for implementation. 1.6.5. The degree of practice Procedurally, the degree of practice means the degree that Yemeni university English teachers obtain through the responses of the study sample to the statements of the study instrument on a five-point scale (always, often, sometimes, rarely, and never) given the numbers 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. The acceptable degree of practice is specified by getting (3) or more degrees out of (5) with a corresponding percentage of (60 %) or more out of the whole (100 %) at the level of each statement, each domain, and the whole instrument. 12 1.7. Organization of the Study The current study is divided into six chapters. Chapter one includes an introduction to the study, its problem and questions, aims and objectives, significance, scope and delimitations, and definition of the related terms. It also spells out the outlines of the subsequent chapters. Chapter two provides a theoretical background for the study which is divided into two parts. The first part deals with teaching and teaching competencies. The second part deals with training and the procedures and stages of designing training programmes. Chapter three sheds light on some previous studies related to the two fields of the current study: teaching competencies and constructing training programmes. In each field, the previous studies are classified into two groups: Arabic studies (studies conducted in the Arab countries) and foreign studies (studies conducted abroad). In chapter four, the study deals with the methodology used and the procedures followed to conduct the study. It describes the population and sample of the study, the instrument used to collect data and the ways of measuring its validity and reliability, the procedures followed to construct the proposed training programme and measure its validity, and the statistical tools used to analyse data and to answer the questions of the study. Chapter five, using the study questions as a framework, analyses the data obtained and presents and discusses the findings of the study to come up with facts about the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies. Chapter six presents a brief summary of the study, including some conclusions. It also states some recommendations concerning improving the teaching performance and competencies of Yemeni university English teachers and implementing the proposed training programme and some suggestions for further research. In brief, the study consists of six chapters as portrayed in Figure (1.1). 13 Chapter І Introduction Chapter ІІ Chapter ІІІ Theoretical Background Review of Related Literature Teaching Training Studies related to Studies related to & & teaching designing/evaluating Teaching Designing training training programmes competencies/skills competencies programmes Chapter IV Methodology & Procedures Chapter V Presentation & Discussion of Findings Chapter VI Summary, Conclusions, Recommendations & Suggestions Figure 1.1: Structure of the study. 14 CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROUND CHAPTER II THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 2.1. Introduction This chapter deals with the theoretical concepts related to the study. It tries to provide a theoretical background for - teaching and teaching competencies and - training and designing training programme. 2.2. University Functions Universities are considered to be the most important institutions in society. They have three major functions: teaching, scientific research, and community service. These three functions represent the three major concerns of faculty members (Centra, 1977, p. 17) and should be given as much attention as possible by universities and their faculty members to ensure the mission of establishing universities in societies. Therefore, evaluating a university or an individual faculty member should be seen in the light of these three major functions as the primary reason for establishing universities and appointing faculty members to work at them is found in the three functions. Teaching is the most common function associated with universities. It is what almost every faculty member does and be engaged in most of his time (Seldin, 1995, p. 1). The importance of this function emerges from its being connected with preparing students to work effectively and responsibly within society. It is for this reason that teaching in higher education should not be considered as a process of transferring information and knowledge to students and that the faculty members need not be competent in teaching. It is true that this function was not given enough concern. However, there is a growing emphasis on teaching as an important function of academic staff (Fielden, 1998, p. 14). 15 Scientific research is considered a fundamental function of universities and is given more concern by their faculty. Universities are required to conduct researches, aiming at playing an effective role in developing countries. This requires faculty members who are able to conduct good quality researches; especially that funding becomes more competitive than before. According to Fielden (1998), among the skills that faculty members need now are writing researches, raising funding for projects, guiding PhD students and researchers, and managing projects. The reason of giving research more concern by faculty members is associated with their role as T. Moore and Ward (2010) stated. T. Moore and Ward indicated that faculty members view their work in the light of institutional expectations for them to be mainly engaged in research and that university culture directs them to focus on research. However, faculty members can be highly productive scholars when involved in the community through the three functions: teaching, research, and community service as T. Moore and Ward argued. Community service is also an essential function of universities. This function involves cooperation and partnership between universities and community with a view to developing it at all levels (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 46). Universities and their faculty members have to use their expertise to address the issues of community (T. Moore & Ward, 2010, p. 44). This requires faculty members to be aware of what is happening in society and what problems are there in it to be able to play an effective role in giving solutions for its problems and meeting its needs (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 47). This engagement in the community has not to be limited to business and economic aspects, but it has also to extend to reach social, environmental, cultural, political, and religious dimensions of community, covering all sectors of society (Business/Higher Education Round Table [BHERT], 2006). To achieve this level of university and faculty engagement in the community, a deeper understanding of how to integrate the three functions in community contexts is required (T. Moore & Ward, 2010, p. 45). In Yemeni universities, the faculty members‘ function of research is given more concern than the function of teaching or the function of community service. This is clear from the procedures followed in promoting them which give more concern to the number of published researches, regardless of their teaching competence (M. S. 16 Al- Mekhlafi, 2002, p. 115) or their role in community service. However, if this policy continues, then faculty members will keep on thinking that only conducting researches is important (Seldin, 1995, p. 9). In short, the interaction of faculty with communities is expressed through teaching, research, and community service (T. Moore & Ward, 2010, p. 53). Therefore, there should be a balance in the concern given to the three functions, seeing them as complementary functions. It is only through this integration and engagement of universities and their faculty members in community can be achieved. In the researcher‘s opinion, universities can make such balance and complementation among the three functions through establishing some policies and practices and providing opportunities in this regard. 2.3. The Concept of Teaching Teaching is ―an interactive process as well as an intentional activity‖ that can provide learning opportunities for students (Brown & Atkins, 2002, p. 2) and make their learning possible (Ramsden, 2004, p. 7). It is ―the intentional passing on of information from one who knows more to one who knows less, i.e., at the base of teaching is a knowledge gap‖ (Strauss, 2005, p. 371). According to Billings and Halstead (2005), it is a complex set of actions that aims at ensuring learning (as cited in Rudman, 2007, p. 14). It is ―an art and not a science‖ and as every artist, teacher needs to have basic skills before setting to work (Seldin, 1995, p. 9). Moreover, it is ―an intellectual and a social activity‖ (Svinicki & Mckeachie, 2011, p. 333). This complex process requires having many cognitive prerequisites. Strauss (2005) referred to some of these cognitive prerequisites: - the ability to monitor the other‘s mind (the ability to know knowledge, emotions, etc. the other has), - having representations of the knowledge that is to be correct and that of the learner‘s possible incorrect knowledge and the ability to know the gap between the two knowledge representations, - the ability to communicate knowledge to students, and - the ability to provide feedback to students (pp. 376-378). 17 This complexity of teaching also involves several aspects. It is a process which is physically, emotionally, and cognitively demanding. Teachers need to be active in the class which demands physical efforts during classes. They also need to care about their students and feel empathetic with them which can make teachers emotionally exhausted. Moreover, they need to make a lot of decisions regarding designing lessons, meeting students, responding to their questions, etc. (Danielson, 2007, p. 2). Like any other profession, teaching is not an end in itself. It has some functions. These functions, according to Squires (2004), can be classified into three groups: cognitive functions, affective functions, and executive functions. The first group is related to the learning process, the second to the learning preferences, and the third to the general concepts and approaches to learning strategies. Squires (2004) made a list of these three groups of teaching functions which are reflected in the roles and functions of teaching:  The cognitive functions included - collecting the recourses of learning and presenting them in a form of course, - auditing students‘ previous learning and building on it, - orienting students to new learning, - providing inputs to learning, directly and indirectly, - explaining and checking understanding, - giving tasks and providing feedback for students, and - facilitating interaction in the class.  The affective functions included - motivating students, - making learning rewarding, and - supporting students.  The executive functions included - helping students to explore the world through enquiry and - encouraging students to reflect on their learning (pp. 343-345). In brief, teaching is a complex intentional process that involves some aspects and has several functions and aims, in its final end, at providing learning opportunities 18 for students. Therefore, it cannot be left to chance. It should involve ―developing, practicing, and evaluating pedagogical skills in an environment both supportive and facilitative‖ (Kovac, 1976, p. 64) especially that it is ―a learned profession‖ (Shulman, 1987, p. 9). 2.3.1. The nature of university teaching University teaching is a complex and multidimensional process in nature. It involves ―a wide variety of practices and methods‖ (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2005, p. 148). It is a professional activity that requires both skills and knowledge which can be learnt and developed through professional development (Dearn et al., 2002, p. 57). There are many factors that can affect this process positively or negatively: some of these factors are related to the scientific and pedagogical preparation of university teachers and whether they have the necessary competencies to teach effectively; some are related to the characteristics of the current age which is characterized by continuous changes; and some are related to the curriculum, teaching plans and programmes. This process requires university teachers to know the subject being taught. It also requires them to be able to analyse the topics being taught; to select appropriate teaching strategies and materials; and to organize the materials, information, and activities for students (Brown & Atkins, 2002, p. 1). In addition, it requires them to be able to plan and implement teaching, to evaluate and assess students and give them appropriate feedback, to stimulate students to learn, and to communicate with them effectively (Al-Ser, 2004, p. 279). According to Maslowski (1976), effective university teaching cannot be achieved through ―magical formula.‖ It requires the availability and the combination of some elements, such as knowledge of subject matter, teaching skills, and enthusiasm (p. 125). These teaching skills ―can be acquired, improved, and extended‖ (Brown & Atkins, 2002, p. 1). Allan, Clarke, and Jopling (2009), reporting on a case study, indicated that in higher education teaching, students are concerned with the learning environment in which teachers support their learning rather than with the academic level of their 19 teachers. According to the case study reported, students favour teaching that enhances their learning and personal attributes of their teachers that improve the interaction between them and their teachers. They also prefer that kind of teaching in which they are more active rather than just recipients of knowledge. Teaching in higher education should be seen as a process of cooperation between teachers and students. Teachers should work cooperatively with students to help them change their understanding and to make their learning possible (Ramsden, 2004, p. 110). According to Eble (1971), the act of college teaching ―must move toward openness, [and] toward a willingness of faculty and students to enter an experience of mutual and shared learning‖ (p. 285). According to Berendt (1994), good university teaching - aims at achieving the students‘ autonomy; - discourages product-oriented learning but promotes process-oriented learning; - requires learners to be active; - uses a variety of teaching methods to meet the different types of learning styles of students; - uses technology in order to facilitate learning; - deals with students as partners in the pedagogical process; and - tries to prepare students for their future professional fields of work (p. 82). To sum up, to teach effectively in higher education, teachers should know their subject matter, should be able to select appropriate course content in accordance with their students‘ needs and level, should know how their students learn and how to teach them, should know how to communicate and interact with their students effectively, and should be able to evaluate and assess their students and give them appropriate feedback. 2.3.2. The changing perspectives towards university teaching University teaching was seen as a process of transmitting information from teachers to students, i.e., it was one-way delivery. It was believed that learning (the 21 student‘s job) is something separate from teaching (the teacher‘s job) which is entirely wrong (Ramsden, 2004, p. 86). It was even believed that if university students could not learn, it was because of them (they have a learning difficulty), not because of the teaching. Such belief is absolutely wrong as Ramsden (2004) stated. Ramsden asserted that university teachers do not understand anything about teaching if they cannot help their students to enjoy learning (p. 88). Most teaching styles in higher education were teacher-centred. According to this approach, teachers determine the content and present it to students who have to be able to download it. Teachers who believe in this traditional method think that only good learners can learn (Alters & Nelson, 2002, p. 1893). In contrast, student-centred teaching is another approach to university teaching. This approach is being given a lot of concern now. According to this approach, students are the centre of the learning process and instruction should be planned in response to their diversity and interests (Onwuegbuzie et al., 2007, p. 132). In fact, the perspectives towards university teaching have changed a lot. University teaching is not neglected as it was. Nowadays, it is being given higher priority in most universities of the world (Biggs & Tang, 2007, p. 1) and the concern of the kind of teaching that universities should offer is increasing. Moreover, there is a growing trend towards assessing teachers teaching in higher education (J. Jones, 1994, p. 110; Kearney, 1994, p. 11) by students, colleagues, and peers (El Hares, 1994, p. 96) and towards improving the effectiveness of university teaching (Csirik, 1994, p. 146). This is may be due to the changing context of higher education worldwide and the need to ―provide quality assurance in an increasingly competitive and international environment‖ which requires addressing ―the issue of the professionalization of university teaching‖ (Dearn et al., 2002, p. 2). An important factor in changing the context of university teaching is the appearance of technologies and their integration into teaching and learning. Such tools can make teaching in higher education more effective and interesting (El Hares, 1994, p. 98). This demands university teachers to be skilled not only in their disciplines, but also in management and technology (Silvio, 1994, p. 126). They should be able not only to use technologies, but also to know their pedagogical implications. According to Dearn et al. (2002), this may lead to the disappearance of the ―lone teacher 21 approach‖ to teaching and the appearance of ―collaborative team work‖ in teaching (p. 6). Another factor in changing the perspectives towards university teaching is the diversity of students. Classrooms are now full of a diverse range of students. These students demand the quality of teaching that enables them to be qualified well with the skills and knowledge required by the current age. Therefore, universities should respond to such a demand through good teaching (Biggs & Tang, 2007, p. 12) which usually results in high-quality student learning (Ramsden, 2004, p. 84). In short, students, nowadays, need to be prepared for a world characterized by globalization. They need not only to learn content, but also to put their learning into practice in their real life contexts through demonstrating skills and abilities (Pickford & Brown, 2006, p. xvii). This requires teaching of high quality, especially that good teaching is directly linked to student learning and development (Cabrera & La Nasa, 2005, p. 148) and the low quality of teaching is one of the main causes of the low standard of education (Ghori, Saeed, & Mubeen, 2011, p. 1184). 2.3.3. University teachers of 21st century Although teaching is the most visible role and the primary professional function of university teachers (Seldin, 1995, p. 2), it was given very little concern. It is only in recent years that some concern has been given to think of university teachers as teachers who should have knowledge of a particular discipline and pedagogical knowledge to convey that discipline (Dearn et al., 2002, p. 9). Many recent studies insisted on the importance of pedagogical competence for higher education teachers to teach effectively. Therefore, it becomes necessary even to oblige faculty members to training in this area and consider it as an important aspect of their career path (Kearney, 1994, p. 21). Responding to this, most universities all over the world have started to give more concern to teaching competencies of their faculty members. For example, in Britain and Australia, new faculty members are required to participate in professional training programmes. They are encouraged to participate in training through awards ranging from certificates to degree levels (Chan, 1996, p. 3). 22 To be effective university teachers in the 21 st century, university teachers require various skills and abilities to teach effectively and to ensure positive learning outcomes. According to Algonquin College (2004), they should be able to - understand how students learn and apply this knowledge in their teaching, - create an effective learning environment, - use a variety of teaching and learning strategies, - evaluate students with various tools and techniques, - work independently and with others to develop and/or adapt learning materials to achieve learning goals, - use technology effectively in teaching, and - design and develop curricula. The most important requirement for university teachers in this age is the technological pedagogical content knowledge. Such knowledge can enable them to integrate technology into teaching and to use technologies to meet the learning needs of students (American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education [AACTE], 2010, p. 11). 2.3.4. Teaching English in English departments of Yemeni universities English is taught as a foreign language in Yemen. Its importance as an international language and as the main language of science and technology has made it get a lot of concern in terms of being required for getting jobs. This fact stands behind the desire of many Yemeni students to learn English and to join the Bachelor Programmes in it. This is clear from the number of students in English departments, compared with the number of students in other departments. Responding to this, Yemeni universities open English departments mainly in two colleges: college of education and college of arts. These departments attract a lot of students who wish to get a Bachelor degree in English. In both colleges, the entire Bachelor programme is spread over four years of two semesters each. Each semester has an average of 12-15 credits (college of education) or 15-18 credits (college of arts) for courses in English. The aim of teaching English in these departments is to produce graduates specialized in English language. Therefore, the English courses 23 taught in these departments are not limited to courses in English language skills (listening, reading, speaking, and writing) or to courses in English language systems (grammar and phonology). In fact, they cover a wide range of English aspects including both academic content and skills courses of English language. In other words, by talking about teaching English in English departments of Yemeni universities, it is meant teaching courses that lead to developing students English language proficiency as well as courses that lead to having knowledge about English language and its linguistics and literature. In the case of English departments in the colleges of education, in addition to these two types of courses, there are also courses that aim at improving students professional competence. Therefore, Yemeni university English teachers require not only teaching competencies to teach English language skills but also teaching competencies to teach the linguistics and literature of English. They need to know the various types of methods and strategies of teaching content and skills courses of English language. 2.3.5. Teaching competencies A competency is ―the ability to perform tasks and duties to the standard expected in employment‖ (Charles Darwin University, 2006, p. 2). According to the International Board of Standards for Training, Performance and Instruction (IBSTPI), a competency involves ―an accumulation of knowledge, skills and attitudes‖ that one needs to perform his job effectively. It can be measured against some standards that are accepted for a particular profession. It can also be developed and improved through training (Richey, Fields, & Foxon, 2001, pp. 31-32). Katane et al. (2006) defined competencies as a ―set of knowledge, skills, and experience necessary for future, which manifests in activities‖ (as cited in A. S. Lawrence & Veena, 2012, p. 34). Similarly, Williams (2003) stated that competencies are composed of skills, knowledge, and attitudes (p. 47). These components form the competence that an individual needs to do his job well. In the teaching context, competencies are skills, information, behaviours, and characteristics that help teachers perform their job as teachers (Jan, 2010, p. 26). According to Maguire and Dillon (2007), teaching competencies are related to 24 knowledge of the subject matter, planning, teaching and classroom management, monitoring, assessment and some other professional requirements (p. 94). They are ―integrated and should be viewed as a whole repertoire a teacher has at his or her disposal … [and] in the light of the various contexts in which teaching takes place‖ (Tigelaar et al., 2004, p. 255), and ―reflective of instructional delivery modes and environments‖ (Na, 2006, p. 105). According to Shulman (1987), to be able to make effective teaching, a teacher should possess a set of competencies in the following types of knowledge: - Content knowledge: Understanding the subject matter to be taught. - General pedagogical knowledge: This includes the principles and strategies for classroom management and organization. - Curriculum knowledge: Understanding the teaching materials. - Pedagogical content knowledge: Possessing the ability to convey specific content through effective methods of teaching that enhance students learning and achievement. - Knowledge of learners and their characteristics. - Knowledge of educational contexts. - Knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values and their philosophical and historical grounds. Shulman stated that the pedagogical content knowledge is the most important as it ―identifies the distinctive bodies of knowledge for teaching‖ (p. 8). 2.3.6. The nature of teaching competencies Teaching competencies are not stable. They are ―dynamic in nature‖ and depend on the relevant social context (Spector & de la Teja, 2001). They change according to the context as Na (2006) stated, ―When teaching context is changing, teaching competencies must be viewed in the light of the various contexts in which teaching takes place‖ (p. 1). They are also affected by any change in the nature of the environment, i.e. any ―change in the nature of the environment calls for new competencies‖ (Guasch, Alvarez, & Espasa, 2009, p. 2). Moreover, they may vary according to the instructional delivery mode as Williams (2003) stated. For example, 25 integrating technology into the teaching learning process will require teachers to possess the teaching competencies that enable them to use technologies. As a result of the changing world, teachers will find it necessary to acquire more teaching competencies that are suitable for the instructional environment in addition to the traditional teaching competencies (Na, 2006, p. 103). For instance, Na (2006) highlighted the importance of online teaching competencies for teachers of higher education in 2015. Therefore, new frameworks for teaching competencies should be developed from time to time and the tool of training should be used to provide teachers with whatever new competencies they need in their work. Similarly, Selvi (2010) stated that the competencies of teachers should be subjected to research continuously. They should be reviewed and redefined continuously according to the changes and international developments. In other words, teachers need to acquire new competencies from time to time in order to be able to cope up with changes (p. 174). They should keep themselves up to date with the developments in the field of teaching. They should also keep on improving and evaluating their teaching skills and competencies according to the changing needs of the learners (Richards & Farrell, 2005, p. ix). In summary, teaching competencies are changeable. This requires developing new frameworks for teaching competencies from time to time and training teachers in whatever teaching competencies they need in the light of the changing pedagogical strategies and the emerging technologies or any other changes. 2.3.7. The importance of possessing teaching competencies The faculty members are the vital and valued tools for achieving the goal and objectives of universities (Anyamele, 2007). Therefore, they should have all the necessary competencies and skills required by their profession as university teachers. It is true that they should maintain a high level of subject matter knowledge, but this is not enough to make good classroom practice (Silva, 2001). They need also to possess the teaching competencies required by their profession as university teachers. Many previous studies highlighted the importance of teaching competencies for teachers to be able to achieve their roles as teachers. For instance, Silva (2001) 26 stated that university teachers should have teaching competencies and skills to make effective teaching in terms of developing good relationships with students, transmitting knowledge, stimulating students creativity, etc. Similarly, Al-Ghazyuwat (2005) stated that due to the importance of the role played by a university faculty member in the educational process and in order to be able to perform his function effectively, he should have a set of teaching competencies. According to Jumani (2007), to make an effective teaching in the classroom, teachers need to possess teaching competencies and skills (p. 38). In brief, to make effective teaching, it is very important for teachers to have the necessary teaching competencies. The importance of such competencies emerges from the fact that the success of teaching is affected by the teaching competencies of teachers (Rudman, 2007, p. 13) and from the fact that students outcomes are linked with teachers performance in the classroom (AACTE, 2010, p. 8). 2.4. Teaching Competencies Domains of the Proposed Training Programme Reviewing at the previous literature related to teaching competencies, the researcher came to know that there was a diversity regarding the set of competencies that teachers should have and the priority given to each competency. The researcher also found that there were some differences in determining the domains of teaching competencies. This might be due to the focus of the previous studies and the context in which they investigated teaching competencies or due to the different perspectives from which they investigated teaching competencies. Based on the review of the previous literature, reading some related books and articles, and considering the characteristics of the current age and the teaching competencies that the professors of the 21st century should have, the researcher proposes five main domains for the teaching competencies that the proposed training programme aims at improving for Yemeni university English teachers: planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technology; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback as shown in Figure (2.1). 27 Domains of the proposed training programme Assessment, Planning Implementing Using Human Evaluation Teaching Teaching Technology Relations & Giving Feedback to develop the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers Figure 2.1: Domains of the proposed training programme. 2.4.1. Planning teaching Teaching is a purposeful process which requires planning to meet its purposes. This process can be at the level of the curriculum, at the level of a particular class, or at the level of a particular day. Teachers must determine the purposes of teaching according to what the students should learn as a result of teaching (Danielson, 2007, p. 51). In other words, when planning teaching, teachers should pay more attention to what they want their students to learn, rather than to what they want to teach. Planning teaching and learning is a very important process. It is an essential facet of the role of faculty members, which has an important impact on students learning (Stefani, 2008, p. 40). It is the first step for making effective teaching. It is only through good planning that teachers can set the scene for good teaching which leads to learning. It is also teachers who know how to plan their teaching know what they want their students to achieve and learn. In contrast, poor planning for teaching cannot lead to that as Skowron (2001) stated (as cited in Danielson, 2007, p. 184). 28 According to Woodward (2001), it is only through planning that teachers can ensure good lectures and good courses (p. 1). When planning teaching, teachers should consider some points. They should take into their consideration the students, the content and materials, the activities, and any other factors that may make teaching more effective and help students to learn easily. An important point that is worth mentioning here is that before planning for teaching courses, teachers need to know their students as planning teaching without having an idea about the level and skills of students is useless. If a teacher is not sure of the level of his students, he can assess them through the use of some techniques used for this purpose, such as pre-tests, discussion questions, and questionnaires (Tileston, 2004, p. 5). To plan courses and instruction, Wiggins and McTighe (2005) suggested a three-step process which is called the backward design for planning instruction. First, teachers need to ask what they want their students to know or to do as a result of learning. Second, they must examine that their students are learning. Third, they must identify which instructional practices assure them that their students learn and can use what they have learnt (p. 17-18). The learning outcomes approach is another new approach that can be used for developing curricula and courses in higher education. According to this approach, teachers have to develop curricula and courses according to the intended learning outcomes. These outcomes represent a wide range of attributes and abilities that teachers expect their students to have (Stefani, 2008, p. 41). Al-Ser (2004) pointed out six sub-domains for planning teaching in the context of higher education: a. Planning goals and objectives b. Planning the topics of the course (content) c. Planning teaching strategies, methods, and activities. d. Planning assessment methods e. Planning the course outline f. Planning a lecture 29 a. Planning goals and objectives: The instructional goals are general statements of what the learners will learn due to the teacher‘s instruction. These instructional goals are expressed in terms of objectives which indicate what the learners will be able to perform at the end of the instruction. While stating the objectives, teachers should take into their consideration their students‘ needs and characteristics (Dick & Reiser, 1989, pp. 3-4). The objectives must be more specific and expressed in concrete statements of what students are expected to learn (Ramsden, 2004, p. 126). They must also be realistic in terms of the time available for the subject, the abilities of the students, the available facilities, and the number of students in the class (Al-Ser, 2004, p. 287). In brief, learning goals and objectives state what students will learn over the course of a lesson, a unit, or a semester (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 12). b. Planning the topics of the course (content): University teachers should be able to select appropriate content for the courses that they teach. Even when the course content is already fixed, teachers still have to be able to reflect on the content in terms of its structure. In selecting content for courses, teachers should take into consideration the goals and the objectives of the course and the needs and the level of the students. A mistake that must be avoided by university teachers regarding selecting course content is including a lot of content that cannot be covered within the time allotted. Teachers should remember while selecting course content that the more a course is saturated with details, the less time remains for the essential activities (Ramsden, 2004, p. 132). In other words, ―teachers should avoid content overload; [as] too much material will encourage a surface approach‖ to teaching (Fry, Ketteridge, & Marchall, 2008, p. 24). c. Planning teaching strategies, methods, and activities: Teaching strategies are approaches and methods that are used to facilitate and enhance the teaching learning process (Mellish et al., 2001 as cited in Rudman, 2007, p. 13). The question that teachers must ask themselves here is how to arrange and present teaching and learning in a way that provides more opportunities for their students to learn. They should select appropriate teaching approaches, methods, and techniques which match the learning objectives that they want their students to achieve (Baillie, 2004, p. 4). The process of selection should be based on the effectiveness of approaches, methods, and techniques in 31 encouraging ―high quality learning outcomes‖ (Ramsden, 2004, p. 121). They should also plan to use various methods of teaching to meet the needs of students‘ different styles of learning. In this step, teachers have to make a list of the instructional activities that they will use in their instruction to achieve the objectives. They should also determine the type of the instructional activities and the media used for presenting the activities (Dick & Reiser, 1989, p. 4). d. Planning assessment methods: Teachers should plan how their students will be assessed, i.e., what are the methods and techniques that will be used to assess their students learning. For example, whether they will use formative or summative assessment and what forms of formative or summative assessment they will use. They must also give students a clear idea about how they will be assessed. An important point that teachers must pay attention to while planning for assessment is that assessment methods should be matched against teaching (Wilson & Scalise, 2006, p. 646) and against the objectives of the course (Baillie, 2004, p. 5; Murray et al., 1996, p. 62) in order to measure the level of students learning and know whether the objectives are achieved or not. e. Planning the course outline: After planning the first four sub-domains mentioned above, a university teacher has to prepare an organized, gradual, and flexible outline for the course. This outline must include a description of the course, goals and objectives, topics, assessment methods, facilities and learning aids required for carrying out the course, taking into account the time available for carrying out the course (Al-Ser, 2004, pp. 288-289). f. Planning a lecture: Teachers at universities need also to plan their lectures. In panning lectures, Exley and Dennick (2005) referred to four issues that must be taken into consideration while planning for a lecture:  The content: The teacher must prepare in advance the content that he will communicate in his lecture. He must also be confident about this content.  The audience: The teacher must take into his consideration while preparing for a lecture the previous knowledge of students, their interest and desire, and their number in the class. 31  The goals: The teacher must take into his account the learning aims and outcomes which must be stated clearly and precisely.  The learning environment: The teacher needs also to think of the teaching room, the facilities and equipment available such as Data Show Projector, Computer Lab., Recorder, etc. He must be confident of their operation as well. In summary, in order to plan the teaching and learning process effectively, university teachers should possess a set of competencies that enable them to do that. This set of competencies is related to stating learning goals and objective clearly, selecting appropriate content, determining effective teaching strategies, using assessment methods and techniques to evaluate students learning effectively. University teachers should also take into their account a group of variables, such as the students in terms of their needs, their level, and their desire; the time allotted for teaching the course; and the facilities available. 2.4.2. Implementing teaching After planning teaching and preparing all the necessary components for it, it comes the process of implementing teaching according to the schedule already prepared in the stage of planning. This process includes structuring and arranging the physical classroom environment; using appropriate teaching strategies, methods, techniques, and activities; and communicating effectively with students both verbally and nonverbally. 2.4.2.1. Physical classroom environment The physical classroom environment refers to desks and chairs, facilities, spaces, etc. which can affect students learning (Cheng, 1994, p. 222). It also refers to the seating of students and the overall atmosphere and order in the classroom (Kaser, 2007). The importance of preparing the physical classroom environment comes out of the fact that classroom arrangement ―sets the stage for learning‖ (Conway, 2011, p. 33), and that students cannot concentrate on learning unless they feel comfortable in the classroom (Danielson, 2007, p. 64), and that the communication that occurs in the classroom either between the teacher and students or among students is affected by 32 seating arrangement of students (Hong-li, 2011, p. 512; McCorskey & McVetta, 1978, p. 99), and that the physical characteristics and arrangement of learning environments ―can affect learners emotionally, with important cognitive and behavioural consequences‖ (Graetz, 2006, p. 62). Therefore, more attention should be paid to the management style in the classroom while training teachers, so that they can develop their skills to establish a classroom environment effectively for the sake of creating an appropriate environment for students development and learning (Cheng, 1994, p. 237). The classroom should be arranged in a way that facilitates the interaction between the teacher and students and among students and improves and facilitates learning. It should also be arranged in a way that accommodates the various activities of the lecture and facilitates the movement of both the teacher and students as Kaser (2007) stated. Similarly, Dunbar (2004) stated that the main aim of arranging the classroom seating environment is to facilitate students instruction and the mobility of teachers to monitor students. Dunbar also mentioned some points that teachers should take into their account while arranging the classroom seating environment: the ability of students to see the teacher, the board, or any presented thing; the flexibility of changing the classroom seating environment according to learning activities; and the ability to move in the classroom easily (p. 3). McCorskey and McVetta (1978) referred to three common ways for arranging students in the classroom:  The traditional arrangement: It takes the form of a group of rows. It is used mainly if the purpose of the class is to communicate information to students as it minimizes the interaction among students and maximizes the focus on the teacher.  The semi-circular arrangement: It is also called u-shape. It is used when interaction between the teacher and students and among students themselves are required. This way of arrangement can facilitate interaction among students and with the teacher as well. 33  The modular arrangement: It takes the form of clusters. It is used in activities that enhance student-student interaction and cooperative learning in the classroom such as task group.  The pair arrangement: The researcher finds it important to add this arrangement which can be used for activities that involve two students working together. The use of these types of arrangements should be determined by the type of the desired communication and interaction in the classroom and the type of activities. In brief, it is very important that university teachers should be able to arrange their classroom environment in a way that matches the learning activities, makes the interaction between them and their students and among students more easy, and enhances students learning. Another aspect that is related to structuring the physical classroom environment is classroom decoration. The classroom can be decorated with colours, posters, wallpapers, etc. These aspects of decoration can influence the mood, perceptions, and performance of students in the classroom (Stone & English, 1998, p. 184). They can also communicate a powerful message to students regarding the teaching-learning activities and subjects (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 202). According to Walker (1997), the decoration of the classroom should be related to what students are learning. In other words, the posters or visual cues used to decorate the classroom should contain academic information related to the teaching learning process. Walker suggested some principles for using such materials in the classroom: - They should be hanged in areas where students are most likely to look when they go off task. - They should be visible during daily work so that students can see and copy from them. - They should be taken down from the most important parts of the study courses, such as unit reviews. - They should be produced as far as possible by students themselves. (p. 1) 34 Hanging aesthetically pleasing posters on the classroom‘s walls can create a pleasant environment which likely promotes positive attitudes and behaviours in the classroom. It can also create ―a content-specific‖ environment for students if scientific posters are hanged in the classroom (Hubenthal & O‘Brien, 2009. p. 2). Therefore, teachers should encourage students to decorate their classrooms with aesthetical posters to create a positive environment for learning. They should also encourage them to hang content posters which can serve as reminders of key concepts of topics. A third important element related to structuring the classroom physical environment is using music in the classroom. Music is a natural stimulus that can enhance concentration and set a positive mood (Brewer, 2009, p. 2). In the classroom, using music can serve several purposes. It can make the learning process more interesting and enjoyable. According to Brewer (2009), it can help to maintain a positive mood, increase learning effectiveness, and motivate and sustain students attention and concentration (p. 2). It can also increase interest and motivation in the classroom (Jackson & Joyce, 2003, p. 6) and help students to focus (Martinez, 2012, p. 17), and hence it can enhance and improve learning and academic achievement (Jackson & Joyce, 2003, p. 10; Merrell, 2004, p. 1). Moreover, music is considered as an effective technique that can be used by teachers to create a positive classroom environment and to facilitate classroom management (Jackson & Joyce, 2003, p. 6). The findings of recent researches on brain indicated that ―central features of music and language are housed near one another in the human brain‖ (Lems, 2005, p. 14). Similarly, Stokes (2008) stated that there are structural parallels between music and language. This explains the positive impact of music on learning languages and highlights the possibility of utilizing music in language learning. There are some previous studies that highlighted the effectiveness of using music in language learning and classroom management. For example, the study of Quast (1999) highlighted the effectiveness of using music to enhance language acquisition. It indicated that playing music in the background influenced on students‘ attitudes and words memorization positively. Similarly, Stokes (2008) indicated- based on some studies which investigated the use of music in language classrooms 35 and on researches in the areas of structural parallels, affective impacts, and cognitive processing- that music can assist students in language acquisition and contribute to creating positive learning environments. Fisher (2001) is another study which indicated that music made students excited about learning English. The results of this study revealed that the students in the music classroom acquired more English than those in the non-music classroom. The researcher of the study concluded that the active use of music in elementary school classrooms can develop students‘ language. While the study of De l‘Etoile (2002) indicated that musical mood induction could affect retrieval of words positively, the findings of the study of Martinez (2012) indicated that playing background music in the special education classroom had a calming effect on the behaviour of the students, helping them to concentrate more on their studies. Music can also make learning ESL/EFL more interesting and effective. Merrell (2004) indicated that using music in the classroom can reduce anxiety and create a friendly environment for second language learners. Merrell also stated that music can make the learning experience more effective and enjoyable. Moreover, Merrell claimed that music can help teachers to manage their classes effectively. What is special about music is that it can be used in any classroom regardless the level of students and the subject matter. According to Lems (2001), music can be used in the adult ESL classrooms to create a learning environment, to develop students‘ English skills, and to increase their vocabulary. In summary, music is an effective teaching tool that university teachers can use in the classroom to create an appropriate learning environment, to create a positive mood for students, to enhance higher achievement, and to make the learning process more enjoyable. However, teachers should use music selectively, i.e., they should play the right type of music that matches the effect intended to be created. 2.4.2.2. Instructional strategies There are different teaching strategies and methods. Teachers should be able to select the appropriate ones for their teaching. The main criterion for the process of selection should be the effectiveness of the teaching strategy in achieving the learning goals and objectives and in creating appropriate learning environments that enhance 36 students learning and make this process more interactive and more effective from the first moment of the class to the end. Before starting a lecture, the teacher needs to set the scene for that. This action is called an introduction. The introduction has to include three elements: attention, motivation, and an overview of the lecture topic. The purpose of the first element, which is the first task of the lecturer in the classroom (Denman, 2005, p. 1), is to attract students‘ attention to the lecture and concentrate on the subject. This can be done by telling a joke related to the lecture topic, asking a question about the topic of the previous lecture or about the new subject, making a surprising statement, etc. (Dynamic Flight Inc., 2003). Another effective tactic for attracting students‘ attention and interest in the classroom is the teacher ―expressiveness- the use of vocal variation, facial expression, movement, and gesture‖ (Denman, 2005, p. 2). Lecturers can motivate students through various ways, such as highlighting the importance of the content of a lecture topic. For example, they can tell their students why they should learn the content of a topic and why the content is important for their future in terms of application, employment or use (Dynamic Flight Inc., 2003; Exley & Dennick, 2005, p. 48). The purpose of the element of the overview is to give students a clear idea about the lecture topic. The teacher here can tell students about the objectives of the topic and what they will be able to do at the end of the lecture. He can also present the key ideas or concepts at this stage (Dynamic Flight Inc., 2003). After setting the scene for the lecture, drawing students‘ attention to focus on the lecture, and giving them a clear idea about the lecture topic; teachers need to use more than one teaching method or strategy to meet the various needs and the learning styles of their students and to achieve the objectives of the lecture. As stated earlier, English courses taught in English departments of Yemeni universities include courses in English language skills and systems, its linguistics and literature, and even the methodology of its teaching as it is the case in the colleges of education. This requires Yemeni university English teachers to be aware of the various teaching methods and approaches of teaching English such as the grammar- 37 translation method, the audio-lingual method, task-based learning, the communicative approach, the structural approach, etc. They should be aware of the uses, merits, and demerits of these methods and approaches in order to be able to select the most appropriate ones. This also requires Yemeni university English teachers to be familiar with the teaching strategies used in higher education, such as lecture, whole class discussion, small group work, pair and solo-work, cooperative learning, integrating technology, etc. As it is so difficult to refer to all teaching strategies, the researcher refers here only to the most common teaching strategies that can be used to teach English courses in English departments of Yemeni universities:  Lecture: Lecture is the most common teaching method used for teaching adults at universities. Its main advantages are that it is as effective as any other method for transmitting information (Bligh, 2000, p. 3) and it can be used to address a large number of students (Dynamic Flight Inc, 2003). This method of teaching maximizes the teacher control and it is not threatening to students. However, using this method in teaching is boring (Exley & Dennick, 2005, p. 51) as it makes the learning process teacher- centred rather than student-centred and minimizes feedback from students. It also makes the process of learning more passive as students are engaged during a lecture only in the activities of listening and note taking (Exley & Dennick, 2005, p. 3). However, the lecture method can be made more effective if teachers integrate technology into their lectures and use some techniques and activities that create more opportunities to engage students in the process of learning. Gilroy (1998) stated that integrating technology into lectures can create an interesting learning environment (p. 7). University teachers can also use humour to make their teaching more effective as it is an effective tool for removing the barriers of communication between teachers and students (Berk, 1996, p. 73). According to Berk (1996), students consider humour as an effective teaching tool that can be used to help them to feel more comfortable and cope up with their anxiety, stress, and boredom, which, in turn, may facilitate students learning. 38  Whole class discussion: This method is a modified form of the lecture method. It is an effective method that can be used by teachers to engage all students in learning to extend their knowledge (Danielson, 2007, p. 81) and to develop their creativity. Using this method, teachers can provide their students with more opportunities to participate, which makes learning more effective (Sajjad, 2010, p. 36). In this method of teaching, teachers should act as facilitators, presenting information and encouraging students to participate by answering questions and giving opinions (Sajjad, 2010, p. 37). In fact, this method is a student- as well as a teacher-centred method. It provides more opportunities for students to interact, keeping them alert all the time to participate by giving their opinions and asking or answering questions. It also gives teachers more control over the class. To make this method more effective, the desks and chairs should be arranged in a circle or two parallel semi-circles (Danielson, 2007, p. 75) and a relaxed environment should be created (Sajjad, 2010, p. 37).  Small group work: Group work is a cooperative activity which involves some students working together, discussing a topic, doing a role-play, etc. (Harmer, 1998, p. 21). This method of teaching provides more opportunities for students personal growth and for achieving a sense of independence and responsibility for their learning (Harmer, 1998, p. 21; Kelly & Stafford, 1993, p. 1). It also provides more opportunities for interaction between the teacher and students and among students, which can promote active learning (Kelly & Stafford, 1993, p. 1). Moreover, it helps students to develop strong relationship and respect for one another and this can enhance their learning from one another (McLoughlin & Jones, 2007, p. 115). In teaching a language, this method can provide students with real world situations to practice the language in a less threatening context than whole class discussions. It also develops learning autonomy in students (A. Mueller, 1997, p. 338). Moreover, it is a useful technique to manage 39 large classes with mixed abilities and to enhance students motivation to use a language (Baker & Westrup, 2000, p. 131). This method requires teachers to plan the content and the strategies which they will use to achieve the learning outcomes of the group, how to start and conclude a session, how to stimulate students participation, and how students take turns in activities (Kelly & Stafford, 1993). The teacher‘s role here is to monitor students through selecting a good position where he can observe all students and help and encourage them to focus on the task.  Pair work: This technique involves the whole class working in pairs. It can provide students with more opportunities to practice a language and to help one another in their learning. Like group work, it is a useful technique to manage classes with mixed abilities and to enhance students motivation to use a language. Using this technique requires careful planning. It also requires teachers to manage and monitor the class carefully to keep all students involved in the activity (Baker & Westrup, 2000, p. 131).  Solowork: Here, students can have an opportunity to work at their own speed, getting enough time to think. They can also have time to consider their own individual needs and progress apart from pair- and group- centred activities (Harmer, 1998, p. 21).  Role play: Role play is an enjoyable method of teaching and learning. Here, students take roles in a situation. To make this method more effective, the teacher should select realistic incidents. He should also give the selected students enough time for preparation and encourage them to behave naturally. After the role play, it is important to thank the participants and give them feedback on their performance (Sajjad, 2010, p. 37).  Integrating technology: Integrating technologies into the process of teaching and learning English is an effective teaching strategy. Such a strategy can enhance teaching and promote student learning. It can also 41 make the process of teaching and learning English more enjoyable, interesting, and effective and provide students with more opportunities of practice and exposure to English. This point will be highlighted later in the domain of using technology.  Cooperative learning: This teaching method is based on peer learning and is characterized by being student-centred (T.-P. Wang, 2007, p. 24). It involves interaction among students, which can help them to improve their language and social skills as Kessler (1992) and Wei (1997) stated (as cited in T.-P. Wang, 2007, p. 23). In this method, the teacher role is different. He is not dominant any more. According to McDonell (1992), a teacher in the cooperative learning plays the role of a facilitator, an observer, a supporter, or an adviser (as cited in T.-P. Wang, 2007, p. 24). During activities, he can monitor students, encourage them to work, and give them any support or advice that they need (T.-P. Wang, 2007, p. 23). According to T.-P. Wang (2007), there are some challenges in using such a teaching strategy, including designing cooperative learning activities, managing noisy and chaotic classroom, and grouping students. However, such challenges can be overcome through training teachers to use such an effective strategy.  Practice: Practice is an effective strategy for learning languages. English teachers can reinforce whatever patters they present through practice which may vary from choral practice to practice in pairs or individually. This teaching strategy usually follows the presentation stage. It provides students with opportunities to master new items (Broughton, Brumfit, Flavell, Hill, & Pincas, 1980, pp. 226-227).  Questioning: Questioning techniques are essential in the process of teaching and learning. Questions are considered one of the most effective tools used by teachers (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 69) due to the crucial role that they can play in the classroom (Sadker, Sadker, & Zittleman, 2011, p. 110). Besides being a medium of interaction between the teacher 41 and students, questions serve several purposes in the classroom. They can be used by teachers to help students to understand, to elaborate on new content, to summarize and reflect on their learning (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 67), to elicit evidence of students understanding, and to enhance students engagement (Danielson, 2007, p. 79). According to Sadker et al. (2011), by asking questions in the classroom, teachers can keep students on-task and involved, encouraging them to work harder and to learn more (p. 111). Sadker et al. also referred to seven habits that can help teachers to improve their use of classroom questions: 1. Asking fewer questions: Teachers should be more concerned with the quality of questions rather than the number of questions that they ask in the classroom. 2. Differentiating questions: Teachers should differentiate their questions in the classroom as a response to individual student differences. 3. Questioning for depth: Questions asked by teachers should aim mainly at deepening students‘ understanding of topics not merely at simple recall. 4. Questioning for breadth: Classroom questions should not be limited to one area of intelligence. They should cover all areas of intelligence. 5. Using wait time: Teachers should wait for some time after asking questions to give students time to think and to encourage more students to participate. 6. Selecting students: Classroom should not be dominated by a few animated students. Teachers should address all students through questions to ensure including them in active learning. 7. Giving useful feedback: Teachers should give students feedback on their answers to questions and this feedback should be specified and helpful for students to learn more and to improve their performance. 42 There are various types of questions, such as multiple-choice questions, yes/no questions, true/false questions, ordering, correcting mistakes, gap-fill questions, etc. Each type can serve a particular purpose. Therefore, teachers should be aware of all questions types to be able to use them according to what they want to judge. What is special about questions is that they can be used any time in classes. For example, they can be used before an activity or task to direct students focus, during an activity or task to get information on how students proceed, and after an activity or task to check students understanding.  Games: Games are effective teaching and learning tools. They can not only expand students‘ motivation and energy levels or stimulate their attention, but also help them to deepen their understanding of content and reinforce their retention of key information and skills (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 159). What is special about games is that they are of different types and levels and can serve several purposes in the classroom. In English classes, games can be used to practice activities to help students to remember vocabulary, spelling, literary terms (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 163) or to give them meaningful speaking, reading, listening, and pronunciation opportunities. For example, memory games can be based on a reading text to develop students‘ ability of reading comprehension, word games can be used to improve students‘ vocabulary, and communicative games such as What’s my line? can be used to develop students communication. Moreover, there are computer games which can help students to acquire knowledge and to improve their English skills. There are some points that teachers should consider when using games in the classroom. Games should be built on academic content (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 159). They should also be appropriate and challenging for students. Moreover, using them in the classroom, teachers should provide students with a clear time framework and instructions on how to play them. 43  Debate: Debate is a teaching strategy which is more appropriate to be used in higher education due to the age of students. Teachers can have students debate over content studied in order to engage them in the learning process. They can also put before students controversial topics about which they have different opinions and ask them to discuss (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 190). This can create opportunities for students to speak, which results in developing their speaking, listening, and interaction abilities. To make this teaching strategy more effective, teachers need to teach students the basics of debating and to keep debates as friendly as possible (Marzano & Brown, 2009, p. 190). In brief, there are several teaching strategies and methods that can be used by university English teachers to help students to learn. In order to select the appropriate ones for their teaching, teachers should be familiar with all these strategies and methods, their uses, advantages, and disadvantages. It is the responsibility of universities to make sure of that. They have to provide their faculty members with opportunities for pedagogical development if they show any lack of pedagogical competence. 2.4.2.3. Communication Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages between people. Through it, people can communicate information, emotions, and attitudes (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 4). According to Somsai and Intaraprasert (2011), this process involves three elements: a message sender, a message, and a message receiver (p. 85). Hamm (2006) added three more elements: channels (one of the senses), noise (which may affect receiving the message), and feedback (the reaction of the receiver) (p. 9). It is the responsibility of the speaker to make the message clear to be easily understood by the listener (Somsai & Intaraprasert, 2011, p. 85). Communication can be either verbal (through words) or nonverbal (facial expressions, eye contact, body posture, gestures, etc.) (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 4). Both verbal and nonverbal communication are important in the process of communication between teachers and students and any ambiguity in the 44 communication between them can affect the communication between them and may distort a message that one wants to convey to the other (Akpinar, 2009, p. 111), which may affect the whole process of teaching and learning. McCroskey and Richmond (1992) claimed that the communication behaviours of the teacher can determine, to a large extent, students‘ affect for both the teacher and the subject matter, which requires teachers to be able to communicate positive affect about themselves and their subject matter (p. 218). In fact, teachers should be able to communicate effectively with their students both verbally and nonverbally, using these two types of communication in harmony in the classroom (Akpinar, 2009, p. 115). 2.4.2.3.1. Nonverbal communication The importance of nonverbal communication comes out of the fact that human communication is mostly nonverbal. This type of communication plays an effective role in the process of teaching and learning (Butt, 2011, p. 42). The nonverbal communication of teachers can ―arouse more reactions and draw more attentions from the students‖ (Ning, 2009, p. 58). According to Argyle (1975), nonverbal communication can play several purposes in the classroom, such as ―expressing emotions, conveying interpersonal attitudes, presenting personality, and implying verbal communication‖ (as cited in Liu, 2001, p. 30). Baringer and McCroskey (2000) investigated the importance of nonverbal cues in the process of communication in the classroom. Baringer and McCroskey indicated that teachers pay more attention to students with effective nonverbal immediacy. This attention on the behalf of the teachers may play an important role in students engagement in the learning process. Nonverbal communication can be achieved through one of the following main devices: eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, body movements and postures, spatial distance, and paralanguage features.  Eye contact: Eye contact is the ―most powerful means of communication‖ between people (Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 51) and a great deal of communication is achieved through it (Ning, 2009, p. 59). It plays an effective role in developing rapport between people 45 (Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 53) and conveying an interest in what others are saying (vanDonselaar, 2011, p. 2). It can serve six functions: seeking information; showing affection and interest; inviting and controlling interaction; dominating, threatening and influencing others; providing feedback during speech; and revealing attitudes (Wainwright, 2003, p. 11; Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 52). In the context of the classroom, eye contact is an important medium and technique for effective communication (Butt, Sharif, Muhammad, Fanoos, & Ayesha, 2011, p. 42; Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 36). It is the key point in the emotional communication between teachers and students (Ning, 2009, p. 59). The first interaction between the teacher and students in the classroom is through eye contact. It can play three main functions in the classroom: checking students‘ understanding, motivating students and maintaining their interest, and participating in controlling the class (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, pp. 37-38). The study of Butt et al. (2011) highlighted the effectiveness of eye contact as a very important nonverbal teaching technique that can be used by teachers to make students attentive and alert, to motivate students, to increase their understanding of the concepts taught, to make the learning environment active, and to appreciate students‘ performance. This means that the effective use of eye contact can affect the learning process and classroom management and can enhance students learning. Therefore, university teachers should be aware of the effective role that eye contact can play in enhancing the teaching learning process and in keeping students attentive and motivated in the classroom. They should also be able to read the eyes of their students and respond to that properly. They may, for example, change their way of teaching, repeat, or explain something again due to students‘ eye contact.  Facial expressions: Facial expressions are also an important medium in the process of communication between people. They have the ability to reinforce the impact of verbal messages and even communicate when words fail to do that (Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 67). They can 46 play an important role in conveying feelings and emotions (Liu, 2001, p. 30; Neill & Caswell, 1993, p. 9; Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 68). In the classroom, facial expressions of teachers are important as they can enhance the teaching learning process and make it more effective and interesting. They can help students to understand the teacher‘ messages (Butt, 2011, p. 27). They also play an effective role in students‘ motivation. This effectiveness is based on the importance of feelings and emotions of both the teacher and students in the teaching and learning process (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 39). This was supported by the study of Theonas, Hobbs, and Rigas (2007), which indicated that teachers‘ facial expressions can increase students‘ interest and motivation and affect the learning outcomes positively. Therefore, university teachers‘ facial expressions should be always encouraging and motivating for their students in order to motivate and encourage them to learn (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 39).  Gestures: Gestures are ―physical movements of our arms, legs, hands, torsos and heads‖ (Butt, 2011, p. 19). They are the nucleus of the body language (Ning, 2009, p. 60). They can provide ―a degree of expressiveness and subtlety‖ that other aspects of nonverbal communication cannot (Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 83). They can also express ―a range of attitudes and emotions‖ in communication (Wainwright, 2003, p. 42). Moreover, they can ―animate conversations, clarify misunderstandings, and express feelings deeply‖ (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 8). In fact, the movement of each part of the body can play an effective role in reinforcing verbal messages (Butt, 2011, p. 19). Ning (2009) claimed that using appropriate gestures in classes can make them more lively and interesting (p. 58), stating that there are three functions for the gestures of teachers in the classroom: clarifying and describing facts, emphasizing facts, and drawing students‘ attention (p. 60). Therefore, university teachers should be able to use gestures effectively to emphasize meaning, draw their students attention, and make the classes more lively. 47  Body movements and postures: Body movements and postures are effective communication means (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 7). They can convey ―warmth, trust, and friendliness‖ (Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 90). In the classroom, body movements and postures of teachers can communicate ―interest, fatigue, or encouragement‖ and teachers can understand students‘ attitude and interests through their body movements and postures (Elfatihi & Ouakrime, 2006, p. 30). This claim was supported by Butt (2011), which highlighted the importance of body movements in the teaching and learning process. Butt indicated that the body movements of both teachers and students can make ―the learning environment more conductive to learning‖ (p. 181). He also indicated that the body movements of teachers can raise students‘ interest and attentiveness in the classroom (p. 191). Therefore, university teachers should be aware of their bodies movements and postures, using them purposefully and employing them to enhance the learning environment and to encourage students and keep them attentive in the classroom.  Movement and spatial distance: Teachers should be active in the classroom to keep students attracted and attentive. However, the movement of teachers in the classroom should be purposeful and limited. According to Ning (2009), the teacher movement should be helpful for students to concentrate (p. 60). The study of Butt (2011) highlighted the importance of spatial distance in the classroom and how keeping proper distance between teachers and students can make students feel comfortable and interested and the classroom more conducive to learning. The study also indicated that when teachers come closer to students, they feel confused. Therefore, teachers should keep an appropriate distance between them and their students to make them feel at ease during classes. 48  Paralanguage: Paralanguage refers to the volume of voice, rate, pitch of voice, tone, etc. (Ning, 2009, p. 61). These features of non-verbal aspects of speech all contribute to the impact of speech (Wainwright & Thompson, 2009, p. 165). In the classroom, these features can be used by teachers to arouse students‘ interest and to draw their attention. The volume of the teacher‘s voice should be loud enough to be heard by all the students in the classroom. Teachers should vary their rate while talking with students according to the situation and the level of students (Ning, 2009, p. 61). They should also vary their tone of voice to keep students interested (Butt, 2011, p. 191). The study of Hong-li (2011) indicated that English college students hoped that their teachers could modulate their voice in order to attract their attention. This means that teachers need to be able to modulate their voice in order to communicate effectively with their students. They need also to vary their voice to convey different messages to students. The study of Butt (2011) indicated that pitch can play an important role in the process of teaching and learning, pointing out that high or low pitch and tone of the voice of the teacher can affect students‘ understanding and that soft pitch in the voice of the teacher can attract students‘ attention in the classroom. In general, the study of Butt (2011) indicated that through effective use of non-verbal communication, teachers made the learning environment active: Students felt alert and participated actively in the learning process and this enhanced their retention and understanding. In brief, university teachers should be able to communicate nonverbally with their students to emphasize the messages that they want to convey and to create a friendly relationship with their students and a lively learning environment, remembering that positive nonverbal behaviours can affect the teaching learning process positively and vice versa (Hong-li, 2011, p. 514). 49 2.4.2.3.2. Verbal communication Verbal communication is ―a message or information expressed in words, either orally or in writing‖ (Seifert, 2011, p. 141). This type of communication happens a lot in the classroom through asking questions and presenting or writing information. Teachers depend a lot on this tool of communication to provide students with information (Okon, 2011, p. 35). It can be either written communication (communication that is carried out via written words) or oral communication (communication that is carried out via speech). To communicate verbally in an effective manner in the classroom, ―teachers need to use appropriate instructional strategies related to content, such as using advance organizers, relating new information to prior knowledge and organizing new information‖ (Seifert, 2011, p. 156). They also need to use teaching aids, such as posters, overhead projector, chalkboard, etc. which are important elements of communication in teaching. These teaching aids need to be relevant, well prepared, easy to read and understand, and skilfully used by teachers (Prozesky, 2000, pp. 44- 45). An important device of verbal communication of teachers is handouts. They are an effective way to communicate with students. They should provide important knowledge and information in a logical sequence and be scientifically accurate and up-to-date (Prozesky, 2000, p. 45). Therefore, university teachers should pay a lot of attention while preparing them to make them communicate effectively. To sum up, in order to make an effective presentation in the classroom, university teachers should pay attention to their verbal and nonverbal communication. They can make use of the checklist presented by Prozesky (2000) for teachers‘ style of presentation: - speaking clearly, - using suitable nonverbal communication, - speaking understandably, - using the right speed of presentation, - the existing of two-way communication, and 51 - the existing of a good relationship between teacher and students (p. 45). They should also remember that in the classroom, there are many barriers that may affect the process of communication seriously. Therefore, they need to minimize these barriers as far as possible to ensure effective communication with students (Prozesky, 2000, p. 44). 2.4.3. Using technology Technology is an effective instructional aid. In the current age, it, along with its various tools and applications, has become more integrated in the teaching and learning process. This can play an important role in enhancing this process (Al- Ghazo, 2008, p. 4) and making it active instead of passive. What is special about technology is that it can be used in various ways in the classroom regardless of the level of students or the subject of teaching (Teacher Technology Competency Committee [TTCC], 1998, p. 2). Generally speaking, technology can play an active role in revitalizing classes through helping students and teachers to feel interested in the subject matter, engaging students in the learning process, and giving students and teachers access to the world outside the classroom (Gilroy, 1998, p. 11). It can also facilitate and encourage cooperative learning (Hollenbeck & Hollenbeck, 2004, p. 2). Moreover, it can provide opportunities that address individual student learning and meet the different learning styles of students, and hence sustains positive experiences in the classroom (Hollenbeck & Hollenbeck, 2004, p. 3). According to Danielson (2007), the tools of technology, such as computers and computer laboratory, video players, Overhead projectors, and Data Show projector are effective tools in enhancing learning and that using these tools to enhance learning becomes an important responsibility of today‘s teachers (p. 36). In brief, technology can positively impact the teaching and learning process (Hew & Brush, 2007, p. 224). Using technology in teaching foreign languages students can serve several functions. It can increase interaction among students and with ―real-life audiences‖ outside the classroom, meet the different learning styles of students, make learning authentic through providing students with materials and activities relevant to the real 51 world, and create a positive learning environment that are supportive and open (Dukes, 2005, p. 4). Using it in the teaching and learning process can facilitate communication among students and build language skills that students need not only in but also outside the classroom (Hollenbeck & Hollenbeck, 2004, p. 2). Moreover, it makes classes more interesting (Alkahtani, 2011, p. 93). According to Chartrand (2004), using technology in EFL teaching can encourage students to be more responsible for their EFL learning, increase their confidence, and motivate them by providing them with interesting materials (p. 15). For all these reasons, university English teachers should think of how to integrate technology into their teaching. However, in order to do that, they need, first, to possess the necessary technology competencies required to be able to use technologies in their teaching. Such competencies are important to improve the communication in the teaching and learning process (Selvi, 2010, p. 172). Here, the researcher tries to refer to the most important technology tools and applications that can be used by university English teachers to improve their teaching and make it more effective: 2.4.3.1. The computer The computer is the most effective instructional tool. Using it in teaching and learning languages becomes essential because of the benefits it can bring to both teachers and students. It plays a central role in making the learning environment more motivating, encouraging, and interesting. Using it in the teaching and learning process has made the impact of the other technologies used for the process of teaching and learning greater as most of them depend on it. In addition, collaborative learning supported by computer can create an environment in which ―interaction among students plays a central role in the learning process.‖ Here, students can work collaboratively in the classroom, at home, or at any place and time if they have access to the Internet. This collaborative learning gets students involved in the learning process. It also ―promotes higher achievement ... [and] promotes positive attitude toward the subject matter‖ (Roberts, 2005, pp. 2-3). 52 Using the computer in teaching and learning EFL can engage students in meaningful learning activities, not only in but also outside the classroom as Alabbad (2010) stated. Alabbad (2010) indicated that EFL students found using the computer in teaching more enjoyable and exciting. Alabbad also showed that students‘ active involvement in the learning process of English led to significant language learning outcomes. In addition, the study indicated that using such a technique in instruction can provide students with more exposure to the culture of the target language, and hence facilitates effective communication. In a learning environment supported by computer, teachers may play various roles. According to Salmon (2003), they may play the role of one or more of the following roles: facilitator, organizer, mentor, assistant, observer, or lecturer. These roles require teachers to be prepared well. 2.4.3.1.1. Stages of using computer in language learning The process of using computer in language learning is termed computer- assisted language learning (CALL). This process passed through some stages. At the beginning, using the computer as a device for learning a language was based on the behaviouristic approach to learning. This phase consisted of software programmes for practicing language in drills (Warschauer, 1996) and CALL was used in the classroom as a supplement rather than as a replacement for instruction (Fotos & Browne, 2004, p. 5). The computer was seen as a vehicle or tutor to present instructional materials to students and to provide them with opportunities to practice the language through drills, according to their own pace, which can develop students‘ autonomy in learning. In other words, the programmes of this stage emphasized on repeating materials through drills and practice which are useful in language learning as they can provide students with more exposure to language which is very important in learning a language (Warschauer, 1996). In the early 1980s, as against the behaviouristic approach to using computer in learning language which was limited to mechanistic drills, another approach to using computer in language learning appeared. It was based on the communicative approach to teaching (Warschauer, 1996). The software programmes of this phase emphasized on stimulating ―students‘ motivation, critical thinking, creativity, and analytical 53 skills‖ (Fotos & Browne, 2004, p. 6). Three models of communicative CALL appeared in this phase: computer as a tutor, computer as a stimulator, and computer as a tool (Warschauer, 1996). In the first case, computer as a tutor which represented an extension of the computer as a tutor of the behaviouristic CALL, the purpose of CALL was to provide opportunities for students to practice language skills but not in a drill manner like that of behaviouristic CALL (Warschauer, 1996). The programmes of this model included courseware for paced reading, language games, text reconstruction, puzzles, etc. (Ryait, 2010, p. 9; Warschauer, 1996). The software programmes of the second model, computer as a stimulator, did not aim only at language learning. The purpose of CALL was to stimulate discussion, writing, research, and critical thinking among students. The software programmes of this model included Sim City, Sleuth, Where in the World is San Diego, etc. (Ryait, 2010, p. 10; Warschauer, 1996). In the third case, computer as a tool, the purpose of the computer was to facilitate learning and using the target language. The software programmes of this model included word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desktop publishing programmes, and concordancers which aim at facilitating language learning (grammar, spelling, etc.) and using the target language (Ryait, 2010, p. 10; Warschauer, 1996). All this was not enough to consider CALL as an effective tool integrated into teaching and learning a language. Therefore, there was a need for developing models to integrate CALL into the process of language teaching and learning. This is what happened with the help of multimedia and the Internet. 2.4.3.1.2. Multimedia Multimedia involves the use of a variety of media, such as text, film, video, audio, animation, and graphics (Kamal, 2009; Warschauer, 1996). It can be represented by CD-ROM. What makes multimedia more powerful is its connection to 54 hypermedia (Warschauer, 1996), i.e., linking the multimedia resources all together including video, audio, graph, and text (Lampert & Ball, 1990, p. 5). Using multimedia in the classroom is important. It can play a positive role in improving the quality of teaching. It can also make students interested in the course, increasing their motivation which, in turn, can help them to improve and develop their English language skills (Kamal, 2009). Moreover, using multimedia in the classroom can increase creativity and communication among students and provide learning opportunities for students according to their levels and learning styles (Hollenbeck & Hollenbeck, 2004, pp. 2-3). Multimedia software allows students to enter into ―computerized microworlds‖ to experience language and culture and manipulate language forms and functions (Warschauer & Meskill, 2000, p. 305). This is what Fotos and Browne (2004) also stated, A typical multimedia language program might allow students to do a reading assignment in the target language, use a dictionary, study grammar and pronunciation related to the reading, perhaps access support materials and translations in the students‘ first language (L1), view a movie of the reading, and take a comprehension test on the reading content, receiving immediate feedback, all within the same program. (p. 6) Lu and Liu (2011) highlighted the effectiveness of using multimedia in teaching English as a second language. They pointed out that using multimedia networking technology in the instruction of English language can make students the centre of the learning process, help them to learn actively instead of passively, and encourage their autonomous learning, and allow them to learn language according to their abilities, needs, and preferences (p. 3178). The interactive whiteboard (IWB) is ―a touch-sensitive screen that works in conjunction with a computer and a projector‖ (Al-Saleem, 2012, p. 128). It is a multimedia tool that can be used to make the process of teaching and learning more effective. Using it in teaching can affect the learning process in terms of students‘ engagement and motivation and supporting various learning styles (SMART Technologies Inc, 2006, p. 4). It facilitates bringing authentic materials to the classroom and integrating various components, such as videos, audios, different 55 websites, texts, games, etc. into the process of learning and teaching (Březinová, 2009, p. 18). In teaching foreign languages, the IWB can be used to support interaction and conversation between the teacher and students and among students, to promote teachers‘ organizational skills (Gérard & Widener, 1999, p. 2), to present linguistic elements, and to support oral skills (Al-Saleem, 2012, p. 130; Gérard & Widener, 1999). The results of the study of Swan, Kratcoski, Schenker, and van‘t Hooft (2010) suggested that using the IWBs in teaching can enhance students‘ learning and performance in reading/language arts and mathematics when teachers use them effectively. In order to integrate IWB into teaching, university teachers need to possess some technological competencies. According to Schmid (2010), these competencies include the ability to - design IWB-based materials that provide students with more opportunities to interact with the learning content, - manage the interaction around IWB in a way that ensures students involvement in the learning process, and - balance the technology use in a way that meets the different learning styles of students (p. 170). 2.4.3.2. The Internet The Internet, along with its various tools and applications, is an effective tool of teaching and learning languages. Using it in teaching and learning English can make this process more interesting and effective. In fact, the Internet can play an important role in changing English language teaching and learning for teachers and students. English teachers can use it in different ways such as gathering materials on different skills or systems: listening, reading, writing, grammar, vocabulary, etc. For students, the Internet contains a lot of materials that can be used by them to study and practice English (Kitao & Kitao, 2001). 56 In the classroom, the Internet can be used in different ways. For example, teachers can use it to develop students ability to write letters through using e-mail service and to develop students fluency in English through chatting even with native speakers. They can also use it to provide various instructional environments that meet the needs of all students. Besides, teachers can use the Internet to bring authentic learning materials and opportunities. In such kind of instruction, teachers act as a facilitator of learning, helping students to use and learn about sites and to use them in learning (Hollenbeck & Hollenbeck, 2004, pp. 4-5). However, teachers should be careful and aware of how to use the Internet and the available resources in teaching effectively. The Internet with the help of computer technologies can create a fruitful environment for teaching and learning. This environment is called virtual learning environment, which defined by Chin (2004) as ―a self-contained computer-based (web) environment enabling interactions between teacher and student‖ (p. 105). In this environment, various tools (communication tools, content delivery tools, assessment tools, and miscellaneous tools) can be used to facilitate the teaching and learning process (Chin, 2004). Interaction among people via computers and Internet is termed computer- mediated communication (CMC). There are various CMC tools and applications. They can be classified mainly into two groups: synchronous CMC and asynchronous CMC (Erben, Ban, & Castañeda, 2008, p. 84). All these tools can help effectively in teaching and learning languages through providing more opportunities and exposure for students to use and practice the target language. However, choosing a particular CMC tool must be according to the language aspect or skill intended to be learnt or developed. 2.4.3.2.1. Synchronous tools Synchronous tools are those tools that can be used to make a real-time communication (Pritchard, 2007. p. 7), such as instant messaging (IM), text chat, audio/video chat, audio/video conferencing, Skype, etc. 57 - IM involves exchanging voice or text messages between two or more Internet users (Mahfouz & Ihmeideh, 2009, p. 208). - Text chat is an instant online written communication (Clyde & Delohery, 2005, p. 7) between two or more Internet users. - In audio chat, two Internet users speak to each other via microphones and earphones (Mahfouz & Ihmeideh, 2009, p. 208). - Video chat involves using microphones, earphones, and webcams to enable the two Internet users to see each other while chatting (Mahfouz & Ihmeideh, p. 208). - Audio-conferencing involves real time interaction among more than two Internet users using microphones and earphones. - Videoconferencing involves real time interaction, allowing more than two Internet users to communicate with one another using microphones, earphones, and webcams (Rivoltella, 2006, p. 55). All these applications can serve several instructional purposes. English teachers can use them to provide more opportunities for students to use English, which, in turn, will help them to learn or improve their English language. They can also use these applications to interact with and give feedback to their EFL/ESL students which can make the process of learning more beneficial (Sotillo, 2006, p. 1). In addition, these applications can be used to foster collaborative learning among students, engaging them in the process of English learning and motivating them to participate in discussions more effectively than they do in face-to–face discussions. To make using these tools more effective in the classroom, the teacher can use Video Projector to show any of the conversations among teams or groups on a screen so that anyone can observe any of the online conversations. He can pop up and out of the group conversations in order to monitor their progress (Clyde & Delohery, 2005, p. 59). Several previous studies highlighted the effectiveness of these applications in learning languages. Some of these studies are reported here: - The results of the research programme of Bonham, Surin, Nakano, and Seifert (2003) indicated that collaborative videoconferencing can create an interesting and exciting learning environment that can make students 58 engage in a truly learning environment where they can obtain both knowledge and information. - Levy and Kennedy (2004) discussed a task-cycling pedagogy for language learning utilizing computer-mediated audio-conferencing tools. The results showed that using such techniques could facilitate students‘ acquisition of the linguistic forms of the Italian language as a second language and their ongoing independent language learning. - The results of the study of Y. Wang (2004) indicated that videoconferencing tools can support oral and visual interaction in distance language learning. - The study of Xiao and Yang (2004) indicated that online chat with voice and webcam can improve EFL students‘ oral interlanguage and pragmatic competence. - Sotillo (2006) reported on a pilot study which highlighted the usefulness of using text-based and audio chat and videoconferencing components of CMC in ESL learning. The results of the study indicated that corrective feedback to ESL learners made by their native speaker or non-native speaker partners by using these tools of the Internet allowed the learners to notice their deviant use of some lexical, grammatical, and semantic forms, which could facilitate their second language development. - Jin and Erben (2007) highlighted the validity of using instant chat in intercultural learning in foreign language classes. The results of the study reported in this paper showed that students‘ intercultural interaction increased and students developed their critical thinking skills and self- reflection capacities and showed positive attitudes towards using instant chat in intercultural learning. - The study of Ling and Dayou (2007) indicated that the use of synchronous chat could enhance English learning skills of college English students. The results of this study also showed that students had a positive attitude towards synchronous chat and were highly motivated in doing that. 59 - The study of Mahfouz and Ihmeideh (2009) indicated that using video and text chat can give English foreign learners more opportunities to make real life communication and authentic interaction with native speakers and increase the limits of the learning environment to beyond the boundaries of the classroom. Skype is an effective synchronous Internet tool. Teachers can use it to communicate with students as that with a phone. They can also use it to conduct conference calls with their students using a webcam. Mubarak (2012) claimed that with using Skype in EFL teaching, teachers can provide students with more opportunities to make live conversations in English even with native speakers and such a thing would not only develop their skills in English but also develop their self- confidence to speak English. What is wonderful about Skype is that it is free. What one needs is to download Skype software, a computer connected to the internet, and a microphone. 2.4.3.2.2. Asynchronous tools Asynchronous tools enable communication over a period of time through a ―different time-different place‖ mode (Ashley & Kaplan, 2003, Asynchronous tools, para. 1). Discussion boards, web logs, and e-mail are the most common examples of asynchronous CMC tools that can be used as teaching tools. Discussion boards are asynchronous communication tools. They can be used to post a comment, to ask and answer questions, or to give a feedback online. Both teachers and students can use them to make discussions and contact each other in groups. They can really facilitate collaborative discussions and activities (O‘Leary, 2005, p. 2), promote problem-solving skills (Chin, 2004, p. 111), and provide more opportunities for students to interact (Schulte, 2010, p. 7). Erben et al. (2008) claimed that discussion boards are the best place for English language learners to express their feelings and experiences, adding that by reading the posting of others and working on their writing before posting, students can improve their language. However, to make use of them more effectively in teaching, teachers need to use them purposefully to meet the objectives of a specific course and to make them non-threatening in order to encourage students to participate (TeacherStream LLC, 2009). 61 Weblogs are ―personal interactive e-diaries/journals‖ which allow interaction through responses to a given topic (Farreny, n.d., p. 8). In relation to learning a language, they can be used to develop writing skills and abilities of EFL students (Farreny, n.d.; Miyazoe & Anderson, 2010; W.-S. Wu, 2005) and reinforce reading skills (Farreny, n.d.). This claim was supported by what Güttler (2011) stated, based on reviewing previous literature, that blogs can create opportunities for EFL students to improve their reading and writing skills and build their vocabulary. In fact, using blogs in teaching EFL/ESL is useful for both teachers and students as Hashemi and Najafi (2011) claimed: Using blogs as an educational tool in English classes is not only refreshing, highly motivating, and exciting for the language students but it also creates innovative ways of teaching language skills for language teachers as well. Indeed, blogs are authentic, interesting, and communicative resources that can serve a variety of purposes in the foreign language classroom. A medium to reflect on material, inquire into issues, and interact with others, blogs provide a rich and easy-to- use environment for both learners and instructors. (p. 603) Some previous studies highlighted the usefulness of using blogs in EFL learning. For example, the thesis of Zhang (2009) pointed out that blogs are effective teaching tools that can be used to improve English writing skills of EFL students. They also give EFL students freedom for self-expression in English, providing them with opportunities for social interaction and with learning motivation and improving their writing and learning strategies and critical thinking skills as the study of Noytim (2010) indicated. Email is an Internet asynchronous tool that can be used for instructional purposes. It has a lot of instructional uses. Teachers can use it to enhance teaching and learning English. They can also use this service to generate students work for teaching purposes and to provide more contact time with and among students (Clyde & Delohery, 2005, p. 131). It can also provide students with opportunities of real life communication useful for them as EFL learners (Warschauer, 1995). Moreover, it is a useful tool in EFL writing classes (E.-K. Lee, 1998). The studies of Kern (1995) and Nagel (1999) found that using email in teaching a foreign language can improve students‘ grammar, vocabulary, and writing skills (as cited in A. Al-Mekhlafi, 2004, p. 91). Similarly, the study of Edasawa and Kabata (2007) indicated how an email 61 exchange projector had improved ESL students at the vocabulary and syntactic levels through message exchanges. 2.4.3.2.3. Synchronous and asynchronous tools Synchronous and asynchronous tools combine synchronous and asynchronous features. They can provide blended synchronous and asynchronous learning environments that enhance teaching and facilitate learning and collaboration between teachers and students and among students. Social networking sites such as Facebook and learning management systems (LMSs) are examples of these types of tools. Facebook can serve several instructional functions. It can provide EFL students with a lot of opportunities to use English language. For example, students can make discussions, write to friends, comment on pictures, etc. Teachers can use it outside the classroom to post links of useful videos and files to students and to send them homework that they can do at home. They can also create their own groups that include their students and use that for instructional purposes, such as developing writing skills through posting topics for their students to write on and collaborative learning through setting topics for discussion. In this way, teachers can expose their students to more English and provide them with more opportunities to improve their English skills, especially that EFL students have not opportunities to use English outside the classroom (Mubarak, 2012). The effectiveness of Facebook as a tool of teaching and learning languages was highlighted by some previous works. Mills (2009) stated that Facebook can be a valuable learning environment to practice and engage in learning a foreign language, indicating that Facebook could provide her students with an authentic environment for interaction and communication in French which helped them to meet the grammatical, functional, and linguistic objectives of her French language course. Blattner and Fiori (2009) highlighted how Facebook can provide language learners with opportunities to develop their socio-pragmatic competence, an aspect of language acquisition, through authentic language interaction and can enhance a sense of community in language classrooms. 62 Kabilan, Ahmad, and Zainol Abidin (2010) indicated that, in the opinion of students of higher education, Facebook can provide a learning environment that can facilitate English language learning in relation to improving students‘ language skills, increasing their motivation and positive attitudes towards English language learning, and building their confidence. The study of P. Wu and Hsu (2011), which aimed at exploring the influence of Social Networking Sites on EFL learners, indicated that the students were interested in interaction with their peers in English. They felt free to express their opinions and share their thoughts on Facebook. Observing her students, Haverback (2009) stated that her students used Facebook collaboratively to discuss assignments and ask and answer questions in relation to their study. She found them more motivated to participate in discussions on Facebook. LMSs, such as Blackboard, WebCT, and Moodle are ―packages of instructionally useful software‖ (L. B. Nilson, 2010, p. 257). They are ―enterprise- wide and internet-based systems . . . that integrate a wide range of pedagogical and course administration tools (Coates, James, & Baldwin, 2005, p. 19). According to Ellis (2009), an LMS is a software application for administration; tracking; reporting of training events, programmes, classroom and online events; and delivering learning content (p. 3). The application of LMSs is not limited to educational institutions. They can also be used for training purposes by public and private organizations (Al-Busaidi & Al-Shihi, 2012, p. 181). They provide tools for course administration and pedagogical functions including asynchronous and synchronous communication, content development and delivery, assessment, and class and user management (Coates et al, 2005, pp. 21-22; Spelke, 2011, p. ii). Citing Szabo and Flesher (2002), Watson and Watson (2007) stated, LMS is the framework that handles all aspects of the learning process. An LMS is the infrastructure that delivers and manages instructional content, identifies and assesses individual and organizational learning or training goals, tracks the progress towards meeting those goals, and collects and presents data for supervising the learning process of an organization as a whole. (p. 28) Using such systems in college language courses can encourage collaborative learning, provide access to language materials and resources, and help teachers to teach effectively as the study of Yu, Sun, and Chang (2010) indicated. In the context 63 of EFL teaching, LMSs can promote learner autonomy as the study of Dang and Robertson (2010) indicated.  Blackboard is a learning management system that provides ―a ready-made template for a web course and expansion programs, offering multiple interactive functions such as e-mail, assessments, gradebook, and discussion groups‖ (Yu et al., 2010, p. 335). It has many features. Chang (2008) classified these features into instructional features, interactive features, and visual features. In fact, such classification highlights the effectiveness of the Blackboard as an interactive tool in the teaching and learning process in higher education.  WebCT is ―a set of Web-based course tools for developing and presenting interactive learning Web sites‖ (Fotos & Browne, 2004, p. 325). It allows teachers to ―create online content, provide communication and assessment tools, and manage courses‖ (Cercone, 2006, p. 15). The tools of WebCT provide an online environment that can be used by the faculty members for ―communication, collaboration, and learning activities‖ (Cercone, 2006, p. 2). Using WebCT in teaching, faculty members can also deliver assignments and quizzes to their students easily.  Moodle is ―software that enables the creation of courses, content, activities and communities online‖ (R. Lawrence, 2009, p. 17). It uses well-known tools for online communication, such as online chat, forum, and e-mail (Kakasevski, Mihajlov, Arsenovski, & Chungurski, 2008, p. 618). It provides tools to enhance online communication and carry out the learning objectives as Hsieh (2009) indicated. In fact, LMSs are very useful to be integrated into the teaching and learning process in higher education. Therefore, university teachers should receive enough professional training in using and integrating such systems into their teaching. In brief, the Internet, along with its synchronous and asynchronous tools, is an effective teaching tool. In order to use the Internet in English language teaching effectively, ELT teachers need to be trained to do that (Eastment, 1999, p. 2; Külekçi, 2009, p. 159), to raise their awareness of the importance of using the Internet in 64 English teaching, and to be provided with practical support and opportunities to know about the impact of the Internet on their teaching (Eastment, 1999, p. 2). In spite of the importance and effectiveness of using technology and its various tools in teaching and learning in general and English language teaching and learning in particular, teachers still do not use them in their teaching. The main reason for not integrating technology into instruction is due to the lack of necessary skills and competence to use technologies in the classroom (Abrami, 2001, p. 116; Külekçi, 2009, p. 158). Hew and Brush (2007) identified three types of knowledge and skills that represent a major barrier for not using technology in teaching: the lack of specific technology knowledge and skills, technology-supported-pedagogical knowledge and skills, and technology-related-classroom management knowledge and skills (p. 227). Butler and Sellbom (2002) looked at the barriers of not integrating technologies into teaching from a different point of view and classified them into four main categories as follows: reliabilities of technologies, lack of time to learn using technologies, uncertainty whether it is worth learning to use technologies, and lack of institutional support (p. 28). To integrate technology into teaching, teachers need first to change their attitudes and beliefs about technologies (Hew & Brush, 2007, p. 232). They also need some professional training in how to integrate technology into their teaching. Moreover, they need to see positive outcomes and experience positive events in this regard (J. Mueller, Wood, Willoughby, Ross, & Specht, 2008, p. 1535). Therefore, there must be some training strategies for preparing teachers to use technologies in their teaching. These training strategies must be adopted in the policy of universities or schools that can carry it out through their specialized units or departments. A. S. Lawrence and Veena (2012) presented a brief overview of the kinds of possible training strategies that could be there:  Encouraging Teachers to Acquire Necessary Skills: Teachers need to be encouraged to acquire the necessary skills in using technologies in their teaching and to be aware of the importance of using technologies in enhancing learning and teaching in the classroom. There should be 65 policies that aim at providing opportunities for teachers to acquire the necessary skills in using technologies.  Providing Sustained Support for Teacher‟s Use of Technology: After acquiring the necessary skills, there should be a policy on how to continue supporting teachers to use technologies.  Evaluating Teacher Use of Technologies: The most important criterion for evaluating the teachers‘ performance should be the extent to which they can use technology tools in teaching effectively. (p. 39) 2.4.4. Human relations Teaching is a process of interaction between the teacher and students and among students. This process needs teachers to be able to create an appropriate learning environment which occurs only if the teachers develop good relationships with their students and enhance that among students (Rudman, 2007, p. 13). In higher education, teachers and students need to work together and this requires a level of good relationship and acceptance of one another, which can come through building good relationship and rapport between them (Fleming & Hiller, 2009, p. 93). The term that is usually used to refer to the relationship between teachers and students is rapport. It is defined as ―the ability to build relationships based on mutual trust and harmony‖ (Catt, Miller, & Schallenkamp, 2007, p. 369). Building teacher- student rapport is essential for teaching (Fleming & Hiller, 2009, p. 85). It is ―a key aspect of teaching‖ (Nguyen, 2007, p. 284). It encourages students to ask questions and to talk with their teachers. Starcher (2011) highlighted the positive consequences of building rapport with students, stating, I am now seeing the positive consequences of intentionally building rapport with my students. Classroom discussions flow more easily; students engagement (within and outside of the classroom) has increased; and I have more insight into the primary learning styles of each students, his or her level of motivation for doing well in my class, etc. (p.162) Through developing good rapport with students, teachers can create an appropriate climate and the more comfortable classroom climate is, the better the students can learn in such an environment (Nguyen, 2007, p. 284). According to 66 Sidelinger and Booth-Butterfield (2010), creating positive social experiences in the classroom can motivate students to communicate and learn. Sidelinger and Booth- Butterfield found that positive climate in the classroom and the feeling of acceptance by teachers and classmates are key factors in students involvement in the classroom. This involvement, which requires teachers to be positive and supportive and to give their students opportunities to build positive relationships in the classroom, can lead to positive learning outcomes as Sidelinger and Booth-Butterfield stated. Zhan and Le (2004) highlighted the importance of interpersonal relationships between teachers and students for students learning at universities, indicating how lecturers should deal with students as human beings regardless of their academic achievement. According to Zhan and Le, lecturers should create a friendly learning environment through a good rapport with their students by way of interpersonal interaction and communication. This interpersonal relationship between teachers and students is very important for teachers‘ effective teaching and students‘ learning. Similarly, Worley, Titsworth, Worley, and Cornett-DeVito (2007) stated that interpersonal relationships are important in the process of students‘ learning (as cited in Frisby & Martin, 2010, p. 146). According to Lave and Wenger (1991), a good relationship between teachers and students can encourage students to participate more in the classroom activities (as cited in Nguyen, 2007, p. 285) and enhance language learning (Nguyen, 2007, p. 285). Kuh (2007) argued that when students are actively involved in their courses, they are more interested in learning and succeeding. Such involvement of students is not only important while they are in colleges, but also it can have a long-term impact and help to prepare them for life after colleges. Similarly, Astin (1999) stated that students who are involved in the process of instruction spend a lot of energy and time on studying, participate actively in the various activities, and interact positively with the faculty members and the other students and vice versa (p. 518). They also demonstrate higher levels of learning and satisfaction with their educational experience (Endo & Harpel, 1982, p. 132). Brown (1994) provided a guideline for building rapport with students in a language classroom, stating that teachers can develop a good relationship with their students through 67 - showing interest in individual students, - giving feedback on individual student‘s progress, - inviting students to express their thoughts and feelings, - valuing and respecting students‘ ideas and opinions, - sharing humour with students but not ridiculing them, - working with students as a team and not against them, and - expressing true happiness when students succeed (as cited in Nguyen, 2007, p. 285). The process of establishing rapport with students is affected by some factors. Weimer (2010) referred to five of these factors: 1. Respect: To develop rapport between students and teachers, teachers and students should show respect for one another. 2. Approachability: This means that students need not feel afraid of coming to faculty members, talking with them after classes, and contacting them via telephone, email, Facebook, etc. 3. Open communication: Faculty members should be honest and sincere matching what they say with what they do. 4. Caring: Faculty members should deal with students as human beings, caring about them and their learning. 5. Positive attitude: Faculty members should have a sense of humour and the ability to make their classes funny. They should also be open to accept differences from their students. In brief, university teachers need to possess a set of human competencies to be able to create a suitable environment that can ensure effective interaction between them and their students, and thereby enhancing students learning. 2.4.5. Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback The process of evaluating and assessing students is very important. It is an important component of good teaching and learning (Yin, 2006, p. 42). In higher education, it is more important than any other process (Falchikov, 2003, p. 102). Its importance emerges from the purposes it can serve for students and teachers. 68 Assessment has a powerful impact on students behaviour (Fry et al., 2008, p. 24) and learning (George & Cowan, 1999, p. 8). It can ―improve motivation and self-esteem, leading to additional learning gains‖ (Fulcher, 2010, p. 69). Through it, students can know what knowledge they have learnt, what skills they have acquired, and what areas they need to develop (Alberta Education, 2006, p. 9). It can also, through its tools such as tests, enhance students learning and improve their awareness of the objectives of the course (Madsen, 1983, p. 4). For teachers, assessment and evaluation results can give them an idea about their teaching. They can use the results of assessment to re-plan their classroom instruction. They can also use the results of assessment to advise students on what courses to take to improve themselves more (Alberta Education, 2006, p. 9) and to define ―appropriate corrective measures‖ for students to master these parts (Allal & Lopez, 2005, p. 244). Moreover, the results of this process can also tell teachers what their students have mastered and what parts of the course need more emphasis (Madsen, 1983, p. 5). As a complementary process, the type of assessment used should be a reflection of what the teachers have taught in the classroom (American Federation of Teachers [AFT], 2008, p. 1). Jackson and Davis (2000) highlighted the connection between teaching and assessment, asserting that assessment should be connected to the process of instruction and should provide useful feedback to students as well as teachers on what students have achieved (as cited in Danielson, 2007, p. 186). In addition, the form of assessment should be consistent with the course content and its learning objectives (Baillie, 2004, p. 5; Murray et al., 1996, p. 62) in order to measure the level of students learning against the objectives. The Berkeley Evaluation and Assessment Research (BEAR) Assessment System presented four principles of a good assessment: 1. developmental perspective; 2. matching instruction and assessment; 3. quality evidence; and 4. management by instructors to allow appropriate feedback, feed forward, and follow up (Wilson & Scalise, 2006, p. 646). 69 Teachers can use assessment at different time of a lesson or a course according to what they want to know. For example, before starting a particular class, teachers can assess students to know where they are and where to begin. During the class, teachers can assess students to know how well they are following the lesson. Immediately after the class, teachers can assess students to reinforce the material taught (Angelo & Cross, 1993, p. 6). In other words, there are different types of assessment methods. University teachers need to use a range of assessment methods to be able to assess the progress of students as well as their cumulative learning (Jackson & Davis, 2000 as cited in Danielson, 2007, p. 186). They should also use a variety of assessment forms that range from formal to informal to determine what and how much their students have learnt (Angelo & Cross, 1993, p. 25). In this study, the researcher talks about the main two types of assessment: formative assessment and summative assessment as these are the main types of assessment that are used in the context of teaching: 2.4.5.1. Formative assessment Formative assessment is defined as ―all those activities undertaken by teachers, and/or by their students, which provide information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning activities in which they are engaged‖ (Black & Williams, 1998, pp. 7-8). According to Irons (2008), formative assessment refers to ―any task or activity which creates feedback (or feedforward) for students about their learning.‖ It ―does not carry a grade which is subsequently used in a summative judgment‖ (p. 7) as it is diagnostic in nature (Boston, 2002; Skinner, 2005, p. 44). Formative assessment aims at providing feedback to teachers and students on the proceeding of students learning (Falchikov, 2005, p. 3). It also aims at improving and encouraging students learning by assessing them during the learning process (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007, p. 372; Skinner, 2005, p. 44) as it can enhance students learning and understanding through feedback. According to Angelo and Cross (1993), formative assessment aims at improving the quality of students learning and providing teachers with information ―on what, how much, and how well students are learning‖ 71 in order to help them to get better (p. 5). Teachers can use this type of assessment mainly to inform students about their progress, to identify how far they have mastered the course and the difficulties that they are facing during the process of learning, to monitor students performance towards the objectives of the course, and to make the necessary changes in the way of teaching on the basis of findings (Alberta Education, 2006, p 4; Hughes, 2003, p. 5). In other words, formative assessment is ongoing assessment. On the basis of this kind of assessment, teachers can improve or change their instruction and instructional methods of teaching; and students, on the basis of their performance, can have an idea about their progress (Fisher & Frey, 2007, p. 4). In this type of assessment, a particular action usually takes place as a result of it (Baroudi, 2007, p. 39). This is what makes it supportive and constructive in its nature. Formative assessment is very important in the teaching and learning process as it has a significant effect on the interaction between teachers and students through emphasizing on sharing learning outcomes with students. In this type of assessment, teachers need to explain to their students the objectives of learning in an understandable way. By sharing learning outcomes with students, teachers will help their students to ―become aware of criteria for success in learning‖ (Skinner, 2005, pp. 44-45). This means that in order to make formative assessment more effective, teachers need to think about how to engage their students in formative activities, taking into account students abilities and skills (Irons, 2008, p. 3). According to Irons (2008), formative assessment can be carried out through one of these typical activities:  practical exercises,  tutorials,  drafts of assessments,  project supervisions,  group discussions and group-work,  student demonstrations,  student presentations,  portfolios, 71  reflective log books, and  diagnostic interviews and tests. (p. 58) Formative assessment can be formal or informal. Formal assessment takes place with reference to a particular curriculum, involving activities done by the students and assessed by the teachers (Yorke, 2003, p. 478). It is usually structured and sometimes involves ―a standardised test, an examination paper, or an assessment schedule‖ (Wragg, 2004, p. 7). On the other hand, informal assessment takes place in the course of events and is not predetermined in the curriculum design (Yorke, 2003, p. 479). It often takes place during the lesson and is integrated into instruction and activities (Wragg, 2004, p. 7). Formative assessment can also be either self-assessment or peer-assessment. These two types of assessment can be used along with teacher assessment (Hargreave, Earl, & Schmidt, 2002) to overcome any limitations in the teacher assessment. They have special importance in higher education because of their appropriateness for the nature and age of students in this stage. In this stage, students can be encouraged and motivated to assess themselves or their classmates in order to have an idea about their progress and adapt their own learning objectives. Self-assessment is a process in which students are required to assess their performance against standards (Falchikov, 2003, p. 102). Bailey (1998) defined it as ―procedures by which the learners themselves evaluate their language skills and knowledge‖ (as cited in Matsuno, 2009, p. 76). This type of assessment enhances students‘ learning and achievement (Irons, 2008, p. 79) and helps them be responsible for their learning (Danielson, 2007, p. 88), independent, and reflective in learning (I. Lee, 2007, p. 204). It is considered as a useful technique of formative assessment used for assessing learning (Baniabdelrahman, 2010, p. 4; Fulcher, 2010, p. 68). What teachers must remember is that self-assessment does not mean that students assess themselves in the form of grades. It is just a reflection made by students on their own progress which helps both the students and the teacher (Baniabdelrahman, 2010, p. 3). Peer-assessment is defined by Topping, Smith, Swanson, and Elliot (2000) as ―an arrangement for peers to consider the level, value, worth, quality or successfulness of the products or outcomes of learning of others of similar status‖ (p. 72 150). In other words, in peer-assessment, students are asked to assess the performance of their peers (Falchikov, 2003, p. 102). This type of assessment can be used to complement and supplement the teacher assessment in university context and to overcome any shortcomings in the teacher assessment (Matsuno, 2009, p. 95). It can also play an important role in making students more aware of the objectives of the course. Besides, it has an impact on students in terms of increasing their motivation, enhancing their personal responsibility, and improving their self-confidence (Topping et al., 2000, p. 151). Self- and peer- assessment are important elements of good teaching and learning (Tudor-Craig, 2012, p. 86). They can be very helpful and productive techniques to encourage students to participate in activities and learn from assessment activities. The practice of these two techniques can help students to be more aware of the gap between what they have already achieved and the desired goals (Fulcher, 2010, p. 71). However, in order to involve students in self- and peer-assessment, teachers need to provide guidance, training, and opportunities for students on how to do that according to their abilities (I. Lee, 2007, p. 204). In formative assessment, feedback is a key component and strategy (Black & William, 1998, p. 36; Fluckiger, Vigil, Pasco, & Danielson, 2010, 137; Sadler, 1989, p. 120). It can play an effective role in improving the learning process and outcomes (Shute, 2007, p. 2). According to Ramaprasad (1983) and Sadler (1989), feedback is given to students to make them aware of the gap between what they have achieved or understood and the desired goal with a view to altering that gap in some way. In other words, feedback aims mainly at giving information to students regarding their strengths and weaknesses (Miller, 2002, p. 17). It is for all these reasons that feedback is a key component in the process of teaching and learning. Formative feedback is defined as ―any information, process or activity which affords or accelerates students learning based on comments relating to either formative assessment or summative assessment activities‖ (Irons, 2008, p. 7). To make it more effective, it should be ―specific, simple, descriptive, and focused on the task‖ (Fluckiger et al., 2010, p. 137). According to Danielson (2007), formative feedback should be ―accurate, constructive, substantive, specific, and timely.‖ This means that general words are not useful in giving feedback to students. Feedback 73 should be informational, drawing students‘ attention to errors and how they can correct them. It should also be given with enough time between the current performance and the desired one so that students can achieve the desired goals. Moreover, it should be given as soon as possible after the event or behaviour (p. 87). Black (1999) referred to the basic principles of formative feedback which are listed below: - The learning objectives should be clear to students. - It should measure the current state of students learning and work as a means to close the gap between the students learning state and the goals required to be achieved. - It should work as an effective advice. (p. 128) According to Shute (2007) and Stiggins (2007), formative feedback can be given to students during the learning process to provide them with information about their learning progress towards the desired goals. It is normally given by teachers to students but it can take the form of feedback given through self- and peer- assessment (Irons, 2008, p. 23). To make the feedback more useful and usable for students, Irons (2008) stated that it should - be understandable by students, - be valued by students, - close the gap on their understanding, - be of appropriate quality, - be timely, and - provide an opportunity for dialogue. In brief, an assessment is called formative when the information gathered from the assessment is used to adapt teaching to meet students needs or when students are given feedback on their performance and progress. For example, tests and homework can be used formatively to assess students if teachers analyse students performance and give them feedback on their performance and on how to improve it (Boston, 74 2002). Teachers can use formative assessment to facilitate the learning process, to see whether learning has taken place, and to ensure that students know what they are supposed to learn. They can also use it to provide feedback to students on their progress with respect to the learning goals and what they need to improve more and how to improve and to teachers on their teaching whether it has achieved its purposes or not, and to diagnose students‘ needs and make the necessary changes in the course or the instructional methods. 2.4.5.2. Summative assessment Summative assessment refers to ―any assessment activity which results in a mark or grade which is subsequently used as a judgment on student performance‖ (Irons, 2008, p. 7). It aims mainly at assessing whether the learners have achieved the objectives of a course (Alberta Education, 2006, p. 5) or reached a particular standard (Fulcher, 2010, p. 3). This type of assessment is usually carried out by a test at the end of a unit, a course, a term, a semester, or a year (Hughes, 2003, p. 5; Skinner, 2005, p. 44) and according to the results students are graded (Falchikov, 2005, p. 3). Irons (2008) stated that summative assessment should be ―reliable, valid, affordable and fit for purpose, i.e. usable‖ (p. 11). Reliability is concerned with the fact that any two markers will give the same mark to the same piece of work (Norton, 2008, p. 143). According to Knight (2001), a reliable assessment should be objective, accurate, repeatable, and correctly measured and analysed (p. 11). Validity is concerned with the fact that an assessment measures what it intends to measure (Hughes, 2003. p. 26; Wragg, 2004, p. 15). This means that to be valid, an assessment should explicitly measure the intended objectives of courses or programmes. Affordability of assessment is considered in terms of cost (Irons, 2008, p. 28), time, skill and any other resources. Usability involves the usefulness of assessment for students and teachers (internal usability) and the usefulness of assessment for postgraduate schools and employers (external usability) (Knight, 2001, p. 15). Irons (2008), based on a review of the literature on assessment, suggested some functions of summative assessment, including - providing an overall judgment of students achievement; 75 - giving feedback to students when information collected from assessment used to get an idea about what students know; - providing feedback to academic staff when used for measuring the success of learning and teaching; - judging the accountability of teachers or school; - monitoring standards at various levels: teacher, module, unit, course, school, college, etc.; - providing opportunities for learning through assessment activities; - motivating students; and - preparing for life – used as a means for employment (pp. 12-13). Falchikov (2005) pointed out some limitations of summative assessment which can be listed below: - It relies heavily on traditional examinations. - It is subjected to teacher bias. - It raises issues about reliability. - It is restricted to the end of a module, a unit, a course, or a year. - The success of students is a matter of their capacity to play the game. - It does not motivate students a lot. - It promotes a surface approach to studying rather than deep learning. - It gives rise to stress and anxiety in students. Therefore, there should be a reduction in the amount of summative assessment and an increase in the use of formative activities. This can remove students‘ pressures and stresses and motivate students more to learn. It can also create more opportunities for students to learn from their assessment activities. Moreover, it can make the learning environment more student-centred (Irons, 2008). According to the American Association for Higher Education, there are (10) principles of good practice for assessing students learning in higher education: a. The assessment of student learning begins with educational values. b. Assessment is most effective when it reflects an understanding of learning as multidimensional, integrated, and revealed in performance over time. 76 c. Assessment works best when the programs it seeks to improve have clear, explicitly stated purposes. d. Assessment requires attention to outcomes but also and equally to the experience that lead to those outcomes. e. Assessment works best when it is ongoing, not episodic. f. Assessment fosters wider improvement when representatives from across the educational community are involved. g. Assessment makes a difference when it begins with issues of use and illuminates questions that people really care about. h. Assessment is most likely to lead to improvement when it is part of a larger set of conditions that promote change. i. Through assessment, educators meet responsibilities to students and to the public. j. Assessment is most effective when undertaken in an environment that is receptive, supportive, and enabling. (Astin et al. 2000) To sum up, classification of assessment into formative or summative depends on its purpose. If an assessment is used to assess the progress of students in learning and then give them feedback on their progress and what should be done to improve their knowledge, skills, and understanding; it is a formative assessment. If an assessment is carried out by a test at the end of a module, a unit, a course, a semester, or a year and according to the results of the test students are graded; it is a summative assessment. C. A. Jones (2005) distinguished between ―assessment for learning‖ and ―assessment of learning.‖ The former involves effective feedback to students, promotes students progress, and puts students at the centre of the assessment process. In contrast, the latter does not involve giving students feedback on their performance and progress with a view to enhancing their learning and improving their performance (p. 1). In fact, even a summative assessment can act formatively if students learn from it (Yorke, 2003, p. 480) or if feedback is given on summative assessments, which can help students to learn from the assessment activities (Irons, 2008, p. 23). In the researcher‘s opinion, university teachers should make use of all sources of information to create a complete picture of their students progress, achievement, and performance. This requires a balance in the use of the various techniques of 77 summative and formative assessment. It is such a balance that can make these two types of assessments work complementarily with a view to fostering students learning. 2.4.5.3. Teaching, courses, and tests evaluation In addition to being able to assess student learning effectively, university teachers need also to be able to evaluate their teaching, courses, and tests. Evaluation of teaching is an ongoing cycle of review and adaptation (Chin, 2004, p. 154). It can be either formative or summative. The formative evaluation of teaching aims at improving and developing teaching. It is usually conducted by the faculty members in terms of the activities that they engage in to develop and improve their teaching. It can also be conducted by a chair or administrator for the same purpose. This type of teaching evaluation is characterized by being ―individualized, self-determined, and informal‖ (Berman, 2000, p. 5). In higher education, teachers can use formative feedback to gather information about teaching with a view to enhancing it. For instance, they can use methods such as feedback from students, peer observation, and mentoring to get effective feedback on teaching, which usually leads to enhancing it (Irons, 2008, p. 101). Students are the most common source of information about teaching in higher education. Their feedback is an essential method of collecting information about teaching (Farrell, 2011, p. 6). There are a number of methods that can be used to obtain feedback from students. These methods can be formal such as a form of individual feedback as part of institution‘s regulations and the National Student Survey or informal such as teaching situations, group discussion, and individual conversations (Irons, 2008, p. 103). What is important in this process is to act on the feedback of students. Irons (2008) claimed that obtaining feedback from students and making some changes in teaching in the light of their feedback can encourage students to participate in the process of feedback and to appreciate the value of it (p.101). Peer observation of teaching is the process of having a colleague to observe one‘s teaching and provide a feedback on his teaching (Farrell, 2011, p. 5; Irons, 78 2008, p. 103) with the objective of improving teaching (Irons, 2008, p. 103). This method of getting feedback on teaching can serve as a complementary method of feedback provided via students (Farrell, 2011, p. 6). To ensure the success of peer observation, it should be seen as a formative activity, not as a tool of evaluating the quality of teaching as Irons (2008) stated. Irons suggested that there should be a discussion before the peer observation to set the goal for the session and to negotiate on what to focus on during observation and after it to discuss what went well in the session and what areas need to be improved (p. 104). Mentoring is the process of helping and giving advice by someone who has more experience to someone who has less experience. This process can be a valuable source of feedback on teaching. In this method, new faculty members are given help and support from a mentor. They can receive help in many aspects of their job, such as teaching, communication with students, research, etc. This process should be ―on a one-to-one basis and in a confidential and ‗safe‘ environment‖ (Irons, 2008, p. 104). A common method in the field of teaching evaluation is called teaching portfolio. It is ―a collection of documents demonstrating commitment and excellence in teaching.‖ It is a method of self-reflection on teaching and usually used formatively (Berman, 2000, p. 14). In a teaching portfolio, a faculty member can keep records of his ―teaching achievements, reflections and developments in an organized and structured way.‖ He should document teaching in ―diverse, reflective and comprehensive ways,‖ referring to the following: - his reflections on teaching; - the students‘ experiences of teaching; - peer or expert analysis of the teaching planning, design, performance or assessment strategies; - factual information about the range and volume of his teaching responsibilities; - evidence of teacher/student rapport; and - any other indicators of excellence (S. Moore, Walsh, & Risquez, 2007, p. 105). 79 According to Berman (2000), there are four aspects of teaching that should be focused on in the formative evaluation of teaching: presentation, course design, class climate, and student outcomes (p. 7).  Presentation: Here the focus of evaluation is on the effectiveness in the classroom. There are many methods that can be used to collect data about the skills of presentation, such as questionnaires, focus group evaluations, classroom assessment techniques, peer/expert observation, and videotaping (self-observation) (Berman, 2000, p. 8). The evaluation of presentation can also be conducted in the light of the checklist suggested by Prozesky (2000): - speaking clearly, - using suitable nonverbal communication, - speaking understandably, - using the right speed of presentation, - the existing of two-way communication, and - the existing of a good relationship between teacher and students (p. 45).  Course design: A good course should integrate students, content, and instructional activities with learning outcomes (Berman, 2000, p. 10). According to Berman (2000), effective courses should have the following characteristics: - The purpose is clear. - The amount of material is appropriate to the allotted time and students level. - The contents are related to students abilities and interests. - The instructional strategies used are appropriate. - Assessment plan is appropriate and consistent with course goals. - Time is used effectively both at course level and each class. (p. 11) These characteristics can be used as a checklist to evaluate courses. While evaluating courses, university teachers can consult more experienced 81 teachers and make use of the feedback of past students (S. Moore et al., 2007, p. 30).  Class climate: There are many aspects that should be considered when one talks about class climate, such as freeness, comfort, and fairness. Students should feel free to speak and to ask questions in the classroom. They should also feel comfortable to contact faculty members during office time or via email. Besides, they should feel that they are treated fairly and that the grading is fair (Berman, 2000, p. 12). According to S. Moore et al. (2007), creating democratic climates in the classroom can enhance students engagement and help the teacher to teach in more ethically ways (p. 23).  Student outcomes: Student outcomes are the ultimate purpose of teaching. Here, the evaluation focuses on how much students have learnt (Berman, 2000, p. 12). The main two types of student learning assessment are formative assessment and summative assessment. Each type has its own focus and purpose and uses its own methods and techniques. Summative evaluation of teaching is usually conducted at the end of teaching process (S. Moore et al., 2007, p. 118). It is used to judge results and usually used for the sake of tenure and promotion purposes. Therefore, this type of evaluation requires a valid and reliable system of evaluation and should be based on explicit criteria and standards. Summative evaluation starts within academic departments. This requires faculty members to be familiar with teaching practice and evaluation plans and procedures in their departments. They should be ready to summit records of activities that can serve as documentation of teaching effort and effectiveness (Berman, 2000, p. 13). The evaluation can also be conducted at academic unit level. The evaluator may be the head of the department or a committee convened for this purpose (Berman, 2000, p. 14). According to Berman (2000), summative evaluation systems should have the following characteristics:  validity and comprehensiveness  reliability 81  explicitness, publicness  flexibility  time and cost effectiveness  periodic self-evaluation  support at the highest relevant level of administration  linkage to formative evaluation  linkage to planned change strategies (p. 16) Tests are the most common way of assessing student learning in higher education. Therefore, university teachers should be able to construct them well. In addition to being at the right level of students and covering all the material taught in class, tests should be valid and reliable. A test is valid when it accurately measures what it is supposed to measure, and it is reliable when it produces the same results when conducted again under the same conditions. Teachers should also be concerned about the affect of tests, i.e., the anxiety that tests can cause for students, which is usually connected with test difficulty or students unfamiliarity with test questions (Madsen, 1983, pp. 178-179). In addition to being concerned about these aspects of tests, university teachers should be able to analyse tests and use the data of analysis to evaluate and improve tests. As the basic unit of any test is the item, the process of analysis starts at the level of items. Item analysis is ―the systematic evaluation of the effectiveness of the individual items on a test.‖ This type of analysis is usually done for the sake of improving the items of the revised version of the test (Brown, 1996, p. 50). It aims at examining the contribution that each item makes to the test and usually results in modifying or rejecting faulty or inefficient items (Hughes, 2003, p. 225). It tells teachers ―how difficult each item is, whether or not the questions ‗discriminates‘ or tells the difference between high and low students, and which distractors are working as they should‖ (Madsen, 1983, p. 180). The following steps are followed to conduct an item analysis: - Score all of the papers. - Arrange them in order from the highest score to the lowest. 82 - Divide the candidates into three groups according to their scores on the whole test: the highest in one group, the lowest in another, and the middle in a third group. - Record students responses. (Madsen, 1983, p. 180) Item analysis can take various forms, including item facility analysis, item discrimination analysis, and distractor efficiency analysis (Brown, 1996, p. 50).  Item facility analysis: Item facility analysis is ―a statistical index used to examine the percentage of students who correctly answer a given item.‖ The value of item facility is calculated by adding up the number of students who answered a particular item and then dividing the sum by the total number of students who took the test. This results in the item facility value which ranges from (0) to (1) for the different items (Brown, 1996, pp. 64-65). For example, an item facility value of (0.25) for an item means that (25%) of the students who took the test answered that item correctly. According to Madsen (1983), an item of a test is considered too easy if more than (90%) of the examinees answer it correctly and too difficult if fewer than (30%) answer it correctly (p. 182).  Item discrimination analysis: An important feature of a test is its ability to discriminate between weak and strong candidates. According to Hughes (2003), this feature is important because it is related to reliability: The more discriminating the items are, the more reliable the test will be (p. 226). Discrimination index is usually calculated by comparing the performance of the candidates on the item with that on the test as a whole. Good correlation between scores on the item and scores on the test as a whole indicates good discrimination. The theoretical maximum discrimination value is (1). The higher the discrimination value is, the better the item discriminates. Items on which almost all the candidates got the same scores do not discriminate at all and has a discrimination index of zero. Items that discriminate in favour of weaker candidates have a negative discrimination index and should be revised or removed (Hughes, 2003, p. 226). Items that do not discriminate well or that are too easy or too difficult should be revised to find the cause (Madsen, 1983, p. 183). 83 To ensure a good discrimination level, tests should include items of different levels ranging from extremely easy to extremely difficult.  Distractor efficiency analysis: Distractors are incorrect options in multi- choice items. They are called so because their function is to distract students from the correct answer if they do not know it. Distractor efficiency analysis aims at examining the degree to which distractors can function efficiently and distract students from the correct answer. This is usually carried out by calculating the percentages of students (in the high, middle, and low groups) who chose each option (Brown, 1996, p. 71). This analysis usually results in replacing, modifying, or dropping distractors that do not function efficiently, i.e., are selected by very few students (Hughes, 2003, p. 228). In brief, teaching in higher education is a complex process that cannot be considered without reference to the process of assessment and evaluation. This process should be comprehensive to include all elements: students, the process of teaching, the course, tests, etc. To carry out this process effectively, university teachers should have the skills and competencies necessary for doing that. In the light of the review of the related literature and this theoretical background and taking into account the characteristics of the current age, the researcher constructed an instrument covering the five domains mentioned in the theoretical background. The researcher thinks that possessing teaching competencies in these domains can help Yemeni university English teachers to make their teaching effective, constructive, enjoyable, and interesting. 2.5. Training In this age, which is characterized by the fact that it is changing, any institution or company needs to update the skills, competencies, and knowledge of its staff members to keep them capable of achieving its goals and objectives. Training 84 with its various forms (workshops, seminars, training programmes, etc.) can help in this regard. It can bridge whatever the gaps between the skills and competencies that a staff has already acquired and what they need in their jobs. 2.5.1. The concept of training Training is ―a process designed to facilitate learning in the target audience‖ (Bray, 2009, p. 35). According to Ghufli (2012), it is ―a planned and continuous process designed to meet the training needs of present and future of an individual through increasing knowledge and improving skills‖ in order to improve performance and increase productivity at work (p. 4). It is usually directed to a particular staff with a view to developing their skills, modifying their behaviour, and increasing their competence. It usually has ―stated goals, content, and strategies for instruction‖ (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health [NIOSH], 1999, p. 5). In the field of teacher training, training refers to ―activities directly focused on a teacher‘s present responsibilities and is typically aimed at short-term and immediate goals‖ (Richards & Farrell, 2005, p. 3). It is related to the acquisition of academic and professional skills and competencies (Siddiqui, 2010, p. 33). According to Alvarez, Guasch, and Espasa (2009), if teacher training is considered as developing teacher competencies, then training has to develop a set of competencies that are related to the various roles and functions of teachers (p. 322). In brief, training is a planned and continuous process that aims at developing skills and competencies and modifying and changing behaviours of the target people. This process requires, to be successful, stating its goals and objectives clearly, planning and organizing materials and activities properly, and carrying out evaluation to make sure of the effectiveness of training and whether it has achieved its stated goals and objectives. 2.5.2. Teachers’ need for training The contemporary world is getting complex more and more. Every day new things in all fields of life are discovered and new changes take place in our society. These changes have a direct impact on the role, work, and functions of teachers. 85 The changes that have occurred in society have created new tensions and brought about a major redefinition of the work of teachers. They must now develop high-level professional competencies that can no longer be acquired by trial and error, but rather must be learned systematically as part of a training process designed to produce cultured professionals. (Québec, 2001, pp. 8-9) These changes also affect universities and call for determining the necessary roles and functions of university teachers in the light of these global changes and their corresponding competencies. These changes must be taken into consideration when thinking about in-service training which will enable teachers to cope effectively with changes in the field of teaching (Guasch et al., 2009, p. 1) and to keep themselves ―professionally alive and active‖ (S. F. Ahmed, 1994, p. 11). Technology is another factor that makes teacher training necessary. According to Wardlow and Johnson (1999), the use of educational technology is increasing more and more which places additional demands on faculty. Wardlow and Johnson indicated that there is a real need for training faculty to use educational technologies. According to the Education Commission (1964-66), ―in the absence of other influences, a teacher tries to teach in the way in which he himself was taught by his favourite teachers and thus tends to perpetuate the traditional methods of teaching‖ (as cited in Gadkari, 1977, p. 36) or depends on his personal experience and practice (Chan, 1996, p. 1; El Hares, 1994, p. 96). However, this is not adequate to meet the diversity and complexity of teaching which requires more structured approaches to develop university teaching (Chan, 1996, p. 1). According to Kovac (1976), ―effective teaching cannot be left to chance. It involves developing, practicing, and evaluating pedagogical skills in an environment both supportive and facilitative‖ (p. 64). In fact, in such situations, effective professional training becomes necessary to initiate teachers to the needed development in teaching and set the basis for their future professional growth (Gadkari, 1977, p. 36). In this age, which is characterized by knowledge explosion, in-service teacher training has become important because through it, teachers can update their skills and strategies of teaching. It is through this type of training that teachers can ensure successful teaching and improvement in the standard of education (G. P. Ahmed, 2005, p. 76). In other words, to update teachers to all changes and developments, 86 training is regarded as the best way. It can enable teachers to adapt themselves to recent changes and development (Küçüksüleymanoğlu, 2006, pp. 360-361). According to Craft (2002), there are many reasons for undertaking in-service training or professional development for teachers: - to improve the skills of teachers, - to extend the experience of teachers, - to develop the professional knowledge and understanding of teachers, - to extend the personal or general education of teachers, - to make staff feel valued, - to promote job satisfaction, - to develop an enhanced view of the job, - to prepare teachers for changes, and - to clarify the policy of the institution (pp. 9-10). In Yemen, the situation is worse. Yemeni universities, when appointing new faculty members to teach in the academic departments, focus mainly on the academic knowledge and research competence of the new faculty members, regardless whether they have the ability to teach effectively or not. Therefore, Yemeni university teachers are badly in need of training in teaching to be able to teach effectively. In fact, people in charge have started to realize that, and now there is a growing realization that training university teachers is very important to improve their teaching competencies and skills. In brief, in the field of teaching, there are always changes and developments in teaching methods, tools, and instructional technologies. In order to face these changes and developments, the education system has to conduct an in-depth examination of its orientations and practices (Québec, 2001, p. 8). There must also be a particular level of in-service training in order to help teachers update their skills and knowledge. 2.5.3. Significance of training for teachers Training is an effective tool that can be used to improve the performance of a staff. The main reason for using it is its ability to increase productivity. It can also motivate and inspire workers (McClelland, 2002, p. 7), increase their knowledge, 87 improve their skills and competencies, and change their attitudes in order to make the performance better (Ghufli, 2012, p. 3). It is ―responsible for building skilled, qualified and capable people‖ which, in turn, can help institutions to improve their performance and adapt to any changes (Ghufli, 2012, p. 4). It is ―a central feature of most social sector development efforts‖ that can provide more opportunities for personnel professional development which enhance job performance (Healey, 2008, p. 1). According to Healey (2008), it is an important factor in developing the capacity of people. In the field of teaching, in-service teacher training can play an effective role in improving the performance of teaching. It usually aims at providing teachers with skills, knowledge, and attitudes which are required for making effective teaching. It can be used to keep teachers in contact with new knowledge in the subjects and to help them improve their teaching methods and skills (Anuradha & Reddy, 2012; Siddiqui, 2010, pp. 34-36). It is an effective tool to make ―a permanent change in the teachers‘ thinking, attitude and performance‖ (Menon, 2012, p. 43), to ―professionalise teaching, improve quality and efficiency of the new educational systems and promote the scientific and technological advances and innovations‖ (Lera et al., 2001, p. 1). This was highlighted by some previous studies. For instance, the study of Ismail, Al-Zoubi, Abdel Rahman, and Al-Shabatat (2009) indicated that training can play an effective role in developing instructional competencies of teachers. While the study of Sarikaya, Kalaca, Yeğen, and Cali (2010) stated, based on what teachers reported after taking training programmes, that training can increase motivation, self- awareness, and enthusiasm of teachers, which can make them teach effectively; the findings of Wati (2011) indicated that training can play an effective role in improving teachers‘ confidence and motivation. Training is also important for teachers in higher education. Weimer (2008) investigated the effects of training programmes at (20) universities in eight countries. Results showed that training did make a significant and lasting impact on teaching. It could increase the extent of university teachers‘ adoption of the Student Focus Approach, improve some aspects of teachers‘ teaching, and change the teachers in a 88 way that results in improving their students‘ learning as Gibbs and Coffey (2004) indicated. Gibbs and Coffey (2000) prepared a framework for analyzing the goals and rationales of teachers training programmes in higher education as follows: - developing teachers‘ skills and competence. - improving students learning. - changing teachers‘ conceptions of teaching. - extending the range of teaching methods that teachers can use. - developing teachers as reflective practitioners. In summary, the importance of training for teachers comes out of its ability to improve their performance, to update and improve their skills and competencies, to increase their motivation, and to build their self-confidence. 2.5.4. Making training effective Effectiveness is usually estimated in relation to the achievement of goals and objectives (Brown & Atkins, 2002, p. 4). Therefore, to be effective, training should achieve its intended goals and objectives. Of course, there are some factors that affect training and help to make it effective. To be effective, training should have specific objectives and outcomes which directly lead to the benefits of an institution (Tennant, Boonkrong, & Roberts, 2002, p. 203). It should also be linked to the needs of the institution and the people working in (McClelland, 2002, p. 8). According to Carolan (1993), training succeeds when the trainees need it and when it responds directly to a specific problem (p. 15). Moreover, it should be interactive and participant-centred (Race & Smith, 1995/1996, p. 8). According to Silberman and Auerbach (2006), the key factor of effective training is how the ―learning activities are designed so that the participants acquire knowledge and skill, rather than merely receive them‖ (p. 1). This means that in order to make training more effective, it has to be participant-centred. The participants need to be active during training. They have to use as more senses as they can in order to be involved in the process of training. This requires ―a variety of strategies that 89 promote all six processes—hearing, seeing, questioning, discussing, doing, and teaching” (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 2). As a general fact, adult trainees learn better when they are actively involved in the learning process (Barbazette, 2006. p. 5). Participants in training are not the same. This requires, to make training effective, variation in the activities used during training sessions to meet the various learning styles of the participants. The trainer must provide ―a blend of visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic activity‖ (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 7). This also requires using a variety of training methods (Barbazette, 2006. p. 5) and collaborative learning activities to make training active and effective (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 8). In summary, the effectiveness and the impact of training are affected by some factors, such as the design of the training, the ways of delivering it, the abilities of trainers, the relevance of the content of training, the participants participated in training, the performance appraisal systems, and the management (Healey, 2008, p. 2). 2.5.5. Strategies and techniques for delivering training Delivering training requires using appropriate strategies and techniques to involve the participants in the learning process. Lawson (2000) claimed that the most effective strategies and techniques for delivering training are those of active training which occurs when the participants are engaged in the process of training and do most of the work (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 1). Lawson (2000) listed these strategies and techniques with some explanation as follows:  Structure and organization: Active training requires structuring the participants in groups and giving them specific assignments with clear instructions and time limits.  Moderate level of content: The focus in active training should be on process than on content with a balance among the different domains of learning. 91  High level of participation: The participants should be engaged actively in the training activities. The trainer‘s role should be limited to facilitating, managing, and monitoring the training process.  Interdependence: This requires structuring the training activities in such a way that each group member is responsible for mastering some content and then explaining it to the other participants.  Minimal lecturing: Lecturing should be limited to avoid making the participants feel bored.  Variety of methods: Trainers should use a variety of methods and techniques in training.  Peer teaching: With adult trainees, peer teaching is an effective strategy to give them opportunities to share their experiences and teach one another.  Iterative process: Trainers can reinforce the participants learning through arranging activities that build on and repeat the concepts and the skills learnt.  Real-world application: Trainers can help the participants to learn new concepts and skills through using real-life situations. They can also provide them with chances to identify how they are going to apply what they have learnt in the real world. 2.5.6. Types of training Training can be classified according to different dimensions. According to the degree of formality, training can be classified into formal and informal (Danziger & Dunkle, 2005). It can also be classified, according to the purpose, into pre-service training and in-service training (Halim & Ali, 1997/1998). 2.5.6.1. Formal training vs. informal training Formal training means learning a particular skill under a specific institution such as a school or a university. In this type of training, trainees usually get a degree or a certificate at the end. E-learning and instructor-led classes are examples of formal training (Danziger & Dunkle, 2005, p. 3). To ensure the effectiveness of this method 91 of training, there should be a course that includes all the necessary components, such as learning objectives and outcomes, materials used, and methods of instruction (Federal Aviation Administration, 2005, p. 20). On the other hand, informal training means learning a skill informally with no official schooling, such as self-training and peer training (Danziger & Dunkle, 2005, p. 3). 2.5.6.2. Pre-service training vs. in-service training Pre-service training is academic in nature. Individuals have to attend regular classes in a particular course to get a certificate at the end of the course. In other words, pre-service training is a process through which individuals are qualified to get a certain profession. On the other hand, in-service training is a process that aims at improving the performance of individuals (Halim & Ali, 1997/1998). This type of training can be offered by any organization from time to time for the purpose of developing the skills and knowledge of its individuals. It usually aims at improving the competencies of individuals while they are on the job (Halim & Ali, 1997/1998). In the context of education, in-service training is mainly used to provide teachers with the knowledge and skills that they do not presently have (Day & Sachs, 2004, p. 18) or to update their skills and techniques of teaching (G. P. Ahmed, 2005, p. 74). 2.5.7. Teacher training in higher education Training of university teachers has been given a lot of concern recently. A lot of discussions have been conducted about the need of university teachers for training, especially on pedagogical competencies and skills (Postareff, Lindblom-Ylänne, & Nevgi, 2007, p. 557). At the beginning there was a need to identify the effectiveness of training in improving university teachers. Gibbs and Coffey (2004) was one of the important works in this regard. Gibbs and Coffey reported on a range of positive changes in university teachers due do training and the impact of that on the learning of their students. With the passage of time, training is becoming more and more important for university teachers. There are many factors stand behind that, including the continuous changes of the current age, the need for integrating technologies into the teaching learning process, the diversity of students in classes, etc. The importance of 92 training for university teachers emerges also from the more concern that has been given to teaching as an important function of university teachers. According to Brown and Atkins (1986), enhancing training teachers in higher education needs more institutional and departmental recognition and commitment and individual motivation through making training rewarding and enjoyable. For these reasons and some more others, university teacher training started to get a lot of concern. For example, UK, Norway, and Sri Lanka started to make some decisions about making training university teachers compulsory (Gibbs & Coffey, 2004). In some other countries like Finland, universities started to arrange training in pedagogy for their faculty members, but this is not compulsory (Postareff et al., 2007, p. 558). In Pakistan, the Higher Education Commission has launched the project of Faculty Development Programme to improve the faculty members of universities in terms of academic and professional competencies (Ghori et al., 2011). In India, University Grants Commission (UGC) has made some reforms in the policy of teacher evaluation, tying up university teachers‘ career advancements with their performance (Padwad, 2012, p. 35). In the Arab countries, universities started to give university teachers professional development some concern. For example, in Iraq, universities started establishing various training programmes for their faculty members with a view to developing them professionally. In Egypt, appointing teachers to teach at universities is conditioned by taking some training courses in teaching. In Algeria, universities started running training programmes for their faculty members relating to university teaching (Al-Thubaiti, 1993, p. 348). In Yemen, the importance of training university teachers has been recognized recently. Most Yemeni universities have established academic development centres and units for this purpose. Some of these universities such as Sana‘a University and Aden University have held many training courses and seminars, covering various topics, such as university teaching, using technology in teaching, evaluation, etc. (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 22). Training can be provided for university teachers on several aspects of their roles and functions. It can be provided in research, management, teaching (Brown & Atkins, 1986, p. 41), and teaching skills (Othman, Hasan, Eid, & Dasuki, 2004, p. 309). It can also be undertaken on how to adopt the student-centred approach rather 93 than the teacher-centred approach in teaching (Postareff et al., 2007, p. 558). In addition, it can be provided for university teachers on assessing students (Sarikaya et al., 2010, p. 39) and on teaching and learning in virtual environments (Guasch et al., 2009, p. 8). In brief, it can be provided on various topics in which staff members show lack of skill or knowledge. The researcher, reviewing the literature, found that training university teachers can be delivered through various forms. For instance, it can be delivered through workshops, seminars, conferences, training programmes, microteaching, and modules. The researcher also found that there are various training delivery methods and techniques, such as lecture, discussion, demonstration, etc. Each form or method of these has its own advantages and disadvantages (G. P. Ahmed, 2005, p. 75) of which trainers and training designers must be aware. Therefore, the selection of a particular training form or method should be according to its appropriateness and effectiveness in achieving the goals and objectives of training. 2.5.8. Training programme As stated earlier, there are various ways of training faculty members on how to teach, such as workshops, seminars, etc. However, there is no clear evidence that such ways of training have a positive impact on their teaching. With the growing number of new faculty members, there was a rise in using training programmes to improve college teachers teaching (Weimer, 2008, p. 2). In fact, training programmes have become an effective tool in teachers‘ improvement. Weimer (2008) claimed that training programmes can make a significant and lasting impact on teaching (p. 2). Similarly, all the previous studies on training programmes that are reported on in the current study highlighted the effectiveness of using training programmes to improve the performance of the target sample. 2.5.8.1. The concept of training programme The concept of training programme was reported on in many previous studies and books related to training in quite different ways that might vary due to the different points of view of researchers or their goals and objectives. 94 Eid Al-Deeb (1994) defined training programme as an organized instructional process planned and implemented in the light of clear philosophy and strategy, containing a set of skills and cognitive experiences and aims at enabling teachers of the competencies required for performing their renewed profession (as cited in Higazi, 2005, p. 20). Al-Zoubi (2007) defined training programme as ―the organized content including the objectives, the content, the educational activities and procedures, and evaluation that provide the teacher with the knowledge and the necessary skills that enhance the level of teacher‘s performance of the duties and roles that enable the teacher to perform duties the best way possible‖ (p. 59). According to Abu Al-Nasr (2009), a training programme is a set of instructional experiences presented to a group of trainees in order to achieve special instructional objectives within a specific period of time (p. 10). These objectives may be related to knowledge, skills, or attitudes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 42). It is a set of planned, organized, and purposeful experiences and activities which participates in developing the teaching skills of teachers and improving their productive abilities to meet the development in the field of curricula and teaching methods with a view to improving the process of instruction and learning (M. A. Shahata & Al-Sheikh, 2002, p. 94). According to Gallup and Beauchemin (2000), developing any training programme involves following a systematic design model that includes all the components of effective training starting from needs analysis and ending at evaluation (p. 124). In the light of this, it is clear that a training programme is a process which - is based on a clear philosophy; - is planned and organized; - is based on specific principles; 95 - requires predetermination for its goals and objectives, including the process of designing the training programme and selecting the appropriate methods and training aids to carry it out; - includes goals and objectives, content, instructional activities and procedures, and evaluation; - aims at improving the performance and increasing the productivity of the target members; and - has to undergo some stages to be designed. 2.5.8.2. Principles of designing training programme Designing in-service training programmes is a complex process that requires taking into account a set of principles in order to ensure achieving their goals and objectives. Therefore, designers of training programmes should be familiar with all the principles, taking them into account while designing training programmes. Surveying some previous studies, reports, and projects such as the Evaluation, Management and Training [EMT] Group (2001), Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008), Sultana (2010), the report of United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and Educational Quality Improvement Programme (EQUIP1) (2011); the the researcher came up with this list of principles: - Any training programme should be linked to the philosophy and policy of the institution and the country. - It should be recognized officially by the institution or even the ministry in charge. - It is better to incorporate the institution leadership in the process of training. - It should be considered as part of a continuum of professional development. - It should be designed in the light of the current age characteristics. - It should have clearly defined and realistic goals and objectives. - It should be designed according to the level of the trainees. - It should meet the present and future training needs of the target people. - It should be flexible to meet the demands of the target people‘ profession. - It should provide opportunities for the participants to practice and review materials. 96 - It should have the necessary human and material requirements to carry it out. - It should be designed in the light of the available facilities and budget. - It should be based on valid professional knowledge. - It should have a balance between theoretical knowledge and practical experience. - Its topics should be arranged logically and gradually. - The training materials should be relevant to the participants‘ needs. - It should be based on the basic principles of adult learning. - It should give the target people opportunities to participate actively in its various processes: analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation. - It should be delivered through a variety of methods and techniques. - It should be evaluated in its different stages. 2.5.8.3. The general framework for designing a training programme There are different models for constructing training programmes. Swanepoel and Erasmus (2000) referred to a three-phase model for systematic training: needs assessment phase, training phase, and evaluation phase (as cited in Conco, 2004, p. 35). Sum (2006) also presented a systematic three-phase framework for managing training programmes: training planning and development, training implementation, and training evaluation (p. 18). Similarly, Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008), based on reviewing the literature, presented a three-phase framework for designing professional development programmes in higher education: planning, implementation, and evaluation (p. 55). The Instructional System Design (ISD) is a popular approach to training. It is a five-phase model: analysis, design, development, implementation, evaluation. This model involves feedback at each function (C. Nilson, 2003, p. 80; Zhuoran, 1996, p. 13). The American Society for Training and Development (ASTD)‘s Human Performance Improvement Process Model is another model that can be used to build the appropriate training. It is a six-stage model: performance analysis, cause analysis, intervention, implementation, change management, and evaluation and measurement (C. Nilson, 2003, p. 81). McArdle (2007) also presented a six-phase model: business 97 justification, analysis, design, development, implementation, and evaluation. This model follows a four-process approach to planning, preparing, implementing, and evaluating training programmes (p. 58). Making use of these models, the researcher found that the process of designing any training programme has to undergo four main processes that represent a cycle of four stages as shown in Figure (2.2): analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation. Analysis Stage Evaluation Design Stage Stage Implementation Stage Figure 2.2: The cycle of designing a training programme. A. Analysis stage: This stage is very important as it forms the base for the next stages and the success of the training programme as a whole. It aims mainly at identifying any training needs and defining the gaps between the current performance and the desired one (McArdle, 2007, p. 69). 98 B. Design stage: Based on the information collected while analyzing the needs, the designer can start the process of building the training programme. According to Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008), this process includes the following steps: 1. Setting the goals and objectives of the training programme 2. Determining the content of the training programme 3. Selecting appropriate trainers 4. Selecting trainees 5. Determining the duration of the training programme 6. Selecting a location for implementing the training programme 7. Selecting training methods 8. Selecting training aids 9. Determining the body responsible for the training programme 10. Determining a training programme management 11. Determining a budget for the training programme (p. 54) C. Implementation stage: Implementation is the process of creating an appropriate training environment, providing the necessary requirements and facilities, carrying out the training programme, and delivering instruction to achieve the stated goals and objectives in the light of the two previous stages. An ideal way of carrying out training is to engage participants in training, provide relevant materials, and provide opportunities for participants to practice and adapt the skills and knowledge learnt (Sum, 2006, p. 10). D. Evaluation stage: Evaluation allows trainers or those in charge of training to determine the effectiveness and efficiency of the training programme (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 3; McArdle, 2007, p. 174) and the ways of improving it (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 18) and to identify if the training programme had met its stated goals and objectives or not (McArdle, 2007, p. 174). Training programmes are evaluated by looking at their preparing, planning, execution, and impact (Conco, 2004, p. 46). This is usually carried out by using evaluation tools, such as questionnaires, tests, observations, etc. 99 2.5.8.4. Designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers As it is mentioned earlier, the process of designing any training programme has to undergo four main stages. These stages can be utilized to construct a training programme for professional development of university teachers: 2.5.8.4.1. Analysis stage Training should be ―needs-based‖ (Healey, 2008, p. 7). Therefore, the first step of designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers is to conduct a needs analysis or training needs assessment. This process is used to determine whether training is needed or not (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-7; Wati, 2011, p. 80). In other words, this process is conducted to identify any training needs ‫ــ‬ a training need is a gap between knowledge, skills, or attitudes that individuals have and knowledge, skills, and attitudes that individuals need to achieve their work effectively (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-7). In order to determine the gap between the current performance and the desired one, the designer of the training programme should identify the current level of performance and then the desired level of performance (McArdle, 2010, p. 9). Needs assessment is very important to be conducted before looking for any training options. It can help to identify training needs that are ―worthy of our training efforts and expenditure‖ (Tessmer, McCann, & Ludvigsen, 1999, p. 86). It can also help to determine ―where training is needed, what needs to be taught, and who needs to be trained‖ (Ghufli, 2012, p. 4). Moreover, this process is conducted to ensure selecting training topics that address the participants‘ needs and to ensure that the training materials are appropriate for the level of the participants (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-7). The important question that should be asked in this stage is whether the current performance fails to meet the required level of performance is due to lack of competencies, skills, or knowledge. If it is so, then, the designer can proceed in the process of design. If it is not so, then he has to think of other solutions which may include motivation, environmental issues, new processes, etc. (Bray, 2009, p. 77). 111 This means that training is an appropriate solution when individuals do not know how to perform something (Bozarth, 2008, p. 14). To make training needs assessment more effective, trainers and programme supervisors as well as trainees should participate in the training needs assessment (EMT Group, 2001). Many forms of collecting data, such as interviews, survey forms, or tests can be used to determine the training needs (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 4). These tools and others can also be utilized to identify if university teachers have any training needs in teaching competencies. Using the right tools for training needs assessment can help to produce the best kind of training as C. Nilson (2003) claimed. Carolan (1993) presented some guidelines that may help to make needs assessment on target when designing a training programme: - identifying some job skills required to improve performance and productivity; - using research tools and techniques, such as interviews, focus groups, on- the-job observations, etc.; - suiting the training programme to the participants‘ level of education, skills, experience, etc.; - determining the training needs in the light of available time, money, facilities, and resources; and - developing specific measurable objectives (p. 16). The training needs assessment process usually ends to identifying the general goals of training which can be translated into objectives which state the purpose of the training programme in terms of the competencies, skills, and knowledge that the trainees should acquire or learn as a result of training (Conco, 2004, p. 35). 2.5.8.4.2. Design stage 111 The process of designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers can undergo the following steps: 1. Setting the goals and objectives of the training programme This is the first step in the process of designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers. After assessing the needs of university teachers and setting the general goals of the training programme, it is possible to start designing the training programme in terms of its objectives. The focus here is on what university teachers should understand and do as a result of training. Determining the objectives of a training programme is very important because objectives can be used as a guide through the process of training design (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 41). They are tools that help to determine the content and topics of the training programme and the appropriate procedures to conduct it. They also help trainers to manage the instructional process and preparing some methods to measure the effectiveness of the training programme (McArdle, 2007, p. 98). According to the EMT Group (2001), the learning objectives of training are important as they can help trainers to connect training with training goals. They can also serve the following purposes: - setting the direction for the training, - communicating the training objectives to the participants, and - establishing guidelines for measuring the effectiveness of the training programme (p. 2-12). The training objectives should be ―specific, measurable, and observable‖ (McArdle, 2007, p. 99). They should also make clear statements about outcomes, focus on the trainees, use action verbs, and focus on a single outcome each time (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-13). Moreover, they should be learner-centred, not teacher-centred (Nieto- Montenegro, Smith, & Brown, 2005, p. 3). 112 In short, the first step of designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers is to determine its goals and objectives which represent the competencies and knowledge that university teachers need in their profession. In that, establishing a list of competencies or skills will help to provide a framework for training university teachers. 2. Determining the content of the training programme After determining the objectives of a training programme for professional development of university teachers, the designer can start selecting the content and topics of the training programme. The content of a training programme includes the information, the knowledge, and the skills intended to be communicated to trainees (McArdle, 2007, p. 151). According to McArdle (2007), to select the content for a training programme properly, there are some points that must be taken into consideration, such as the learning outcomes, the simplicity or complexity of the content, the skill level of the trainer, and the trainees‘ level of learning and their learning styles (p. 151). Besides, the content and materials of the training programme should be linked and organized around the aims and objectives of the training programme (Carolan, 1993, p. 16; McArdle, 2007, p. 104; Race & Smith, 1995/1996, p. 14) and developed in the light of the characteristics of the participants (Zhuoran, 1996, p. 13), and activities should target all learner styles (McArdle, 2007, p. 104). To highlight the content of a training programme, it is better to divide it into modules or chapters (Lanigan, 2012, p. 6). The content should be accurate, clear, comprehensive (Lanigan, 2012, p. 14), simple (Carolan, 1993, p. 16), ―authoritative, up-to-date and correct‖ (Race & Smith, 1995/1996, p. 15). However, this does not mean designing a saturated training programme with information and knowledge. The content of any training programme should be kept moderate in order to allow trainers to design activities that reflect on what is being learnt (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 15). What is important about the content is how the 113 trainer can turn the theoretical and practical content of the training programme into learning resources used by participants and activities in which participants are engaged (Race & Smith, 1995/1996, p. 8). At this stage, the designer has also to prepare a general outline for all the activities that will be necessary for achieving each objective in the training programme (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 17). According to Silberman and Auerbach (2006), each activity should have three main elements: an objective (what is to be accomplished), a method (how to accomplish it), and a format (in what setting to accomplish it). After determining these three ingredients, some more elements must be planned as Silberman and Auerbach stated. These elements include time allocation (the duration of the activity), buy-in (what to say and do to get the participants involved), key points (the major ideas in the presentation), materials (materials to implement the activity), setting (the arrangement of the physical environment for the activity), and ending (the remarks that the trainer wants to make or the discussion that he wants the participants to have before proceeding to the next activity) (pp. 155-159). 3. Selecting appropriate trainers Selecting appropriate trainers to conduct a training programme for professional development of university teachers is an important factor in the success of the training programme. In fact, the success and the effectiveness of any training programme depend to a large extent on the abilities of trainers to deliver it (Healey, 2008, p. 2; Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 12). Trainers are responsible for creating an appropriate training environment to deliver the training (McArdle, 2010, p. 131). Therefore, they should be selected properly. They should be skilled and dedicated (Carroll, 1980, p. 180). They should also have adequate knowledge of the subject being taught, skills, a desire to teach, and the ability to communicate and to establish rapport with trainees, and the skill at getting trainees to participate (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 12). Moreover, they should be aware of training techniques (Sum, 2006, p. 11). 114 According to Johnson (2001), trainers should have some skills and characteristics in the following areas:  Interaction: Teacher trainers should be able to facilitate interaction and promote participants participation.  Clarity: Trainers should be able to communicate clearly. They should also be well prepared and organized.  Personal qualities: Fairness, common sense, humour, enthusiasm, and friendliness are desirable qualities of trainers.  Knowledge: Trainers should have good knowledge of subject matter as well as training methodology. They should also be able to relate theory to practice and to transmit information in various ways.  Awareness: Teacher trainers should be reflective and able to self- evaluate and give and accept feedback. They should also be able to measure the development of their trainees and start from where the trainees are. Besides, they should be aware of what the job of trainees involves.  Respect: Trainers should respect trainees, their ideas, and their learning styles. 4. Selecting trainees Trainees are the university teachers who will be selected to participate in the training programme according to the training needs that they require in their profession. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006), when selecting participants for a training programme, decisions need to be made regarding who will get benefits from the training programme, whether the training programme is voluntary or compulsory, whether to separate the participants according to their level in the institution or to put them in one class (p. 10). According to AL-Mansoor (1999) and Abdulghani (2007), selecting the participants of a training programme can be done by utilizing some tools, such as interviews, tests, or training cards or according to some 115 criteria, such as the academic level, the professional level, or the age (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 62). 5. Determining the duration of the training programme Determining the amount of time allotted for conducting a training programme is considered an important factor in designing training programmes for university teachers. The amount of time allotted for conducting a training programme is affected by some factors, such as the goals and objectives it aims to achieve, the number of topics, the number of trainees, etc. The training programme designer should prepare a schedule that includes the number of the training days as well as the total number of training sessions. According to Al-Kadhimi and Hameed (1989), it is possible for a training programme designer to calculate the number of the training days required to conduct the training programme by using the following formula: (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 63) Here, the training programme designer should remember that a typical training day is only six hours and breaks should intervene these training hours as participants need to take mental breaks as well as physical breaks during training sessions (McArdle, 2007, p. 168). In this regard, Al- Mansoor (1999) indicated that some researchers agreed on that there should be only two training sessions of two hours a day with a break of (20-30) minutes between them (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 63). According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006), three things should be considered while determining training schedule: ―the trainees, their bosses, and the best conditions for learning.‖ Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick 116 also stated that a decision must be made regarding whether to offer the training programme continuously or to spread it out over a period of time. They insisted that the training schedule should be determined to meet the needs and desires of the trainees, not the convenience of the trainers (p. 11). 6. Selecting a location for implementing the training programme Determining the appropriate location for conducting a training programme for professional development of university teachers is very important. The training location can play an important role in creating an effective training environment that can enhance the learning and training processes. The location selected should accommodate the needs of trainees as well as trainers (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-10). Training usually takes place either in the same institution of the trainees or in training centres prepared for such a purpose. Whether the training takes place at a university or in a training centre, there are some factors that should be considered when selecting a location for training. According to the EMT Group (2001), the following factors should be considered when selecting the training location:  Size of the training space: The size of the training place should be large enough to accommodate both the trainers and the participants, providing enough space for any equipment used during the training sessions.  Room arrangement: The training room should be arranged according to the training design and activities. As a golden rule in any training room arrangement, the trainer can be seen and heard and the participants feel included in the training process.  Temperature: The temperature of the training room should be adjusted to make it comfortable to the majority of the participants.  Access to the location: It is recommended that the training programme is held in a place centrally located and accessible so that all the participants can attend its sessions on time, otherwise the 117 training management should think of providing transportation for the participants.  Acoustics and background noise: The acoustics of the training room should be good and the training site should not be near noisy places as this can affect the interaction and communication between trainers and participants and among participants themselves.  Training aids: The availability of training aids is a key factor in making effective training. Therefore, it is very important to make sure of their availability in the training room and whether they are operating properly in advance.  Additional facilities: Additional facilities such as restrooms and break areas should be considered while determining the training site. All the participants should be told where such facilities are located. 7. Selecting training methods The designers of a training programme for university teachers should remember when designing training sessions that trainees are not the same. Therefore, they have to think of various instructional training methods when designing training sessions. As a matter of fact, using multiple methods can maintain interest and meet the various learning styles of the trainees (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-15). These are some of the most common methods of training instruction:  Lecture: This method is the most traditional form of training instruction where the trainer presents materials to the trainees. To make this method more interesting, the trainer should vary the content and use training aids (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-16). It is true that lectures are good tools to provide trainees with information (Barbazette, 2006, p. 58; Bozarth, 2008, p. 113), but they should be short as far as possible to maintain participants interested and attentive.  Modified lecture: This method of training instruction is similar to the lecture method, but in this method the participants are actively engaged in the process of instruction through their participation (EMT Group, 118 2001, p. 2-16; McArdle, 2010, p. 160). In this method, the trainer should encourage trainees to ask questions and allow sufficient time for group participation (McArdle, 2010, p. 160).  Lecturette: A lecturette is a short talk that provides an explanation of a principle, a process, etc. relating to the learning needs of the participants. It is used mainly to create a common language link between trainers and participants. For example, trainers can use lecturette as an introduction to a group activity or event, as an interjection during an event, etc. (Barbazette, 2006, p. 231; Bozarth, 2008, p. 316; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 353).  Presentation: This method allows trainers to present and transfer a lot of information in a fast and straightforward way (Bozarth, 2008, p. 113; Bray, 2009, p. 140). In this method, trainers should make the aims clear at the beginning of the presentation, keeping the presentation as short as possible and giving ―brain breaks‖ at least hourly. It is also a good idea to give the participants handouts of the main ideas of the presentation to avoid going into too much detail. Trainers should make their presentations active through involving the participants in the presentation. This can be done through asking questions and drawing answers from the participants (Race & Smith, 1995/1996, pp. 80-81).  Demonstration: In this method, the trainer shows the participants how to do things instead of talking about them (Silberman, 2006, p. 36; Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 97). After conducting demonstration to the participants, the trainer supervises and monitors them while they repeat the same skill or performance. The trainer can make this more effective by asking the participants questions, giving them feedback, and making corrections when needed (Barbazette, 2006, p. 145).  Group discussion: This method is used to elicit responses from participants on a particular topic (USAID, 2009, p. 7). Participants in this method are active as they have chances to express their points of view (Bozarth, 2008, p. 114). Here, one can see a kind of guided 119 interaction among participants (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-16). In this method, the trainer is just a facilitator who sets the direction of the discussion, keeping the group on the right track.  Panel discussion: The panel is comprised of a group of experts. Each of them presents a portion of the training content. Here, discussions typically conclude with a short period of questions and answers to allow the participants to raise additional questions or issues (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-16). In this method, the change of speakers can keep the audience interested and attentive (Bozarth, 2008, p. 113). The trainer can create panels from the trainees and rotate the panellists to increase the participation of the trainees (Conco, 2004, p. 42).  Debate: A debate is an effective method for ―promoting thinking and reflection‖ (Silberman, 2005, p. 134). This method can provide different points of view about a topic or an issue; however, participants in this method are passive (Bozarth, 2008, p. 113) as they just listen. Therefore, it is better to involve all the participants in discussions, not just the debaters (Silberman, 2006, p. 66; 2005, p. 134). See Silberman (2005) for the procedures followed to make effective debates.  Brainstorming: This method allows the participants to contribute actively to the session (Bozarth, 2008, p. 114; EMT Group, 2001, p. 2- 17). It is characterized by being participant-centred. What is happening in this method is that the trainer poses a problem or a topic for discussion and elicits as many ideas as he can from the participants. The trainer records these ideas and then discusses them with the participants (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-17). In other words, this method allows the trainer to elicit a lot of viewpoints, suggestions, and experiences from the participants (World Health Organization [WHO], 2004, p. 130).  Question and answer: This method helps the trainer to get a clear idea about the trainees understanding. The trainer can encourage the trainees to ask questions to clear up any misunderstandings. He can 111 also involve the trainees in responding to questions to make the session participant-centred (WHO, 2004, p. 51).  Practice: This method is usually used after instruction to find out whether the trainees can use the new skills. In other words, in this method, the trainees try out the new skills to find out whether they can use them effectively before using them in the real world (Barbazette, 2006, p. 114; McArdle, 2010, p. 160). Here, the trainer has to encourage the trainees to practice the new skills. He has also to give them positive feedback which may encourage them to learn more (McArdle, 2010, p. 161).  Group exercises and games: This method provides participants with opportunities to practice what they have already learnt. It also gives them opportunities to reflect what they have learnt on real life examples. Games are an effective form of exercises. They can be used to reinforce or recycle key points (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-17). They are an effective means for team-building and personal development (Barbazette, 2006, p. 231).  Role play: This method is an effective method for practicing and modelling new skills in the classroom (USAID, 2009, p. 8). It is an effective tool to engage participants in the process of learning and training. It can be used to help participants to experience certain skills (Bozarth, 2008, p. 115; EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-17) and feelings acquired through the sessions. It usually involves two trainees or the trainer and one trainee to act out a particular role. At the conclusion of the role play, the trainer can allot some time to get feedback either on the exercise itself or on the issues that may arise during the exercise (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-17).  Simulations: Simulations are to experience a situation or an event as nearly real as possible, followed by a discussion (Barbazette, 2006, p. 7). By using simulations, trainers can place the participants into real situations which involve skills practice (Bozarth, 2008, p. 115). This 111 can help them to apply skills in environments similar to those of their work (Barbazette, 2006, p. 97). Trainers can also create real performance challenges for the participants through simulations (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 132).  Case study: A case study is ―a description of an incident that involves a problem and a necessary decision‖ (Bozarth, 2008, p. 125). This method provides opportunities for participants to apply new knowledge and practice skills, which makes them active. However, this method requires using cases relevant to participants‘ needs (Bozarth, 2008, p. 116). According to Barbazette (2006), trainers can use case studies to present issues similar to the issues the participants are likely to encounter when applying new knowledge or skills they have learnt (p. 114). In other words, in this method participants analyse situations and draw conclusions or offer solutions based on what they have learnt from the course (McArdle, 2007, p. 126).  Problem solving: This method can be used by trainers to have trainees solve a problem using systematic problem-solving techniques (Barbazette, 2006, p. 114). Using this method in training usually aims at applying what learnt in the sessions or at solving common classroom problems (Nation & Macalister, 2010, p. 190). In training sessions, problem solving activities had better be related to particular teaching situations as this can help participants to relate the sessions activities to their actual practice (Nation & Macalister, 2010, p. 191).  Microteaching: This method can offer participants with opportunities to learn and practice skills. In this method, immediate and constructive feedback from the participants and the trainer can be provided on the performance. The lesson can also be videotaped and played back and evaluated with a view to reflecting on and improving (Kovac, 1976, p. 61).  Individual work: Here, the trainer assigns work to individual participants, such as assignments, experiments, readings, research 112 papers, etc. (Rose, 2009). Using this method can give the trainer some time to approach those participants who need help or advice (Race & Smith, 1995/1996, p. 74).  Small group work: Small-group work is an effective training strategy. This training strategy requires a certain type of seating arrangement and physical setting to ensure successful small group work (Kelly & Stafford, 1993, p. 6). Participants are usually arranged around tables in clusters. According to Kelly and Stafford (1993), this method can be used by trainers to help the participants to learn a body of subject matter or to improve some practical skills (p. 12). In this method of training, attention should be paid to some points, such as giving clear instructions about the activity or task, starting up and closing down the activity or tasks, and the way of participation (Kelly & Stafford, 1993, p. 12). In this method of training, the trainer plays the role of a facilitator of discussion. He has to keep on monitoring the group discussions and to provide support whenever needed.  Field visit and study tour: This method gives trainees the opportunity to go to a particular place to observe or interact with the problem or the skill under investigation (Halim & Ali, 1997/1998).  Outside speakers: It is a good idea to invite outside trainers, experts or specialists who are experienced in particular topics to help implement a session or an activity or even to lead a workshop. Such a thing can introduce variety and change to training as Race and Smith (1995/1996) stated. In brief, when conducting a training programme to develop university teachers professionally, the trainer should use as many training methods as he can to maintain the interest of the participants and meet their various learning styles. The process of selection should be based on the effectiveness of training methods or techniques to achieve the goals and objectives of training. He should also take into his consideration while selecting the training methods 113 and techniques the education level of participants (WHO, 2004, p. 52) and the facilities and the time available. 8. Selecting training aids Training aids include flip charts, PowerPoint presentations, handouts, transparencies and overhead projector, videos, charts, posters, slides, chalks, blackboards, and any other training aids that can be used for the process of training. Determining appropriate training aids is very important due to the effective role that they can play in the success of training. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006), training aids are an important part of an effective training programme (p. 14). Training aids can serve many purposes in the process of training. They can facilitate participants learning. They can also help trainers to communicate their messages to the participants quickly and effectively (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 254). If they are used effectively by trainers, they can ―simplify instruction, create and maintain interest, promote multi-sensory learning, and increase participant retention‖ (EMT Group, 2001, p. 2-21). However, using training aids in the process of training depends on the trainer‘s skills and knowledge of using them. Therefore, this factor must be taken into account when determining the training aids that will be used for training. In addition, they should be selected according to the content of the training programme, the trainees, their availability (WHO, 2004, p. 51), their cost, their effectiveness (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008; EMT Group, 2001), and their appropriateness for achieving the objectives of the training programme. Such factors of selecting training aids should also be considered when designing a training programme for professional development of university teachers. 9. Determining the body responsible for the training programme 114 For any training programme, there should be a unit, or a centre, or a directorate responsible for supervising it. In the case of training programmes that aim at professional development of university teachers, it is usually the units or centres of universities concerned with academic professional development are in charge of designing, implementing, and evaluating training programmes (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 66). 10. Determining a training programme management Training programme management is a committee responsible for managing the training programme, supervising the process of training, and providing technical services for trainers. In a training programme for professional development of university teachers, this committee, according to Al-Mansoor (1999) and Abdulghani (2007), is composed of the following: - A scientific supervisor responsible for the training programme and its implementation. - A principal responsible for monitoring the process of training, providing training requirements, and any administrative affairs. - A technical staff to help the principal to prepare for the training process and to help trainers while conducting training sessions. Al-Mansoor and Abdulghani, along with Shawish (1996), also referred to some points that should be taken into the consideration of the training programme committee to ensure smooth running of the training programme: - Determining the date of starting and ending the programme. - Distributing the training work during the period of implementation. - Distributing the training materials to both trainers and trainees. - Making the official procedures required for joining the programme. - Setting the instructions and the guidelines required for joining the programme. - Ensuring logical sequence of the various training topics. 115 (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, pp. 66-67) 11. Determining a budget for the training programme The budget of a training programme is an estimate of training costs (McArdle, 2007, p. 60). Its availability for professional development training programme for university teachers is very important as the success of any training programme depends on the availability of a budget for it. According to McArdle (2007), the basis for determining a budget for training should be the amount of time needed to conduct the training programme, the number of trainees and training sessions (p. 97). McArdle added that the designer should determine an overall training budget that includes both direct and indirect costs. The direct costs include regular operating costs, such as wages and salaries of designers, trainers, and participants as well as costs of accommodation, supplies, and materials needed for training while indirect costs include secretarial and clerical help, the costs of audiovisual equipment, etc. (p. 141). After finishing the overall design of a training programme, the designer has to go through it, revising any details especially those regarding timing, setting, and instructions. He has also to make sure that every session leads to the next session and every activity complements the ones before or after it, deleting any activity or procedure that seems to be unnecessary or impractical (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 18). 2.5.8.4.3. Implementation stage Implementing a training programme means carrying it out to achieve its goals and objectives through the delivery procedures and methods established and determined during the design stage (McArdle, 2007, p. 145) and by using the various materials determined and prepared during the design stage. According to Sakher (1994), Abu Al-Kushk (1996), Idrees (2001), Al-Ta‘ani (2003), and Rageh (2006), this stage can be divided into three sub-stages (as cited in Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008): 116 1. Pre-implementation sub-stage Before starting to conduct a training programme for professional development of university teachers, some procedures must be done to create an appropriate training environment and set the scene for it. According to Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008), the following procedures should be done before starting training: - Revising reports regarding the evaluation of the previous training programmes to make use of them in conducting the current one and to avoid any mistakes made while conducting previous training programmes. - Contacting both the trainers and the trainees to tell them about the place and date of training. - Making sure of the preparation and availability of the training materials, aids, etc. - Making sure of the preparation and the appropriateness of the training rooms. - Appointing a management responsible for the training programme. In this sub-stage, it is also important to make sure of the availability of the necessary facilities, such as transportation, meals, restrooms, etc. (Sum, 2006, p. 13). 2. Implementation sub-stage While conducting a training programme, the training programme management should do some procedures to ensure conducting the training programme successfully and smoothly. According to Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008) these procedures include the following: - Receiving trainers and participants. - Introducing trainers and getting the participants to know one another. - Inaugurating and introducing the training programme in terms of its goals and objectives, topics, duration, etc. 117 - Monitoring the attendance of the trainers and participants. - Conducting daily evaluation for the process of training. - Creating motivation, through material and morale motives, among the participants to acquire the new skills and transfer them into their teaching. - Preparing participation certificates for participants to be distributed on the last day of training. 3. Post-implementation sub-stage After conducting a training programme, trainers have to do some procedures to identify the effectiveness of the training programme (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 3); to determine if the training programme has met its stated goals and objectives (McArdle, 2007, p. 174); and to identify the knowledge, skills, and attitudes that the participants have acquired due to training (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 326). Apart from these evaluation procedures, there are some other procedures that should be done after implementing a training programme as Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008) stated: - Preparing the final report and handing it to those in charge of the training programme. - Writing down all the theoretical and practical activities done during the implementation of the training programme and handing them to those in charge of the training programme. - Closing the training programme officially in the presence of the principals of the institution and giving the participants attendance certificates as such procedures may improve the participants morale. (p. 69) 2.5.8.4.4. Evaluation stage Evaluation is a vital process for any training programme. It is an essential component of the process of designing and implementing training programmes, not 118 just an element in training programmes outcomes (McArdle, 2007, p. 174; 2010, p. 238). It helps to determine the effectiveness of training programmes and whether their stated goals and objectives have been met or not. According to Kirkpatrick and Kirkpatrick (2006), there are three main reasons standing behind evaluating training programmes: - to know from evaluation how to improve future programmes, - to determine whether to continue or to stop the training programme, and - to justify the existence of the unit/centre/department responsible for training and its budget (p. 19). The process of evaluating training programmes should be systematic and comprehensive. Information can be gathered about the content and design of the training programme; the performance of the trainers; the training facilities (McArdle, 2007, p. 177); knowledge, skills, attitudes, and reactions of participants; on-the-job application; and organizational results (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 326). Various tools can be used for the process of evaluation. According to Silberman and Auerbach (2006), any one of the following tools can be used for evaluating training programmes: - questionnaires, - observation, - tests, - reports, and - interviews (p. 326). A training programme for professional development of university teachers should be evaluated at different stages. It should be evaluated at the end of its designing against its goals and objectives to see whether it will be able to achieve its objectives or not. It should also be evaluated while and after implementing it. Silberman and Auerbach (2006) suggested four possible times to evaluate a training programme:  Pre-training: Pre-training evaluation aims at identifying whether the training programme content and materials are appropriate for its goals and 119 objectives and the level of participants and at making sure of the logical sequence of topics and activities. It also aims at identifying the appropriateness of training methods and the availability of training aids and trainers to conduct the training programme (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 70). It is a formative evaluation that involves revising the training process along the way and testing the training materials and instructional methods (McArdle, 2010, p. 239). In brief, here the designer evaluates the whole training programme against its objectives to see whether the training programme in its current design will achieve its goals and objectives. The designer may even redesign the training programme to get better results (Silberman & Auerbach, 2006, p. 18).  During training: Evaluation during training aims at improving the consistency of the content and activities presented in the training sessions and at enforcing consistency between content and objectives. It gives trainers an idea about whether the participants have mastered the materials covered in the training sessions (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 236). It also gives a clear idea about the consistency of the training process, the interaction and reaction of the participants, and what has already been achieved (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 70).  End of training: At the end of a training programme, trainers can use summative evaluation to determine whether the training programme has met its stated goals and objectives or not (McArdle, 2007, p. 177). Here, trainers may also evaluate the training programme as a whole to identify any shortcomings to be avoided in the future (Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi, 2008, p. 70).  Follow-up period: Follow-up evaluation takes place at a later date after the end of training with sufficiently long enough time in order to determine whether the participants have transferred the skills acquired to the job or not (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 233). In other words, this type of evaluation aims at measuring the degree to which the participants apply what they have learnt in terms of skills and knowledge 121 to their jobs, i.e., it determines the improvement of the participants‘ performance (Carolan, 1993, p. 17). Here, the researcher finds it important to refer to an effective model that can be used to evaluate university teacher training programmes, namely Kirkpatrick's Model with its four levels. This model represents a logical sequence of ways to evaluate training programmes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 21).  Level 1 – Reaction: The main question here is to what extent participants in a training programme react to it (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 27). Evaluation at this level tries to answer many questions regarding whether the participants liked the training programme and the content was relevant to their work (Winfrey, 1999, p. 1), the facilities, the schedule, meals, exercises, and handouts (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, p. 28). This can be done through a reaction sheet which can provide useful information that can be used to improve future training programmes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 27).  Level 2 – Learning: Evaluation at this level is concerned with the extent to which the participants increase their knowledge, change their attitudes, or improve their skills (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 42; Winfrey, 1999, p. 2). This can be done through conducting a test before training (pretest) and after it (posttest) to determine the amount of learning that has occurred (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 50; Winfrey, 1999, p. 2). However, if the knowledge is new, there is no need to conduct a pre-test. The changed attitudes can be measured by a paper-and-pencil test. For the improved skills, a performance test can be used (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, pp. 50-51).  Level 3 – Behaviour: Evaluation at this level is concerned with the extent to which participants change their behaviour due to the training programme (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 52; Winfrey, 1999, p. 2). It goes beyond learning to the use of the participants for the learnt skills, knowledge, or attitudes in their work (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 61). Changes in the behaviour can be evaluated through a survey and/or 121 an interview for one or more of the following: the trainees, their students, or their supervisors (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, p. 55).  Level 4 – Results: Evaluation at this level is concerned with the benefits for the institution resulted from conducting the training programme in terms of productivity and efficiency of the institution (Winfrey, 1999, p. 3). In other words, at this level the evaluation is concerned with things like productivity increase, management improvement, sales increase, benefits receiving, etc. due to the training programme. In fact, evaluating the results is very difficult for trainers to conduct as they may not know how to measure the results and compare them with the cost of the training programme (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006, pp. 63-64). 2.5.8.5. Designing a training session plan Each session in a training programme should have a plan. According to EMT Group (2001), the plans of sessions are used to build the training design and to guide the implementation process and each session should have the following four components:  Time frame for the session: Time frame indicates the time required to cover all the materials and activities in the session. The trainer may also set time for each activity, step, or procedure in the session to keep it on schedule.  Session content or key points: Session content refers to the topics and materials that will be covered in the training session. These materials should be consistent with the learning objectives and the available time for the session. In other words, only those materials that meet the needs of the participants should be selected and with considering the time available for the session.  Training activities and techniques: Training activities and techniques refer to the types of activities that will be done by the participants during the session and the methods of instruction used in the session. 122  Training aids/equipment: Training aids and equipment refer to any training aids, such as Data Show Projector, computer, and computer laboratory required for implementing the session. In summary, training is a vital tool that can be used to improve the performance and to increase the productivity at work. In the field of education, training has proved to be an effective tool for improving and updating skills, competencies, and knowledge of teachers. It can take various forms. One of these forms is training programmes. Designing training programmes to meet the training needs of teachers is a systematic process which has to undergo some stages and take into account several factors and principles to ensure constructing successful training programmes. 123 CHAPTER III REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE CHAPTER III REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 3.1. Introduction This chapter deals with the previous studies which helped to develop a framework for the current study on its two main fields: teaching competencies and designing training programmes. These studies represent the conceptual background of the current study in their objectives, tools, procedures and results arrived at. Generally speaking, the researcher classified the previous studies into two groups: previous studies related to teaching competencies or skills and previous studies related to constructing and/or evaluating training programmes for developing teaching competencies or skills. In each group, studies are classified into Arabic studies (studies conducted in the Arab countries) and foreign studies (studies conducted abroad). These studies are presented according to their chronological order and alphabetically for those studies conducted in the same year. 3.2. Previous Studies Related to Teaching Competencies or Skills 3.2.1. Arabic studies 3.2.1.1. Al-Raway (1988): An analysis of the competencies needed by secondary school teachers of United Arab Emirates This study aimed at identifying and verifying the competencies needed for secondary school teachers in the United Arab Emirates. In order to collect data, the researcher used the Delphi technique. He developed a questionnaire and presented it to a sample of (10) college faculty members, (10) educational supervisors, and (30) secondary school teachers who were requested to provide their opinion on the items of the questionnaire which contained (45) items in its second round. 124 The study indicated that all the (45) competencies were important for the purpose of improving the competence of the secondary school teachers in the United Arab Emirates. It also identified the most five needed competencies as follows: ability to present lesson ideas clearly, maintaining good personal characteristics, ability to manage the classroom, establishing and encouraging students moral and religious education, and ability to design a lesson plan. 3.2.1.2. Afana (1997): The instructional competencies which the lecturers of the Islamic University in Gaza practice from the perspective of their students The purpose of this study was to determine the teaching competencies practiced by the faculty members of the Islamic University in Gaza from the perspective of their students. To achieve the objective of the study, the researcher used a questionnaire composed of (100) teaching competencies divided into nine domains: introducing the lecture, presenting the lecture, selecting and using teaching methods, using teaching aids, posing questions, learning stimulation, university teacher personality, controlling the lecture, assessing students‘ learning gain, and giving students assignments in scientific researches. The questionnaire was administered to a sample of (321) students (males and females) out of (3000) students who represented the study population. The study revealed that out of the total number of the instructional competencies – (100) competencies – the faculty members of the Islamic University in Gaza practiced (36) competencies: (12) competencies with male students, (14) competencies with female students, and (10) competencies with both male and female students. The study also revealed that there were statistically significant differences in the faculty members‘ degree of practice for some teaching competencies attributed to the variables of sex and type of college. 3.2.1.3. Al-Khuthaylah (2000): Ideal and actual teaching skills as perceived by female students at King Saud University This study aimed at identifying some actual teaching skills that the faculty members at King Saud University have and the ideal ones that they should possess from the students‘ perspective. 125 The study instrument included (60) items classified into six domains: teaching models, developing teaching skills, patterns of lecture, organizing and building lecture, level of performance and presentation, and evaluation. The researcher administered this instrument to a sample of (218) Saudi female students from different colleges of the King Saud University. The study revealed that the different lecture types – classical, varied, effective, and practical – did not reach the expected level of academic achievement. The study emphasized on the importance of organizing and constructing lectures according to the level of students, the academic course, the presentation, and the time available. The study also emphasized on the importance of giving feedback to students. 3.2.1.4. M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002): Constructing a tool for evaluating the teaching performance competence of the faculty members of Sana‟a University The main purpose of this study was to construct and develop a tool to evaluate the teaching competencies required for the faculty members of Sana‘a University. In order to achieve the main aim of the study, the researcher first identified the extent of compatibility among the views of the sample members regarding the importance of the basic teaching competencies required for a university faculty member according to the variables of specialization (educational or non-educational), source of the highest degree (from Arab country or non-Arab country), and academic rank (Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, or Professor). Then the researcher determined the basic teaching competencies required for the faculty members of Sana‘a University. The sample was confined to (71) faculty members and the students of level three and four of the academic year 2000-2001 of the College of Education - Sana‘a University. After making sure of the validity and reliability of the study tool, it included (64) competencies divided into seven dimensions: (9) items for relationship with students, (6) items for knowledge in the subject matter, (5) items for planning teaching, (8) items for organizing teaching, (19) items for implementing teaching, (10) items for evaluation, and (10) items for university teaching principles. 126 3.2.1.5. Al-Gifri (2002): The opinions of female postgraduate students about the teaching performance of the faculty members of Umm Al-Qura University This study aimed at identifying the opinions of female postgraduate students about the teaching performance of the faculty members of Umm Al-Qura University. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher constructed an instrument composed of (56) items divided into six domains: preparation and planning for teaching, tasks of the first day, dealing with course content, preparing examinations and scoring, interaction with students in the classroom, and dealing with students outside the classroom. After measuring the validity and reliability of the instrument, the researcher administered it to a sample of (298) female postgraduate students from the different colleges of Umm Al-Qura University. The results of the study revealed that the teaching performance of the faculty members in all the colleges of the university was not at the required level from the perspective of female postgraduate students, which urged that necessary procedures should be done in order to improve the teaching performance of the faculty members. 3.2.1.6. Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002): The teaching skills of the faculty members of the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University and their needs to be trained in these skills from the perspective of postgraduate students This study aimed at identifying the faculty members‘ practice for the teaching skills and their needs to improve their performance as perceived by postgraduate students. Making use of Teachers Performance Assessment Instruments which were developed by Georgia University in 1989, the researchers constructed a questionnaire composed of (38) items divided into five domains: planning, presentation, organization of time and place, communication with learners, and assessment. They administered this questionnaire to a sample of (130) postgraduate students from the Faculty of Education at Sultan Qaboos University. The study revealed that the level of practicing the teaching skills by the faculty members of the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University was low from the perspective of students, especially in the assessment domain. It also revealed that 127 there were no statistically significant differences attributed to the students‘ specialization at MA and Diploma levels. 3.2.1.7. Al-Ser (2004): Evaluating the quality of university teaching skills of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza This research aimed at evaluating the quality of teaching skills as viewed by lecturers of Al-AQSA University in Gaza. To achieve this purpose, the researcher prepared a questionnaire for the quality standards of university teaching skills and administered it to a sample of (92) lecturers. The questionnaire consisted of (72) items divided into four domains: planning teaching, implementation of teaching, assessment and giving feedback, and communication with students. The study revealed that the averages of the evaluative estimations for the total teaching skills, the skill of planning teaching, and the skills of communicating with students reached the level of quality. However, the averages of the evaluative estimations for the domains of implementing teaching and assessment did not reach the level of quality. The study also revealed that, according to the lecturer‘s estimations for the quality of teaching skills, there was a statistically significant effect for the academic qualification variable with respect to the skills of planning teaching and communication with students and the total teaching skills, whereas there was no statistically significant effect for the variables of experience and college. 3.2.1.8. Ghazala (2004): Teaching competencies of English language teachers This study aimed at identifying the most important teaching competencies for English teachers in the second part of the basic education and finding out the differences in teaching competencies according to the variables of sex, experience, and qualification. The study was limited to all English language teachers of the second part of the basic education in Al-Zawiya Governorate during the academic year 2003 - 2004. The most important results that this study came up with were determining the most important teaching competencies and arranging them in a descending order 128 according to their importance for English language teachers in each of the five sections of the instrument: planning the lesson, implementing the lesson, controlling the classroom, using teaching aids, and assessment. 3.2.1.9. Al-Ghazyuwat (2005): Evaluating the teaching competencies of the faculty members of the College of Educational Sciences at Mutah University from the perspective of social studies students This study attempted to identify some of the teaching competencies of the faculty members of the College of Educational Sciences at Mutah University who teach the students of social studies from the perspective of the students themselves. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher used the descriptive method, constructing a questionnaire consisted of (28) teaching competencies divided into three sections: teaching competencies, assessment competencies, and human competencies of the faculty members. The questionnaire was administered to a sample of (216) students – (81) male students and (135) female students. The study revealed that the students of social studies were not satisfied with the use of the faculty members for the traditional methods of teaching and assessment, the inhumane treatment, and the faculty members‘ intolerance to their opinions. Based on these results, the researcher recommended using modern methods of teaching and assessment that are appropriate for the level and attitudes of students and developing interpersonal relations with students and dealing with them in a human way. 3.2.1.10. Al-Musawi (2007): Constructing an instrument to measure effective university teaching This study aimed at developing an instrument to measure the effectiveness of university teaching. To achieve this purpose, the researcher used the descriptive method, preparing a list of salient teaching competencies consisted, in its final form, of (24) items measuring four aspects of effective university teaching: planning and implementing teaching, human relations, classroom assessment, and managing the learning environment. This list was administered to a sample of (208) faculty members and (216) students from the University of Bahrain. 129 Making sure of the reliability and validity of the instrument, the researcher recommended using the tool to evaluate the performance of university teachers and making use of the evaluation results in improving the performance of university teachers. 3.2.1.11. Al-Hakami (2009): Professional competencies required for a university teacher from the perspective of his students and the relationship of these competencies with some variables This study aimed at preparing a standard for the professional competencies required for university teachers and at identifying the most preferable professional competencies from the point of view of students of Umm Al-Qura University. It also aimed at finding out the variables that might affect the judgment of students on the professional competencies required for their teachers. The researcher prepared a list of professional competencies which consisted of (6) main competencies and (75) subsidiary competencies. He administered this tool to a sample of (210) students from the first and last levels of the College of Education and Sciences, University of Umm Al-Qura, Al-Taif Branch. The study revealed the following results: - From the students‘ perspective, the professional competencies required for university teachers are centred on six core competencies: personality, preparation for lecture and implementing it, human relations, activities and assessment, scientific capacity and professional growth, and methods of stimulation and reinforcement. - There are differences in the students‘ degree of preference for the professional competencies required for university teachers, and all of them insisted that university teachers should possess the professional competencies mentioned in the list. - There are differences between the students of theoretical and practical colleges in the mean scores of their preference for the professional competencies regarding preparation for and implementation of lectures and methods of stimulation and reinforcement in favour of the practical colleges. 131 - There are no differences between the views of students of the first and the last levels in the degree of their preference for the professional competencies required for university teachers. 3.2.1.12. Al-Subaiei (2010): The reality of teaching skills of female faculty members of the College of Applied Sciences in the light of the total quality standards from the perspective of female students of Umm Al-Qura University This study aimed at identifying the reality of practicing the teaching skills of sciences by female faculty members of the College of Applied Sciences, Umm Al- Qura University in the light of the total quality standards from the perspective of female students. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher prepared a questionnaire composed of (73) items and administered it to a sample of (189) students. The questionnaire dealt with the quality standards of sciences teaching. It was divided into four domains: teaching methods and strategies, instruction aids and techniques, interaction and communication, and assessment. The results of the study revealed that the practice of female faculty members of sciences departments for the teaching skills of sciences was weak, in the light of the total quality standards, from the perspective of female students of the College of Applied Sciences. It also revealed that there was a difference in the degree of practicing the teaching skills of sciences by the faculty members, and all was in favour of the faculty members of the Biology Department. Based on the results of the study, the researcher recommended conducting training courses and workshops for the female faculty members to develop their teaching competencies. 3.2.2.13. Elsaid (2010): The reality of the teaching skills of faculty members, Department of Exercises and Gymnastics and Motor Expression according to national standards for academic university practice This research aimed at identifying the reality of the faculty members‘ teaching skills of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression according to the national standards for academic university practice in terms of scientific content of specialization; planning for learning process; different teaching 131 methods; different teaching skills; educational situation management skills; evaluation process skills; planning, managing, and developing educational programmes; and academic guidance skills. To achieve the aim of the research, the researcher used the descriptive survey method. The tools of the research included the document of national standards for academic university practice and a questionnaire for the reality of teaching skills of faculty members. The sample consisted of the faculty members and female students of level four of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression, Faculty of Physical Education, Zagazig University. The results of the study revealed that the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression mastered the content of specialization. They also put short-term plans for the activities of teaching and learning and long-term plans for different teaching and learning process, use various teaching methods and educational technology in teaching whenever possible, create learning environment with equal opportunities for the female students, use many tools and methods of evaluation, apply different procedures and methods for evaluating educational programmes. Besides, they have the ability to manage lectures and the academic skills to guide students. 3.2.1.14. Jan (2010): Teaching competencies of female faculty staff members in educational departments of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah from the viewpoint of postgraduate female students This study aimed at identifying the teaching competencies of female faculty members in the educational departments of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah from the perspective of postgraduate female students in the College of Education. The researcher used the descriptive method in her study. She prepared a questionnaire composed of (28) items covering three areas: teaching skills, assessment skills, and humane behaviour skills. She administered the questionnaire to a sample of (128) MA and Ph. D. students: (105) MA students and (23) Ph. D. students. 132 The study revealed that female postgraduate students were not satisfied with the use of female faculty members for traditional methods of teaching and evaluation and inhumane treatment as well. 3.2.1.15. Al-Kubaisi (2011): The reality of university teaching quality and ways of improving it This study aimed at investigating the reality of university teaching quality from the point of view of the faculty members of Al-Anbar University and providing suggestions for improving the quality of teaching at the university. The researcher of this study used the descriptive method, preparing a questionnaire composed of (72) items divided into four domains: skills of planning for teaching the course, skills of implementing teaching, skills of assessing students learning and giving them feedback, and skills of contacting and communicating with students. The researcher administered the questionnaire to a sample of (61) faculty members of Al-Anbar University. The study revealed that there was a decline in the quality level of university teaching which might be attributed to the fact that some of the faculty members of scientific divisions did not receive enough educational preparation. The researcher recommended conducting training courses and workshops with a view to developing the teaching performance of the faculty members in the various majors. He also recommended linking the advancement of the faculty members with attending training courses in teaching skills. 3.2.2. Foreign studies 3.2.2.1. Hirst and Bailey (1983): A study to identify effective classroom teaching competencies for community college faculty This study aimed at determining the perceptions of community college teachers in Kansas of the competencies required for effective teaching. To achieve this aim, the researchers administered the study questionnaire to a sample of (225) full-time instructors who were asked about the importance of (70) teaching competencies and the extent to which they employed these competencies in 133 the classroom. The competencies were organized into four categories: course content, instructional method, instructor behaviour, and student behaviour. The study revealed that (16) competencies were rated as highly important, including (7) related to instructor, (6) to course content, and (3) to student behaviour. It also revealed that discrepancies were found in the instructor‘s ratings of the importance of (32) items in contrast to their use of the items in question. 3.2.2.2. Martin and Sajilan (1989): Teaching competencies needed by extension workers in transferring agricultural technologies to Malaysian farmers This study aimed at identifying the teaching competencies needed by Malaysian Extension professionals to teach adult farmers and identifying when teaching competencies should be learnt by Malaysian Extension personnel. The instrument of the study took the form of a mailed questionnaire consisted of (53) teaching competency statements divided into five categories: conducting programme and process of evaluation, understanding human behaviour, long range programme plans, planning and conducting the teaching-learning process, and using teaching strategies and tools/aids. The researchers administered the questionnaire to a sample of (106) Malaysian agricultural extension professionals. The study revealed that all the (53) teaching competencies were considered as being as moderately important to the respondents to transfer new agricultural technologies to adult farmers. Out of these competencies, (16) were considered to be highly important. 3.2.2.3. Simpson and Smith (1993): Validating teaching competencies for graduate teaching assistants: A national study using the Delphi method The purpose of this study was to validate teaching competencies for graduate teaching assistants. The researchers used the Delphi method to do that. The (20) experts, the panel of the study, validated (26) teaching competencies as important for preparing the teaching assistants. They also suggested that some of these teaching competencies depend on the specific responsibilities assigned to the teaching assistants. 134 3.2.2.4. Smith and Simpson (1995): Validating teaching competencies for faculty members in higher education: A national study using the Delphi method In this study, the Delphi method was used to validate teaching competencies required for the faculty members in higher education. The sample of the study consisted of (31) experts in higher education. These experts confirmed that (27) competencies were considered as important or very important for faculty members. They also suggested that the importance of some competencies may depend on specific variables found within a given context. 3.2.2.5. Wardlow and Johnson (1999): Level of teaching skills and interest in teaching improvement as perceived by faculty in a Land-Grant College of Agriculture This study aimed at determining the faculty members‘ perceptions of their skills in selecting teaching activities and using educational technologies and identifying their interest in learning more about selecting teaching activities and the use of educational technologies. To collect data, the researchers used a survey instrument based, in part, on an instrument by Baker, Hoover, and Rudd (1996). The instrument, which was administered to a sample of (138) faculty members, required the faculty members to rate both their current level of skill and their level of interest in learning more about teaching activities (20 items) and educational technologies (12 items). The instrument also included (5) questions about the respondents‘ teaching appointments and experience. The results revealed that the faculty members rated their level of skill as generally good to excellent for the more traditional teaching activities and lower on the less traditional teaching activities. They surprisingly rated their interest in learning more about these activities as relatively high. However, they rated their level of skill on educational technologies much lower than that of teaching activities, expressing their interest in learning more about all the technologies in question. 135 3.2.2.6. Kilber (2002): Educational competences among history teachers in Nevada public school This study aimed at constructing a list of instructional competencies required for teachers of History in Nevada public schools. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher administered a questionnaire to a sample of (116) faculty members at Nevada University. The researcher was able to set (186) competencies divided into six domains and arranged according to their priority as follows: human competencies, assessment competencies, planning competencies, teaching competencies, instructional experiences competencies, and classroom management competencies. The researcher suggested utilizing the list of competencies in the programmes of preparing teachers of history in Nevada State. 3.2.2.7. Nergency (2003): Teacher competences in this time and place This study aimed at identifying the teaching competencies that the student teachers at the University of Alabama need at the present time. To achieve the aim of the study, the researcher constructed a questionnaire and administered it to a sample of (260) student teachers, males and females. The study revealed that the student teachers need (163) teaching competencies divided into four domains: planning teaching, implementing teaching, assessment, and classroom management. The researcher suggested training student teachers in these competencies before allowing them to teach at schools. 3.2.2.8. Tigelaar et al. (2004): The development and validation of a framework for teaching competencies in higher education This study aimed at developing and validating a framework for teaching competencies in higher education. Based on several ready-made frameworks of teaching competencies, the researchers developed a framework of teaching competencies. This framework was validated using a Delphi method. The panel of experts consisted of (63) in round one 136 and (62) in round two. They were asked ―How important are the following teaching competencies in each domain for an experienced teacher in higher education?‖ The study resulted in validating a framework for teaching competencies that could be used for evaluating teachers in higher education. The framework consisted in its final form (61) items divided among the five domains of the framework:  The first domain, which is called the person as teacher, focuses on personal characteristics that make a good teacher.  The second domain, which is called the teacher as expert on content knowledge, focuses on how a teacher uses his or her content-knowledge to stimulate student learning and takes the students‘ perspective into account.  The third domain, which is called the teacher as facilitator of learning processes, consists of three subcategories: o The teacher as designer: This sub-domain focuses on designing educational materials that activate and stimulate students to gradually learn independently. o The teacher as counsellor: This sub-domain incorporates items that focus on providing students with advice, feedback, etc. o The teacher as evaluator of education: This sub-domain includes not only items that focus on student evaluation, but also items that focus on peer-evaluation of the teacher.  The fourth domain, which is called the teacher as organizer, includes items that focus on how a teacher collaborates with colleagues and organizes the work.  The fifth domain, which is called the teacher as scholar/lifelong learner, comprises items that focus on a teacher‘s professional development and scientific skills. 3.2.2.9. Na (2006): A Delphi study to identify teaching competencies of teacher education faculty in 2015 The purpose of this study was to reach consensus on future course delivery modes and to recommend teaching competencies that would be required for teacher education faculty of traditional colleges and universities in future course delivery environments. 137 As a result of consensus reached by a panel of (17) educational experts, the researcher determined some course delivery modes and (77) general teaching competencies needed by higher education faculty. These competencies were grouped into five categories: planning and designing learning environment, teaching and learning, technology, assessment and evaluation, and cultural and ethical issues. It also revealed that teacher education faculty of traditional colleges and universities in 2015 would integrate more online technologies into their face-to-face classroom- based teaching environment. 3.2.2.10. Padmadewi (2008): Pedagogic competencies of English teachers in Singaraja The purpose of this study was to investigate the pedagogic competencies of English teachers of Junior High Schools in Singaraja Bali. The researcher used questionnaires to collect data from a sample of (20) teachers of Junior High Schools in Singaraja who taught in grade seven, eight, and nine. The competencies included competencies of planning the teaching and learning process, implementing the teaching and learning process, and assessing the teaching learning process in the classroom. This was followed by focused group discussions. He also conducted observations in order to see the conduction of the competencies in the teaching learning process in the classroom. Moreover, he used the descriptive qualitative method to analyse the data. The findings of the study revealed that the pedagogic competencies of English teachers in Singaraja were not adequately performed. Therefore, the researcher suggested that teachers should be trained continuously to improve their competencies not only through theoretical training, but also through concrete models and workshops. 3.2.2.11. Bhargava and Pathy (2011): Perception of student teachers about teaching competencies The objectives of this study were to find out the perception of student teachers of the essential competencies in teaching, to identify the competencies ranked high by student teachers, to find out the least preferred competencies perceived by student 138 teachers, and to highlight some significant competencies ranked low by student teachers. The sample of the study consisted of (98) student teachers – (73) females and (25) males. These student teachers were asked to write down the competencies which they consider essential for them as teachers. At the end of the programme, the competencies were categorized into personal and professional competencies: (22) items were classified as personal competencies and (23) items as professional competencies. The competencies were also ranked according to the preferences of the student teachers. 3.3. Previous Studies Related to Designing or Evaluating Teacher Training Programmes 3.3.1. Arabic studies 3.3.1.1. Suleiman (1996): A proposed programme for developing the teaching competencies of teachers of industrial education in the light of professional requirements This research aimed at determining the teaching competencies which student teachers and in-service teachers of industrial education need to be trained in, identifying the importance of these teaching competencies for the teachers of industrial education, and constructing a programme for developing the determined teaching competencies. To achieve the objectives of the research, the researcher followed these procedures: - Translating Georgia University card of vocational education teacher competencies, which consists of (100) competencies classified into ten categories: programme planning, development, and evaluation; planning instruction; implementing instruction; evaluating instruction; management; guidance; school community relations; student vocational organization; professional role and development; and coordination. - Giving the study instrument to referees to validate it. 139 - Administering the study instrument to a sample of (20) industrial education teachers and (56) industrial education students from the College of Education, Halwan University, to know their opinions about the importance of the competencies and their desire to be trained in them. - Constructing a programme in the light of profession requirements. The researcher recommended training the student teachers and in-service teachers in the teaching competencies in the light of their profession requirements. He also recommended experimenting with the programme and measuring its effectiveness. 3.3.1.2. Ali and Al-Ghanam (1998): The Effectiveness of a proposed programme in gaining student teachers for innovative teaching skill of sciences and developing their attitudes towards itin the field of sciences and the impact of that on developing the innovative thinking of their students This study aimed at identifying the most important creative teaching skills required for student teachers of sciences, setting an instructional programme to provide them with creative teaching skills of sciences, identifying the effectiveness of the proposed programme in providing the student teachers with creative teaching skills of sciences, and developing their attitudes towards it and the creative thinking of their students. To achieve these objectives, the researchers used the experimental method in their study. They also used the Creative Teaching Skills Scale, the Attitude Scale of Creative Teaching, and a test of creative thinking in sciences (prepared by the researchers) to collect data. The sample of the study consisted of an experimental group of (45) student teachers of sciences. They were trained by using the proposed programme in creative teaching skills and the two scales (the Scale of Creative Teaching Skills and the Attitude Scale of Creative Teaching) were applied to them. The sample also consisted of a control group of (121) students of grade four who were tested by the creative thinking test of sciences. The results of the study revealed that the proposed programme was effective in providing the student teachers with the creative teaching skills of sciences and in developing their attitudes towards creative teaching. It also revealed that there were 141 statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the control group and the experimental group on the post-test of creative thinking of sciences in favour of the experimental group. 3.3.1.3. Elyas (2001): Effectiveness of a suggested programme in helping female student teachers in the College of Education of King Faisal University to develop some teaching competencies This study aimed at proposing a training programme for helping female student teachers in the College of Education of King Faisal University to develop their teaching competencies in relation to developing instructional objectives, preparing the setting to start the lesson, wording and addressing oral questions and dealing with students‘ answers, and concluding the lesson. It also aimed at measuring the impact of the proposed programme on developing the student teachers‘ teaching skills under investigation. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher constructed a training programme and applied it to the experimental group through two stages. In the first stage, which continued for (13) weeks, the students were provided with the theoretical information of every competence and trained in it practically. In the second stage, which continued for (5) weeks, the training in teaching competencies was at schools. The researcher also constructed an observation card to measure the performance of the student teachers on the teaching skills under investigation. The sample of the study consisted of (20) student teachers from level four of the Social Science Department, College of Education. The sample was divided into two identical groups: one experimental and the other control. The results of administering the training programme indicated that the programme was effective in helping the student teachers to develop their teaching skills. Therefore, the researcher recommended using the training programme on a wider scale and utilizing microteaching as a training style in practical training. 141 3.3.1.4. Abozaid and Mohammed (2003): A suggested training programme for developing evaluation competencies for commercial education teachers This study aimed at identifying the evaluation competencies of commercial secondary school teachers and preparing a proposed training programme to develop these competencies. To achieve these objectives, the researchers prepared the following: - A list of the evaluation competencies that the commercial sciences teachers should possess. The list included three main competencies: the competency of planning for evaluation; the competency of preparing evaluation instruments and evaluating them; and the competency of analyzing, interpreting and exploiting the evaluation results. Each main competency had sub-competencies. - An achievement test composed of (79) multiple-choice questions to assess the three main competencies and their sub-competencies. The test was administered to a sample of (25) commercial subject matter teachers. - A training programme composed of the main competencies and sub- competencies, objectives, content, training methods, training tools, activities, and the programme time plan. The researchers suggested (67) hours as an estimated time for carrying out the training programme. They also recommended administering it to the commercial sciences teachers of secondary schools in cooperation with the authorized directorates in the Ministry of Education. 3.3.1.5. Othman et al. (2004): The effectiveness of a proposed educational programme in training teaching assistants and demonstrators in the colleges of Al-Azhar University and its impact on developing some of their teaching skills and attitudes towards teaching profession This study aimed at identifying the training needs of female assistant teachers and demonstrators in the colleges of Al-Azhar University for some teaching skills, constructing a training programme to develop the selected teaching skills, and identifying its effectiveness in developing the teaching skills for the sample members. 142 To achieve the objectives of the study, the researchers - identified the training needs of the target sample for some teaching skills, - constructed a training programme based on modules, and - used the proposed training programme to train a sample of (40) female assistant teachers and demonstrators from the colleges of Al-Azhar University except Education Department in the selected teaching skills. The study revealed that the proposed programme had an impact on developing all the aspects of teaching skills for the sample members. 3.3.1.6. Ata‟a Allah (2006): The effectiveness of a training programme for developing teaching competences and achieving quality requirements for teachers of Arabic at the preparatory stage This research aimed at developing the teaching competences for teachers of Arabic language at the preparatory stage of education and achieving quality requirements for teachers of Arabic language at the preparatory stage of education. To achieve the objective of the study, the researcher prepared the following: - A list of teaching competences for teachers of Arabic language at the preparatory stage of education. - An observation card to measure the performance of the teachers of Arabic language at the preparatory stage of education for teaching competences. - A quality requirements scale for teachers of Arabic language at the preparatory stage of education. - A proposed training programme for developing the teaching competences and achieving the quality requirements. - A test for the cognitive aspects of the teaching competences. The researcher administered the proposed training programme to some of the teachers of Arabic language at the preparatory stage of education that had an experience of less than five years in teaching. The results of the study revealed that the training programme was very effective in developing teaching competences and in achieving quality requirements for teachers of Arabic at the preparatory stage of education. In the light of this, the researcher recommended conducting in-service 143 training programme for teachers of Arabic focusing on teaching competences that they need. 3.3.1.7. Murad (2006): A proposal programme for in-service self-training and its effect on developing some creative teaching skills for mathematics teachers at the preparatory stage and their attitudes towards creative teaching This research aimed at determining the creative teaching skills needed in the classroom by mathematics teachers at the preparatory stage of education, constructing a proposed programme based on in-service self-training to develop the creative teaching skills for mathematics teachers at the preparatory stage of education, examining the impact of the proposed programme on developing the creative teaching skills of mathematics teachers at the preparatory stage of education, and investigating the impact of the performance of these teachers on developing the skills of creativity for their students. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher followed these procedures: - Identifying the creative teaching skills needed by mathematics teachers at the preparatory stage of education. - Preparing an observation card to measure the performance of teachers for the skills of creative teaching, an attitude scale for creative teaching, and a test of mathematical creativity skills. - Constructing a proposed programme organized into modules, containing objectives, content, tools and appropriate activities, steps of implementation, and evaluation. - Administering the proposed programme to the target sample to find out its impact on developing the creative teaching skills of mathematics teachers and their attitude towards creative teaching. The sample of the study consisted of (12) teachers divided equally into experimental and control groups. It also consisted of (420) students who were also divided equally into experimental and control groups. Each group was divided into six sub-groups, and each was taught by one of the teachers. 144 The results of the research revealed that there were statistically significant differences between the average scores of the pre-application and the post-application of the measurement in favour of the post-application. This means that the in-service training using the proposed programme could improve the performance level of mathematics teachers in terms of creative teaching skills. 3.3.1.8. Z. M. Shahata (2006): The effectiveness of a proposed training programme in developing some teaching skills for the Holy Qur‟an teachers This study aimed at determining the professional needs of the Holy Qur‘an teachers, constructing a proposed training programme to train these teachers in some teaching skills that they need in their teaching, and measuring the impact of the proposed training programme on the cognitive achievement and the practice of the teaching skills. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher used the descriptive method in determining the training needs of the Holy Qur‘an teachers. He also used the experimental method to identify the impact of the proposed training on developing some teaching skills for the Holy Qur‘an teachers. Moreover, he followed these procedures: - Determining the professional needs of the Holy Qur‘an teachers through visiting them in their classes and analyzing the reports of their educational supervisors to know any professional weaknesses in the performance of these teachers. - Constructing a training programme which included objectives, content, activities, methods, and exercises. - Giving the proposed programme to a group of referees to validate it and judge the possibility of applying it. - Constructing an observation card and an achievement test. After administering the training programme to the study sample – (30) teachers of the Holy Qur‘an who had poor teaching skills according to the reports of the educational supervisors in Al-Minya city in 2005 – to develop their teaching skills, the researcher used the study instrument to measure its effectiveness. The results revealed that there was improvement in the performance of the sample. This means that the 145 proposed training programme was effective in developing some teaching skills for the Holy Qur‘an teachers. 3.3.1.9. Al-Zoubi (2007): The effects of a training programme in improving instructional competencies for recourse room teachers in Jordon This study aimed at constructing a training programme to develop the instructional competencies of resource room teachers in Jordan and measuring its effectiveness in doing so. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher constructed a training programme consisted of eleven units covering four domains: planning, instruction and classroom management, evaluation, and personal and professional competencies. He also developed three instruments to measure the instructional competencies: an achievement test, a classroom observation scale, and an interviews protocol. These instruments were administered to the sample of the study which consisted of (50) male and female teachers chosen randomly from a population of (87) and divided equally into an experimental group and a control group. The results of the study showed significantly better improvement in the performance of the experimental group teachers for the instructional competencies under investigation. 3.3.1.10. Al-Sayed (2009): A proposed programme for developing some teaching competencies of scouting activities required for physical education teachers at the preparatory stage This study aimed at constructing a proposed programme for developing the teaching competencies of scouting activities required for physical education teachers at the preparatory stage of education according to their needs. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher used the descriptive and experimental methods and followed some procedures: - Preparing a list of the teaching competencies of scouting activities required for physical education teachers. 146 - Preparing an observation card to measure the performance of teachers for the teaching competencies. - Constructing a proposed training programme organised into modules, including significance, objectives, content, educational activities, teaching aids and tools, references, and evaluation. - Administering the proposed training programme to a sample of (30) teachers. The results of the study revealed that there were statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the study sample calculated before and after administering the proposed programme in favour of those calculated after administering it on all the teaching competencies under investigation: planning for scouting activities and implementing scouting activities. This means that the proposed programme was effective in developing the performance of the study sample for the teaching competencies under investigation. 3.3.1.11. Al-Muafa (2009): A proposed training programme for developing the teaching skills of social studies teachers at the preparatory stage This study aimed at identifying the performance level of social studies teachers at the preparatory stage of education for teaching skills, preparing a proposed training programme to train these teachers in teaching skills, and measuring the impact of the proposed training programme on developing the teaching skills of social studies teachers at the preparatory stage of education. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher - prepared the study instrument (an observation card) containing six main teaching skills (each has a group of sub-skills): planning the lesson, introducing the lesson topic, presenting the lesson, using teaching aids, managing and controlling the classroom, and assessment; - constructed the proposed training programme; and - administered the proposed training programme to a sample of (21) social studies teachers selected randomly from the preparatory stage of education. 147 The results of the study indicated that the proposed training programme was effective in developing the performance of the sample members in relation to the teaching skills under investigation. 3.3.2.12. Ismail, et al. (2009): Competency based teacher education (CBTE): A training module for improving knowledge competencies for resource room teachers in Jordan This study aimed at measuring the effect of a training module in improving knowledge competencies for resource room teachers in Jordan. To achieve the objectives of the study, the researchers used the non-equivalent (pretest and posttest) control-group design, following these procedures: - Developing a training module to develop the instructional competencies of resource room teachers in the field of planning, instruction and classroom management, and evaluation. - Constructing an achievement test to measure the level of knowledge competencies of resource room teachers. The number of the achievement test questions, in its final form, consisted of (50) multiple-choice questions divided into three domains: planning, instruction and classroom management, and evaluation competencies. - Using the training module to train the experimental group (25 teachers) for five weeks, whereas the teachers in the control group (25 teachers) were exposed for the same period to the conventional training adopted by the Ministry of Education in Jordan. The results showed that there were statistically significant differences between the mean scores of the control and the experimental groups at the level of knowledge of the instructional competencies on the post-achievement test. These differences were in favour of the teachers in the experimental group, which indicated the effectiveness of the training module in developing the instructional competencies of resource room teachers. 148 3.3.2.13. Weshah and Tomok (2011): The impact of a training programme based on pedagogical knowledge on improving the speaking and writing skills teaching practices of female English language teachers This study aimed at investigating the impact of a pedagogical knowledge based training programme on improving the speaking and writing skills teaching practices of female English language teachers. To answer the study questions, the researchers followed the following procedures: - Developing the pedagogical knowledge based training programme to improve the speaking and writing skills teaching practices of female English language teachers. - Developing a classroom observation sheet to measure the impact of the training programme and applying it in the classes of the experimental group (10 teachers) and in the classes of the control group (20 teachers). The observation sheet covered these dimensions: teacher‘s planning, implementation, and evaluation of the lesson. - Conducting the training programme. The results revealed that the training programme had a positive impact on improving the practices of English language teachers in speaking and writing skills. In the light of the study results, the researcher suggested a number of recommendations to improve the practice of English language female teachers in teaching speaking and writing skills at schools. 3.3.2. Foreign studies 3.3.2.1. Otto and Schuck (1983): The effect of a teacher questioning strategy training programme on teaching behaviour, student achievement, and retention This study aimed at investigating the effect of a questioning strategy training programme on the teaching behaviour of teachers and the effect of that on students learning. 149 To achieve the aim of the study, the researchers randomly assigned a sample of (6) biology teachers and (90) students to experimental and control groups. The experimental group of teachers was trained in the use of a specific questioning technique by using the training programme. After conducting the training programme, the teachers‘ questioning technique behaviour was observed while teaching. Post tests were also given to the groups of students to measure the relationship between implementing teachers for certain types of questions and the achievement and retention of the students. The results revealed that the achievement scores and the retention scores of the experimental group of students were higher than those of the control group of students. This indicated the effectiveness of the training programme. 3.3.2.2. Murthy (1985): A Blueprint for multi-pronged training programmes for teachers of English at the pre-university stage in Karnataka This study aimed at analysing the pedagogical training needs of English teachers at the pre-university stage in Karnataka and suggesting a blueprint for multi- pronged training programmes. In order to achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher - collected data through field work using classroom observation and a questionnaire survey, - analysed the aims and objectives of teaching English at the pre-university stage, - prepared an inventory of teachers‘ needs in term of skills, abilities, and knowledge which an English teacher needs in order to achieve these aims, and - analysed the classroom activities in the perspective of the inventory through using a classroom observation card. The results of the first part of the study indicated that English teachers at the pre-university stage were in need for professional training. Therefore, the second part of the study presented a blueprint for multi-pronged training programmes. The researcher suggested both pre-service and in-service training programmes. For the 151 pre-service training, the researcher suggested a diploma in higher education, MPhil, and a three-paper optional teaching of English course as part of the MA programmes in English. For the in-service training, the researcher suggested regular three/four month in-service programmes as well as a correspondence course. 3.3.2.3. Frattarelli and Kasuya (2003): Implementation and evaluation of a training programme to improve resident teaching skills This study aimed at developing, implementing, and evaluating a training programme designed to improve residents‘ teaching skills. To achieve these objectives, the researcher - developed a questionnaire which focused on the residents‘ ability to create a positive learning environment, stimulate students‘ thinking about a subject, teach clinical skills, incorporate the principles of problem-based learning centred, and provide regular and effective feedback; and - developed a training programme and administered it to a sample of (17) residents – (5) residents at the end of the first year, (6) at the end of the second year, and (6) at the end of the third year – to improve the teaching skills of obstetrics and gynaecology residents. To evaluate the effectiveness of the programme, the residents self-evaluated their teaching skills and confidence in teaching in the clinical setting. They also completed a confidential self-evaluation questionnaire before conducting the programme and again three months after completing the training programme. The study revealed that the training programme improved the teaching skills of residents although this was not reflected in students‘ ratings of the residents‘ teaching skills. 3.3.2.4. Newland, Newland, Steele, Lough, and Mccurdy (2003): Experience with a programme of faculty development In this paper, the authors described the faculty development programme at the University of Nebraska Medical Centre, presenting the results of implementing it. The programme reported in this paper was constructed based on survey results and personal interviews which identified training needs in terms of determining 151 instructional objectives, managing teaching in small groups, lecturing skills, assessing students and giving them feedback, principles of writing tests, and computer-based instruction. Out of (749) faculty members, (59%) of them attended at least one faculty development programme in the past five years. The results of conducting the training programme indicated improvements in the teaching skills as reported by participants in terms of performance of teachers in the areas of problem-based learning, large- and small-group teaching, the use of technology in teaching, and writing examination questions. 3.3.2.5. Bahar-Ozvaris, Aslan, Sahin-Hodoglugil, and Sayek (2004): A faculty development programme evaluation: From needs assessment to long-term effects, of the teaching skills improvement programme This study aimed at evaluating whether a teaching skills improvement programme met the needs of medical educators of Faculty of Medicine at Hacettepe University, Turkey. To achieve the aim of the study, the researchers, first, conducted needs assessment survey which indicated that about (86%) of the (187) respondents would like to participate in a training programme based on the content indicated in the survey. However, only (83) faculty members participated in the training programme. The study revealed that most of the participants got high scores on a test based on the content of the training programme. They also performed well in a microteaching session. Moreover, after six months, a large number of the participants reported on using many of the teaching techniques that they had learnt in the training programme in their teaching. 3.3.2.6. Sarikaya et al. (2010): The impact of a faculty development programme: Evaluation based on the self-assessment of medical educators from preclinical and clinical disciplines This study aimed at assessing the impact of a training programme on developing the teaching performance of the faculty members of Marmara University in relation to their medical disciplines and academic positions. The training 152 programme consisted of training skills and student assessment instruments courses to improve the faculty members‘ skills in teaching and assessment methods. To measure the impact of this programme on the development of the faculty members, the researchers developed self-assessment tools in a form of a questionnaire and sent them to the participants. The training programme was evaluated one to two years after conducting it through self-reporting by the participants (a total of 225 reports). The results of the study indicated that the training programme had long term impact on the participants; the participants modified their teaching activities according to the demands of their clinical practice. The results also indicated that there were statistically significant correlations between the benefits of the training programme and the behavioural changes of the faculty members. 3.3.2.7. Ghori et al. (2011): Impact of faculty development programme launched by higher education commission (Pakistan) for university teachers This study aimed at identifying the academic achievements of the teachers trained by Higher Education Commission (Pakistan) through Faculty Development Programme. To achieve the aim of the study, the researchers developed three questionnaires to collect the study data from a sample of (84) teachers, (81) heads of the institutions of the trained teachers, and (405) students of the trained teachers who were selected randomly. The study results indicated the following: - The majority of the trained teachers agreed that the training programme had developed their teaching experience and helped them to deliver their subjects and implement the learning theories more effectively. - The heads of the trained teachers agreed that the training programme had improved the teaching learning experience of the trained teachers. They stated that after attending the training programme, teachers started to use a 153 variety of tools to evaluate their students and could develop research proposals on their own. - The students of the trained teachers agreed that their teachers help and support them in learning, communicate with them effectively, and provide them with updated knowledge of the subject matter. 3.3.2.8. Wati (2011): The effectiveness of Indonesian English teachers training programmes in improving confidence and motivation This study aimed at identifying the effectiveness of the training programme of elementary schools English teachers in Riau province, Indonesia. It also aimed at identifying any further needs of these teachers to attend further training programmes. The researcher used a questionnaire consisted of five sections to collect data: demographic questionnaire, the overall effectiveness of the training programme, the effectiveness of the training programme in building teachers‘ confidence, the effectiveness of the training programme in building teachers‘ motivation, and future needs of the English teachers. The questionnaire was administered to a sample of (55) English teachers who attended a short term training that aimed at preparing them to teach English through giving them basic knowledge about English curriculum and English teaching methodology. The researcher also used a semi-structured interview with some prearranged questions. The findings of the study revealed that the training programme was highly effective in improving English teachers‘ confidence and motivation which was the main purpose of the training programme. They also revealed the need of the English teachers, the sample of the study, to attend another training programme to improve the basic English knowledge. 3.4. Previous Studies Discussion In this part, the researcher discusses the previous studies reported in this study in terms of their objectives, sample, tools used to collect data, and results with a view to highlighting the differences and similarities between these studies and the current study and the benefits that the researcher derived from reviewing the previous studies. 154 3.4.1. Objectives The previous studies concerning teaching competencies or skills varied to some extent in their objectives. Some of them aimed at identifying the teaching competencies or skills that teachers have or practice, such as Afana (1997), Wardlow and Johnson (1999), Al-Khuthaylah (2000), Al-Gifri (2002), Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), Al-Ghazyuwat (2005), Padmadewi (2008), Jan (2010), Elsaid (2010), Al- Subaiei (2010), and Al-Kubaisi (2011). Some others aimed at evaluating the teaching competencies or skills required for faculty members according to their quality like Al- Ser (2004); their importance like Hirst and Bailey (1983), Al-Raway (1988), Martin and Sajilan (1989), Simpson and Smith (1993), Smith and Simpson (1995), Ghazala (2004), and Tigelaar et al. (2004); or their preference like Al-Hakami (2009) and Bhargava and Pathy (2011). While the study of M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002) aimed at developing an instrument to evaluate the teaching competencies required for the faculty members of Sana‘a University, the study of Al-Musawi (2007) aimed at developing an instrument to measure effective university teaching, and the study of Kilber (2002) aimed at constructing a list of instructional competencies required for teachers of history in Nevada public schools and arranging them according to their priority. The study of McNergncy (2003) aimed at identifying the teaching competencies needed by student teachers at the University of Alabama at the present time, whereas the study of Na (2006) aimed at developing a list of teaching competencies that would be required for teacher education faculty in the future course delivery environment. Regarding the studies that aimed at constructing or measuring the effectiveness of training programmes, they also varied to some extent in the domains of teaching competencies or skills they focused on. Most of them aimed at identifying the training needs of competencies or skills required for teachers in their teaching, constructing proposed training programmes to develop the competencies or skills under investigation, and then conducting them and measuring their impact on developing the performance of the target samples. However, Suleiman (1996) and Abozaid and Mohammed (2003) aimed only at identifying the teaching competencies required for teachers and constructing proposed training programmes that would improve the performance of teachers for the competencies in question, but they did 155 not measure the effectiveness of the proposed training programmes to do so. They just recommended experimenting with the programmes to measure their effectiveness. Similarly, Murthy (1985) analysed the pedagogical training needs of English teachers, and then presented a blueprint for multi-pronged training programmes for both pre- service and in-service training. Six studies, referred to in the current study, aimed only at measuring the impact of already-made training programmes. This group includes the study of Otto and Schuck (1983), which aimed at investigating the effect of a questioning strategy training programme on the teaching behaviour of teachers and the effect of that on students learning; the study of Newland et al. (2003), which reported on the impact of implementing a programme of faculty development on developing the faculty of the University of Nebraska Medical Centre; the study of Bahar-Ozvaris et al. (2004), which aimed at evaluating whether a teaching skills improvement programme met the needs of medical educators; the study of Sarikaya et al. (2010), which aimed at assessing the impact of a training programme on developing the teaching performance of faculty members in relation to their medical disciplines and academic positions; the study of Ghori et al. (2011), which aimed at identifying the academic achievements of the teachers trained by Higher education Commission (Pakistan) through Faculty Development Programme; and the study of Wati (2011), which aimed at identifying the effectiveness of the training programme of elementary schools English teachers in improving their confidence and motivation. In contrast, the current study tries to identify the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies under investigation from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments. To the best of the researcher‘s knowledge, there is no study investigated all these variables like the current one. It is confined to proposing a training programme for developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. It does not go further to administering it to the target sample due to the nature of the faculty members‘ job and the facilities required. In this, it is similar to Murthy (1985), Suleiman (1996), and Abozaid and Mohammed (2003). 156 3.4.2. Sample As the sample size is determined by the size of the target population of a study or a research, the samples of the previous studies varied in their size due to differences in the size of their population. The size of the samples of these studies ranged from small to large samples and their target samples varied to include only students; only teachers; students and teachers; students, teachers, and heads of institutions; or experts. The studies that used only students as a target sample are Afana (1997) with a sample of (321) students, Ali and Al-Ghanam (1998) with a sample of (166) student teachers, Al-Khuthaylah (2000) with a sample of (218) students, Elyas (2001) with a sample of (20) student teachers, Al-Gifri (2002) with a sample of (298) female postgraduate students, Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002) with a sample of (130) postgraduates, Frattarelli and Kasuya (2003) with a sample of (17) residents, McNergncy (2003) with a sample of (206) student teachers, Al-Ghazyuwat (2005) with a sample of (216) students, Al-Hakami (2009) with a sample of (210) students, Jan (2010) with a sample of (128) MA and PhD students, Al-Subaiei (2010) with a sample of (189) students, and Bhargava and Pathy (2011) with a sample of (98) student teachers. The studies that used only teachers as a target sample are Hirst and Bailey (1983) with a sample of (225) instructors, Murthy (1985) with a sample limited to the pre-university teachers of English in Karnataka, Martin and Sajilan (1989) with a sample of (106) Malaysian agricultural extension professionals, Wardlow and Johnson (1999) with a sample of (138) faculty members, Abozaid and Mohammed (2003) with a sample of (25) commercial subject matter teachers, Newland et al. (2003) with a sample of (442) faculty members, Al-Ser (2004) with a sample of (92) lecturers, Bahar-Ozvaris et al. (2004) with a sample of (83) faculty members, Ghazala (2004) with a sample included all English teachers in Al-Zawiya Governorate during the academic year 2003-2004, Othman et al. (2004) with a sample of (40) female assistant teachers and demonstrators, Ata‘a Allah (2006) with a sample of (16) teachers of Arabic language, Z. M. Shahata (2006) with a sample of (30) Holy Qur‘an teachers, Al-Zoubi (2007) with a sample of (50) resource room teachers, 157 Padmadewi (2008) with a sample of (20) teachers, Al-Sayed (2009) with a sample of (30) teachers, Al-Muafa (2009) with a sample of (21) social studies teachers, Ismail et al. (2009) with a sample of (50) teachers, Sarikaya et al. (2010) with a sample of (225) faculty members, Al-Kubaisi (2011) with a sample of (61) faculty members, Wati (2011) with a sample of (55) English teachers, and Weshah and Tomok (2011) with a sample of (30) teachers. The studies that used both teachers and students as a target sample are Otto and Schuck (1983) with a sample of (6) teachers and (90) students, Suleiman (1996) with a sample of (20) teachers and (56) students, M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002) with a sample included (71) faculty members of the College of Education at Sana‘a University and the students of level three and four of the same college during the academic year 2000-2001, Murad (2006) with a sample of (12) teachers and (420) students, Al-Musawi (2007) with a sample of (208) faculty members and (216) students, and Elsaid (2010) with a sample limited to the faculty members and female students of level four of Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression, Zagazig University. The studies that used experts as a target sample are Simpson and Smith (1993) with a sample of (20) experts, Smith and Simpson (1995) with a sample of (31) experts in higher education, Kilber (2002) with a sample of (116) faculty members from Nevada University, Tigelaar et al. (2004) with a sample of (63) experts, and Na (2006) with a sample of (17) educational experts. Out of these studies, the researcher also reported on Al-Raway (1988), which used a sample of three groups as experts: (10) college faculty members, (10) educational supervisors, and (30) secondary school teachers. Ghori et al. (2011) is the only study that used a sample of three types. It consisted of (84) teachers, (81) heads of institutions, and (405) students. It is clear from this analysis of the target samples of the previous studies that it is students, teachers, experts, or supervisors who can evaluate or identify teaching competencies or skills required for teachers. Therefore, and to make the results of the this study more effective, the current study used a sample of three types to investigate the teaching competencies practiced by Yemeni university English teachers: Yemeni 158 university English teachers, their students of level four, and chairmen of English departments. It included (49) teachers, (590) students, and (6) chairmen from three Yemeni public universities. This can create a clear picture of the degree of practicing teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers. In this, it is quite similar to Ghori et al. (2011). 3.4.3. Tools used to collect data As most descriptive studies, the current study used a questionnaire to collect data. In this, it is like most previous studies reported in the current study, such as Hirst and Bailey (1983), Martin (1988), Suleiman (1996), Afana (1997), Jan (2010), and Sarikaya et al. (2010). The previous studies reported in the current study also included studies which used either a questionnaire of a different form or a questionnaire along with another instrument to collect data. This group includes studies, such as Al-Raway (1988), Simpson and Smith (1993), Smith and Simpson (1995), Tigelaar et al. (2004), and Na (2006), which used Delphi-questionnaires to collect data; the study of Padmadewi (2008), which used a questionnaire and a focused group discussion; the study of Murthy (1985), which used a questionnaire and a classroom observation sheet; and the study of Wati (2011), which used a questionnaire and a semi-structured interview with a prearranged questions. Moreover, there are some previous studies referred to in the current study which used some other tools appropriate for their objectives and variables. The study of Othman et al. (2004) used an achievement test, an observation card, and an attitude scale towards teaching; whereas the study of Ata‘a Allah (2006) used an achievement test, an observation card, and a quality requirements scale to collect data and the study of Al-Zoubi (2007) used an achievement test, a classroom observation scale, and an interviews protocol. While the study of Ali and Al-Ghanam (1998) used two scales and a test to collect data, the study of Murad (2006) used an observation card, a test, and an attitude scale towards creative teaching to collect data. While Z. M. Shahata (2006) used an achievement test and an observation card; Elyas (2001), Al-Sayed (2009), Al-Muafa (2009), and Weshah and Tomok (2011) 159 used only observation card; and Otto and Schuck (1983), Abozaid and Mohammed (2003), and Ismail et al. (2009) used only achievement test. While only reports from faculty attendees used to measure the success of the Faculty Development Programme reported in Newland et al. (2003), a test of knowledge as well as reports from the participants used to collect data in Bahar-Ozvaris et al. (2004). In most cases, the researchers made use of the previous studies and related books to construct their own tools to collect data. The only studies that used already- made tools were the study of Ali and Al-Ghanam (1998), which used the Scale of Creative Teaching Skills and the Attitude Scale of Creative Teaching, the study of Suleiman (1996), which used Georgia University card of vocational education teacher competencies, and the study of Wardlow and Johnson (1999), which used a survey instrument based, in part, on an instrument by Baker, Hoover, and Rudd (1996). In contrast, to collect data for the current study, the researcher developed his own instrument based on reviewing some previous studies and related books and articles in the field of teaching English and teaching in higher education and gave it to a group of (19) experts to referee it and verify its content validity. 3.4.4. Results The results of the first group of the previous studies – studies that are related to teaching competencies or skills – varied to some extent according to their objectives and variables. Some of these studies came up with a tool to evaluate or measure teaching of faculty members at universities such as M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002), Tigelaar et al. (2004), and Al-Musawi (2007); or a list of competencies or skills required for faculty members at universities either at the time of conducting the study, such as Al-Hakami (2009), Hirst and Bailey (1983), Martin and Sajilan (1989), Simpson and Smith (1993), Smith and Simpson (1995), or for the future like Na (2006); or with a list of competencies or skills required for teachers at schools, such as Al-Raway (1988), Kilber (2002), McNergncy (2003), Ghazala (2004), and Bhargava and Pathy (2011). Some studies revealed that the teaching performance of faculty members at universities is not at the required level, such as Al-Khuthaylah (2000), Al-Gifri 161 (2002), Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), Al-Ghazyuwat (2005), Jan (2010), Al- Subaiei (2010), Al-Kubaisi (2011). Similarly, the study of Padmadewi (2008) revealed that the pedagogic competencies of English teachers in Singaraja were not adequately performed. However, the study of Wardlow and Johnson (1999) indicated that the faculty members perceived their level of skill in traditional teaching activities as good to excellent, but as much lower than this they perceived their skill in educational technologies. The study of Al-Ser (2004) revealed that the teaching performance of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza reached the level of quality at the total level of teaching skills. Similarly, the study of Elsaid (2010) revealed that the teaching of the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression met the national standards for academic university practice. The results of the second group of the previous studies– studies that are related to constructing or measuring the effectiveness of training programmes – indicated that the training programmes were effective in making the desirable change in the behaviour of teachers. For instance, the results of the study of Elyas (2001) indicated that the training programme was effective in helping the student teachers to develop their teaching skills; the results of the study of Frattarelli and Kasuya (2003) revealed that the training programme improved the teaching skills of residents; the results of the study of Othman et al. (2004) revealed that the proposed programme had an impact on developing all the aspects of teaching skills of the sample members; the results of Al-Zoubi (2007) showed that the training programme was effective in improving the performance of the experimental group teachers regarding the instructional competencies under investigation; and the results of the study of Wati (2011) indicated that the training programme was highly effective in improving English teachers‘ confidence and motivation, which was the main purpose of the training programme. Generally speaking, to the best of the researcher‘s knowledge, there are no studies dealt with the teaching competencies of university English teachers. Most of the previous studies were concerned with teaching competencies or skills required for 161 teachers of some other majors rather than English either in general education or at universities. In some other cases, the previous studies were concerned with the teaching competencies or skills needed for teachers in general without referring to a particular major. Nearly all the previous studies of the first group – studies that are related to teaching competencies or skills – focused mainly on evaluating, identifying, or finding out whether faculty members or teachers practice teaching competencies or skills from the perspective of either teachers or students and in some studies from the perspective of both. In most cases, these studies came up with a list of teaching competencies or skills divided into a group of domains, such as planning teaching, implementing teaching, and assessing students. These studies did not suggest training programmes for developing the teaching competencies or skills in case of identifying training needs. They just recommended conducting training course or workshops for teachers to improve their performance. All the previous studies of the second group – studies that are related to designing or evaluating the effectiveness of training programmes – indicated that the suggested training programmes were effective in making the necessary changes in the behaviour of the target members and improving their performance. In contrast, the current study investigated the practicing of teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments. In general, it revealed that the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers was not acceptable. Therefore, it proposed a training programme, based on the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers need in the light of the characteristics of the current age, which can be used to train them in these teaching competencies. 3.4.5. Benefits of the previous studies The previous studies helped the researcher, to some extent, in the following aspects: - Determining the objectives of the current study. 162 - Preparing and developing the theoretical background for the current study regarding its two fields: teaching competencies and designing training programmes. - Identifying the types of the research methods used in the previous studies and this helped the researcher to select the appropriate research method for the current study. - Constructing the study instrument and wording its items. - Determining the variables of the current study. - Defining the study population and selecting its sample. - Selecting the statistical tools and tests. - Analyzing, discussing, and interpreting the results. - Making the recommendations and the suggestions. - Constructing the proposed training programme. 163 CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY & PROCEDURES CHAPTER IV METHODOLOGY & PROCEDURES 4.1. Introduction This chapter describes the procedures that the researcher followed to conduct the current study, i.e., it describes the research approach and design, the population and the sample of the study, the procedures followed to construct the study instrument and measure its validity and reliability, the procedures followed to construct the proposed training programme and measure its validity, and the statistical tools used to answer the study questions. 4.2. The Study Approach and Design The current study is descriptive in nature. Such a design can provide thorough descriptions and interpretations of phenomena and situations as they are. It requires researchers to plan the procedures of their researches carefully and to define clearly what they want to measure by using specific methods. It is very rigid about formulating objectives, designing methods of collecting data, defining population and selecting samples, collecting data, processing and analyzing data, and reporting findings (Kothari, 2004, p. 37). In this study, the researcher used the descriptive method to define the study population and to select its sample, to measure the degree of practicing teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers, to answer the study questions, to determine the training needs for Yemeni university English teachers, and to report the findings of the current study. The researcher constructed a questionnaire and administered it to the study sample to collect data about the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies under investigation. The researcher also used the quantitative approach. This approach involves collecting numerical data from the field (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 10), generating them in quantitative form, and subjecting them to precise analysis (Kothari, 2004, p. 164 5) to reach some generalizations or findings about the phenomenon or situation under investigation. In the context of this study, the data collected through the questionnaire were analysed quantitatively through the use of descriptive statistics such as the mean, the standard deviation, and percentage and some other statistical tools such as one-way ANOVA and Scheffé test to come up with sound findings and conclusions about the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies in question. On the basis of these findings, some recommendations and suggestions are made at the end of the study. In the light of these findings, the researcher designed the proposed training programme with its various components, including goals, objectives, topics, training aids, etc. The training programme aims at developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in the domains of planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technology; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. The researcher also made some suggestions for further research and some recommendations regarding improving the process of teaching in English departments at Yemeni universities and implementing the proposed training programme. 4.3. The Study Population and Sample The population is a group of people or documents sharing common features which are used to collect data. It is very important to define the population of any research or study to indicate to what extent the results will be generalized (Ahmed Al- Samawi, 2001, p. 87). As the researcher wants to identify the degree of practicing teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers, the population of this study included Yemeni university English teachers, their students of the English language, and chairmen of the English departments at the nine Yemeni public universities. It is usually impossible for researchers to collect data from the whole population due to factors, such as money, time, accessibility, and energy (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2005, p. 92). Hence, researchers usually collect data from a manageable subset of the whole population, taking into account that the selected subset is representative of the whole population under investigation (Cohen et al., 165 2005, p. 92; Dawson, 2007, p. 50; Kothari, 2004, p. 14). According to Ahmed Al- Samawi (2001), a real representative sample is a sample that ―carries all the features of the population in relation to the variables under investigation‖ (p. 88). As a general truth, if a sample of a research is selected carefully by using the correct method, it is then possible to generalize the results to the whole population of that research (Dawson, 2007, p. 49). A research sample is the respondents selected to represent a research population (Kothari, 2004, p. 55). There are several methods of selecting a sample. This process is known as sampling (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 88; Kothari, 2004, p. 55). Selecting the appropriate sampling methods is determined by several factors, such as the nature of research (Kothari, 2004, p. 17), the area of research, the methodology of research, and the preference of the researcher (Dawson, 2007, p. 50). In this study, the researcher used the deliberate sampling method. This method of sampling involves ―purposive or deliberate selection of particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents the universe‖ (Kothari, 2004, p. 15). In other words, this method means selecting certain group of respondents because they have the information that a researcher wants (Coles & McGrath, 2010, p. 66). The sample of the current study comprises three types of respondents: Yemeni university English teachers, their students of level four, and the chairmen of English departments at three Yemeni public universities as shown in Table (4.1). The researcher included the students of level four and excluded the students of the first three levels because the researcher thought that the students of level four have enough experience to evaluate their teachers. Table 4.1: The Sample of the Study University Students Teachers Chairmen Total Sana’a University 262 18 2 282 Aden University 161 16 2 179 Taiz University 167 15 2 184 Total 590 49 6 645 166 4.4. The Study Instrument The instrument of any research is usually determined by the nature of the research and its objectives. Therefore, it is very important to use an appropriate tool in order to achieve the intended objectives. As the current study aims at identifying the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for teaching competencies from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and chairmen of English departments and then to design a proposed training programme to help Yemeni university English teachers to improve the teaching competencies that they need in the light of this age characteristics, the researcher found that an instrument in a form of a questionnaire would be appropriate to collect the data required to achieve the objectives of the current study (See Appendix ІІІ). To make the study instrument ready for administration, the researcher followed these procedures to construct it and to verify its validity and reliability: 4.4.1. Constructing the study instrument To construct the instrument of this study, the researcher read and surveyed some related books, researches, and studies to make use of their content and tools in constructing the instrument of the current study: - Hirst and Bailey (1983) - Afana (1997) - Al-Khuthaylah (2000) - M. S. Al-Mekhlafi (2002) - Frattarelli and Kasuya (2003) - McNergncy (2003) - Al-Ser (2004) - Al-Ghazyuwat (2005) - Na (2006) - Al-Musawi (2007) - Al-Zoubi (2007) - Danielson (2007) - Jan (2010) - Butt (2011) These works helped the researcher to a large extent to construct the instrument of the current study. In the light of them and some other relevant books, the researcher was able to construct the first version of the study instrument. 167 The researcher divided the study instrument into two parts. In the first part, the researcher requested the respondents to provide some information required for the study. The second part consists of the questionnaire itself which includes in its first version (84) statements distributed among the five domains of the study instrument as shown in Table (4.2). Table 4.2: Domains and Numbers of Statements of the First Version of the Study Instrument Number of Domain statements Planning teaching 15 Physical classroom Implementing environment 4 teaching 35 Teaching strategies 17 Communication 14 Using technology 13 Human relations 10 Assessment, evaluation & 11 gving feedback Total 84 The questionnaire also includes a letter to the respondents, informing them about the purpose of the study, requesting them to fill in the questionnaire, and ensuring them the confidentiality of their responses. To measure the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers, the researcher rated the statements using a 5-point Likert scale on which 5 = always, 4 = often, 3 = sometimes, 2 = rarely, and 1 = never. - ‗5‘ means that Yemeni university English teachers always or almost always practice the teaching competency in question. - ‗4‘ means that Yemeni university English teachers often practice the teaching competency in question. 168 - ‗3‘ means that Yemeni university English teachers sometimes practice the teaching competency in question. - ‗2‘ means that Yemeni university English teachers rarely practice the teaching competency in question. - ‗1‘ means that Yemeni university English teachers never or almost never practice the teaching competency in question. The researcher used this scale due to its flexibility as it would allow the respondents to determine the degree of practicing the statements of the study instrument accurately in the light of multi-choice alternatives. 4.4.2. Verifying the validity of the study instrument It is very important to verify the validity of a research instrument to ensure that it will measure what it is supposed to. To measure the validity of the instrument of the present study, the researcher used the content validity. This form of validity refers to ―the extent to which a measuring instrument provides adequate coverage of the topic under study‖ (Kothari, 2004, p. 74). In other words, to demonstrate content validity, ―the instrument must show that it fairly and comprehensively covers the domain or items that it purports to cover‖ (Cohen et al., 2005, p. 109). This type of validity is usually determined by using a panel of experts who judges whether an instrument meets the standards (Kothari, 2004, p. 74). To demonstrate the content validity of the instrument of the current study, the researcher sent or emailed it to (23) experts from different universities to review it for its content validity. Unfortunately, only (19) experts responded. Most of them are specialised in ELT. The list of referees also included experts of other specializations: Curricula and Teaching Methods of Sciences, Instructional/Educational Technology, Educational Planning, Research Methods, Applied Linguistics, and Linguistics as shown in Appendix (ІІ). The researcher requested the feedback of the experts on the following: - Whether each statement belongs to its designated domain or not. 169 - Questionnaire validity and suitability for the topic and its being correct grammatically. - Modifying the statements (deleting, rewording, moving, merging one statement with another) - Adding some more statements that they think are important to each domain. The referees returned the questionnaire with some modifications including deleting some statements, adding some statements, modifying some statements, and merging some statements with others. Table (4.3) shows all the modifications suggested by the referees which were taken into the consideration of the researcher while preparing the revised version of the questionnaire. 171 Table 4.3: Domains and Statements of the First and the Revised Versions of the Study Instrument with the Modifications of the Referees The Numbers Numbers Numbers of the The Numbers of number of the of the merged items in number the added of items deleted modified the first version of items Domain items in the in the items in items in the and their in the revised first the first two equivalent in the revised version version version versions revised one version (4,5) = 4 3=3 Planning teaching 15 6 (10,14,15) = 8 5 11 8=6 (7,11) = 11 Physical Implementing teaching classroom 4 ----- ----- ----- 16 5 environment Teaching 26 = 22 (24,25,28) = 21 17 20 18 14 strategies 33 = 28 (32, 35) = 27 49 = 40 (40,41) = 33 Communication 14 39 ----- 11 50 = 41 (45,46) = 37 62 = 50 Using technology 13 54, 57 (55,61) = 45 51 11 63 = 52 64 = 53 Human relations 10 ----- 69 = 59 ----- 56 11 71 = 61 Assessment, 74 = 64 evaluation 75 = 65 11 ----- (81,82,83) = 72 71 10 & 77 = 67 giving feedback 84 = 73 Total 84 5 15 21 / 9 6 73 In the light of these modifications, the researcher prepared the revised version of the study instrument which included (73) statements as shown in Table (4.4). 171 Table 4.4: Domains and Numbers` of Statements of the Revised Version of the Study Instrument Number of Domain statements Planning teaching 11 Physical classroom Implementing 5 environment teaching Teaching strategies 14 30 Communication 11 Using technology 11 Human relations 11 Assessment, evaluation & 10 giving feedback Total 73 4.4.3. Conducting a pilot study Conducting a pilot study of an instrument means putting it in a real test on a group of individuals from the study population to identify any ambiguities or problems with the statements of the instrument. The respondents are then interviewed to find if they have faced any problems in dealing or understanding the statements of the instrument (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 96). The researcher may then edit the instrument in the light of the result of the pilot study (Kothari, 2004, p. 118). In this study, after revising the questionnaire in the light of the referees‘ modifications, the researcher pre-tested it on a sample of (21) respondents who were not included in the actual study sample. The purposes of conducting the pilot study were - to obtain feedback on how clear the instructions are and on how the statements of the questionnaire are perceived, - to identify any confusions and ambiguities towards any statement in the questionnaire before having the actual respondents to complete it, and 172 - to predict any potential problems in administering the questionnaire to the target sample. As the questionnaire was written in both English and Arabic (the mother tongue of the study population), the respondents found all the statements clear and none of them was ambiguous with the exception of some few words that the researcher either removed or paraphrased between brackets in the version presented to the actual sample to remove any ambiguities and make the statements more clear. 4.4.4. Measuring the reliability of the study instrument An instrument is reliable if it ―provides consistent results‖ (Kothari, 2004, p. 74) when it is carried out again on the same group of respondents or when it is carried out on similar respondents in a similar situation (Cohen et al., 2005, p. 117). In other words, instrument reliability is related to what extent an instrument will produce the same or similar results if it is administered again (Coles & McGrath, 2010, p. 72). To measure the reliability of the instrument of the current study, the researcher used the test-retest method. This method involves administering the same instrument twice to the same individuals under the same conditions after some period of time and then comparing the results or responses (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 94). The researcher administered the questionnaire twice to (46) respondents with a month interval between the two administrations. Then, the researcher calculated the test-retest reliability coefficient – the degree of stability – using Pearson‘s correlation coefficient (r). As it is shown in Table (4.5), the correlation coefficient between the responses to the questionnaire in the first administration and the second one was (0.948), i.e., r = (0.948). This means that the reliability of the study instrument calculated through the test-retest method and by using Pearson‘s correlation coefficient is very high indeed. 173 Table 4.5: Reliability Statistics Using Test-retest Method Correlation Domain coefficient Planning teaching 0.923** Implementing teaching 0.871** Using technology 0.825** Human relations 0.912** Assessment, evaluation & 0.855** giving feedback Total 0.948** ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Figure (4.1) shows a scatterplot of the responses to the questionnaire in the first administration and the second administration one month later. Figure 4.1: Scatterplot of the first and the second administration of the study instrument. 174 The researcher also used Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient to estimate the reliability coefficient of the study instrument and measure its reliability. The reliability coefficients refer to ―the extent to which a measure is internally consistent in the sense that its components all measure the same thing and appear along the diagonal‖ (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994, p. 93). The value of alpha coefficient was (0.827) for Planning teaching domain; (0.936) for Implementing teaching domain; (0.775) for Using technology domain; (0.868) for Human relations domain; and (0.808) for Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback domain. For the instrument as a whole, an alpha coefficient value of (0.963) was achieved, which indicates that the questionnaire was highly reliable. Table (4.6) shows the values of Cronbach‘s alpha coefficients of the five domains of the instrument and the instrument as a whole. Table 4.6: Cronbach‟s Alpha Coefficients of the Study Instrument and Its Domains Number of No Domain Cronbach’s alpha statements 1 Planning teaching 11 0.83 2 Implementing teaching 30 0.94 3 Using technology 11 0.78 4 Human relations 11 0.87 Assessment, evaluation, 5 10 0.81 and giving feedback Total scale 73 0.96 It is clear from Table (4.6) that the values of Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient of the internal consistency reliability for the domains of the instrument ranged from (0.78) to (0.94), which is an indicator of good internal consistency reliability. 4.4.5. Administration of the study instrument The questionnaire was administered during the academic year 2012-2013 to Yemeni university English teachers, English students of level four, and chairmen of English departments at three Yemeni public universities (Sana‘a University, Aden University, and Taiz University). The researcher personally went to these three 175 universities, met the target sample, and explained to them how to fill in the questionnaire. In most cases, the researcher took permission from the chairmen of English departments and doctors to go to students in classrooms and request them to fill in the questionnaire. Regarding university teachers and chairmen of English departments, in some cases, the researcher emailed them the questionnaire, along with a personal letter, requesting them to fill in it, especially those whom the researcher could not meet in the colleges. As the study sample included respondents from three Yemeni public universities, the process of administration took a long period. During the process of administration, some copies of the questionnaire were lost. The researcher also rejected some others because they were incomplete. Moreover, in a few cases, the researcher received no response from some faculty members. As it is shown in Table (4.7), out of (702) questionnaires distributed or emailed, the researcher received only (657) filled-in questionnaires and from these filled-in questionnaires, the researcher rejected (12) questionnaires because they were incomplete. Table 4.7: Questionnaire Distribution Questionnaire Distributed Received Lost Rejected Used Number 702 657 45 12 645 Percentage 100% 93.6% 6.4% 1.7% 91.9% The stages of constructing and administering the study instrument are represented diagrammatically in Figure (4.2) 176 Constructing the first version of the study instrument in the light of related literature Verifying the validity of the study instrument Preparing the revised version of the study instrument Conducting a pilot study Measuring the reliability of the study instrument Administering the study instrument University English Teachers Students Chairmen Figure 4.2: Stages of constructing and administering the study instrument. 177 4.5. The Proposed Training Programme The proposed training programme was designed with a view to developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in the field of planning teaching, implementing teaching, using technology, human relations, and assessment and evaluation and giving feedback. This will be positively reflected on their teaching and, in turn, on students learning. 4.5.1. Constructing the proposed training programme To construct the training programme proposed in the current study, the researcher depended on the results of administering the study instrument to the target sample which identified training needs for Yemeni university English teachers in all the domains of the study instrument. Therefore, there should be a training programme that aims at improving the teaching competencies of these teachers. The process of constructing the proposed training programme passed three stages. In the first stage, the researcher prepared the first version of the proposed training programme. In the second stage, the researcher verified the validity of the proposed training programme. In the third stage, the researcher prepared the final version of the proposed training programme. 4.5.1.1. Preparing the first version of the proposed training programme To prepare the first version of the proposed training programme, the researcher translated the domains of the study instrument into goals representing the general goals of the proposed training programme: Each domain which did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice was translated into one goal. The researcher also translated the items of each domain and sub-domain which did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice into objectives representing the objectives of the proposed training programme. In addition, the researcher surveyed and reviewed the previous literature related to teaching in higher education, teaching competencies, ELT, and training and designing training programmes. To prepare the general outline of the proposed training programme and set the procedures required for implementing the proposed 178 training programme, the researcher made use of some previous training programme models, especially Al- Abdulraqeeb Al-Samawi (2008). Moreover, the researcher consulted some experts in the field of ELT, curricula, and education with a view to preparing the first version of the proposed training programme. In the light of all this, the researcher prepared the first version of the proposed training programme (See Appendix IV). The components of the first version of the proposed training programme are shown in Table (4.8). Table 4.8: Components of the First Version of the Proposed Training Programme # The Component Number of Items 1 Domains (5) main training domains 2 Goals (5) training goals 3 Objectives (66) training objectives 4 Proposed training main topics (47) training topics 5 Proposed training sub-topics (274) training sub-topics 6 Proposed training methods (16) training methods 7 Proposed training aids (12) training aids 8 Proposed tools of evaluation (6) evaluation tools 9 Procedures of implementation (7) procedures 10 Training hours, sessions, and days (212) hours, (106) sessions, (53) days 4.5.1.2. Verifying the validity of the proposed training programme To verify the validity of the proposed training programme, the researcher handed or emailed it to (36) experts from different universities requesting them to review the proposed training programme for its validity. However, only (30) experts responded. Most of them are specialised in ELT. The list of referees also included experts of other specializations: TESOL and Foreign Language Education, Applied Linguistics, Curricula and Teaching Methods of Sciences, Instructional/Educational Technology, Educational Planning, Educational Foundations, Educational Measurement and Evaluation, Literature, Translation, Mental Health, and Public 179 Administration as shown in Appendix (V). The researcher requested the experts‘ feedback on the appropriateness of goals and objectives of the proposed training program, its topics, training instruction methods, training aids, tools of evaluation, and procedures of implementing it. The researcher also requested them to make any modifications (adding, deleting, rewording, moving, and merging) that they think are important. The referees returned the first version of the proposed training programme with some modifications. The researcher used an (80%) consensus level or more among the referees as a benchmark to consider the various components and items of the proposed training programme appropriate. To highlight the modifications suggested by the referees that were taken into the researcher‘s consideration while preparing the revised version of the proposed training programme, the researcher shows some of them in Table (4.9). Table 4.9: Modifications Suggested by the Referees of the Proposed Training Programme Process Domain/Part Examples Using technology Objective No (4) in the revised version Instructional games under the topic Implementing teaching Methods of instruction delivery Principles of PowerPoint Presentation Using technology under the topic PowerPoint Adding Cultural barriers of building rapport Human relations under the topic Rapport Assessment, evaluation, E-assessment techniques under the and giving feedback topic Assessment and technology Training aids The Internet Planning teaching Objective No (1) in the first version Implementing teaching Objective No (1) in the first version Deleting Overhead projector, Data Projectors, Using technology and Slides Training methods Case study & Films and Videos Training aids Overhead Projector & Data Projector 181 Process Domain/Part Examples Stative verbs such as know were Objectives substituted with action verbs such as demonstrate familiarity with or get. The sub-topic Evaluating instructional Planning teaching planning was adapted to become Evaluating instructional plans. The sub-topic A humanist teacher was Human relations adapted to become Characteristics of the humanist teacher. - The time allotted for the topic Adapting PowerPoint was changed from (4) sessions of two hours to be (3) sessions of two hours. Using technology - The time allotted for the topic Language Labs was changed from (2) sessions of two hours to be (3) sessions of two hours. The time allotted for the topic Testing Assessment, evaluation, English language was changed from and giving feedback (3) sessions of two hours to be (4) sessions of two hours. The topic Planning courses to before Planning teaching the topic Planning teaching in higher education Moving The sub-topic interpreting test scores Assessment, evaluation, from Marking to be a sub-topic of and giving feedback Evaluating tests Objective (8) and (11) in the first version were merged in each other and Merging Implementing teaching became one: objective (7) in the revised version. 181 4.5.1.3. Preparing the final version of the proposed training programme In the light of the modifications suggested by the referees, the researcher prepared the revised version of the proposed training programme. The components of the revised version of the proposed training programme are shown in Table (4.10). Table 4.10: Components of the Revised Version of the Proposed Training Programme # The Component Number of Items 1 Domains (5) main training domains 2 Goals (5) training goals 3 Objectives (62) training objectives 4 Proposed training main topics (48) training topics 5 Proposed training sub-topics (300) training sub-topics 6 Proposed training methods (14) training methods 7 Proposed training aids (12) training aids 8 Proposed tools of evaluation (6) evaluation tools 9 Procedures of implementation (7) procedures 10 Training hours, sessions, and days (220) hours, (110) sessions, (55) days 4.6. Statistical Tools Used in the Study In order to prepare the data collected via the study instrument for analysis; the researcher first computed the data. The quantitative data were then analysed using the Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows (version 17.0). The researcher used various statistical tools to measure the reliability of the study instrument and to answer the questions of the study: - Test and re-test method: This method is usually used to determine the reliability of measurement methods (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994, p. 254). In this study, the researcher used this method to identify the reliability of the study instrument by using Pearson‘s correlation coefficient to measure the 182 correlation coefficient between the responses to the questionnaire in the first administration and the second one. - Cronbach’s alpha coefficient: Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient (α) provides ―actual estimates of reliability.‖ The (α) is the ratio of the sum of the covariances among items. It ―estimates true variance, to the sum of all elements in the variance-covariance matrix of measures, which equals the observed variance‖ (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994, p. 212). This method also provides a measure of the internal consistency of a test or a scale. The internal consistency refers to the extent to which all the items of a test or a scale measure the same thing (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011, p. 53). It is expressed as a number between (.00) and (1.00). The acceptable values of alpha usually range between (0.70) and (0.95). A low value of alpha could be due to a low number of items, poor interrelatedness between items, or heterogeneous constructs (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011, p. 54). The researcher used this method to identify the reliability of the domains of the study instrument and the instrument as a whole in terms of internal consistency. - Means, standard deviations, and percentages: The mean refers to the arithmetic average which is calculated by adding all the values and dividing the total by the total number of items (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 122; Kothari, 2004, p. 132). The standard deviation refers to the deviation of any score from the mean (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 123). It is defined as ―the square-root of the average of the squares of deviations, when such deviations for the values of individual items in a series are obtained from the arithmetic average‖ (Kothari, 2004, p. 135). The percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100. The researcher used these three measures to represent the degree of practicing the teaching competencies in question by Yemeni university English teachers. - Analysis of variance (ANOVA): This statistical technique is used to measure the differences among the means of samples (Ahmed Al-Samawi, 2001, p. 130; Kothari, 2004, p. 257) by examining the amount of variation within each sample, relative to the amount of variation between the samples (Kothari, 2004, p. 257). It contains three effects: total, between groups, and within 183 groups (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994, p. 276). It is usually used when multiple sample cases are involved (Kothari, 2004, p. 256). Under this technique, only one factor is investigated. Within this factor several possible types of samples can occur (Kothari, p. 258). In this study, the researcher used the one-way ANOVA to identify the differences and their statistical significance among the means of the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for teaching competencies according to the variables of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz). - Scheffé test: This test is considered as the most flexible and the most conservative procedure of post hoc procedures. It can be used to make simple, pairwise, or complex comparisons of means to find out where the differences lie (Stevens, 2007, p. 71). It can also be used when sample sizes are equal or unequal (Reinard, 2006, p. 196). The researcher used this test to determine the sources of differences shown by one-way ANOVA according to the variable of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and chairmen of English departments). The responses of the sample members to the statements of the questionnaire will be analysed statistically in the next chapter. This will result in some factual figures about the degree of practicing teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers and help to come up with the findings of the study. 184 CHAPTER V PRESENTATION & DISCUSSION OF FININDINGS CHAPTER V PRESENTATION & DISCUSSION OF FININDINGS 5.1. Introduction The current study was conducted to investigate the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers. Therefore, Yemeni university English teachers were the focus of the study and data were collected from them, their students of level four, and the chairmen of English departments. In this chapter, the data collected via the questionnaire are analysed and the findings reached are presented and then discussed with a view to achieving the study objectives. This process is done systematically through answering the questions of the study according to their order in the first chapter. The process of answering the questions of the study results in achieving the study objectives in terms of the following: - Identifying the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies in question by Yemeni university English teachers. - Identifying if there are any statistically significant differences in the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, Taiz). - Determining and setting the components of the proposed training programme which aims at developing the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers need to teach effectively. 185 5.2. Presentation and Discussion of Findings 5.2.1. The first question What is the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments? To answer this question, it is important first to specify the criteria that will be used to present and discuss the results of this question. As the scale used to determine the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers is a five-point Likert scale, the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice is specified by getting (3) out of (5) degrees with a percentage of (60 %) out of the whole (100 %) at the level of each statement, each domain, and the whole instrument. In other words, in order to consider the degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for a particular teaching competency, a domain, or the whole instrument acceptable, they have to get at least (3) degrees out of (5) and a percentage of (60%) out of the whole (100%). The researcher also used another benchmark to present and discuss the result of this question. This benchmark represents the range of the mean of the target sample responses to the statements of the questionnaire. It is calculated through identifying the difference between the high level and the low level of practice and then dividing the figure by the number of levels as shown in the following formula: This figure is used to create the five distinct levels used to describe the degree of practicing the teaching competencies in question by Yemeni university English teachers as shown in Table (5.1). 186 Table 5.1: The Norm Used to Present and Discuss the Results of the First Question Range of mean Estimation From To 4.21 5 very high 3.41 4.20 high 2.61 3.40 moderate 1.81 2.60 low 1 1.80 very low The researcher used the scale (very high, high, moderate, low, and very low) as equivalent to the scale (always, often, sometimes, rarely, and never) that was used in the questionnaire as the terms of the former scale are more appropriate to indicate the degree of practicing the teaching competencies under investigation when presenting and discussing the findings. To answer the first question, the researcher calculated the means, the standard deviations, and the percentages for each statement and domain of the study instrument and for the study instrument as a whole. The researcher also arranged the statements of each domain and the domains of the study instrument in descending order according to the averages that they received. 5.2.1.1. The first domain: Planning teaching To identify the degree of practicing the teaching competencies of the domain ‗Planning teaching‘ by Yemeni university English teachers, the researcher calculated the means, the standard deviations, and the percentages for each statement of this domain and arranged them in descending order. The researcher also calculated these values for the domain as a whole as shown in Table (5.2). 187 Table 5.2: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Domain „Planning Teaching‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Estimation Statement of competency M SD % Determining course goals and 1 1 2.97 0.88 59.35 moderate objectives. Determining course topics in 2 3 2.71 0.99 54.17 moderate alignment to its goals and objectives. Determining the objectives for each 3 2 2.53 0.97 50.57 low lecture. Determining course content suitable 4 4 2.44 1.05 48.83 low for the students‘ level and needs. Determining teaching strategies appropriate to teach the course 5 6 2.38 0.96 47.66 low content and to achieve its goals and objectives. Determining the evaluation methods that will be used to assess students‘ 6 8 2.32 0.98 46.42 low learning, and to evaluate the course and its topics. Determining the methods of getting feedback from students and 7 9 colleagues regarding the course, 2.22 0.93 44.43 low teaching strategies, and evaluation procedures. Determining the teaching aids, materials, and instructional 8 7 2.10 1.00 41.92 low resources needed for achieving course goals and objectives. Preparing an organized outline for all the elements of the course 9 11 2.09 0.85 41.83 low including a course schedule for the semester. Determining some motivational strategies to develop and sustain an 10 5 2.01 0.92 40.12 low interest in learning English among students. Preparing the teaching aids, materials, 11 10 and instructional resources needed for 1.90 0.96 38.08 low each lecture in advance. Total average of the domain 2.33 0.58 46.67 low 188 It is clear from Table (5.2) that the averages of the statements of the domain ‗Planning teaching‘ ranged from (2.97) to (1.90) with corresponding percentages ranged from (59.35%) to (38.08%). The total average of the statements of this domain was (2.33) out of (5) and its corresponding percentage was (46.67%). At the level of each statement of this domain, Table (5.2) reveals the following findings: - No statement of this domain reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice, i.e., no statement received a mean of (3) or more out of (5). - The highest rating was given to statement 1, Determining course goals and objectives, followed by statement 3, Determining course topics in alignment to its goals and objectives. Both statements got moderate estimation level. The former had a mean of (2.97) with a corresponding percentage of (59.35%). The latter had a mean of (2.71) with a corresponding percentage of (54.17%). These two statements represent (18.2%) of the total number of statements of this domain. - Nine statements out of eleven (81.8% of the total number of statements of this domain) got low estimation level, namely statements 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 7, 11, 5, and 10. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.53 (50.57%), 2.44 (48.83%), 2.38 (47.66%), 2.32 (46.42%), 2.22 (44.43%), 2.10 (41.92%), 2.09 (41.83%), 2.01 (40.12%), and 1.90 (38.08%) respectively. - The lowest rating was given to statement 10, Preparing the teaching aids, materials, and instructional resources needed for each lecture in advance, which got low estimation level. This statement had a mean of (1.90) with a corresponding percentage of (38.08%). Given these results, it seems that Yemeni university English teachers do not practice the competencies of the domain ‗Planning teaching‘ with an acceptable degree as the degree of their practice for the competencies of planning teaching is low according to the norm stated for judging the degree of practicing the teaching competencies in question, which may play a negative role in the process of teaching English courses in English departments at Yemeni universities. 189 Out of the eleven competencies of the domain ‗Planning teaching,‘ Yemeni university English teachers practice only two competencies with a moderate degree. The first competency is related to determining the goals and objectives of courses. The second competency is related to determining the topics of courses in alignment to their goals and objectives. In fact, goals and objectives and topics are usually determined in the course description by departments. However, all the competencies which should be planned by the faculty members are practiced with a low degree. In the researcher‘s opinion, there are some reasons that stand behind the results of this domain: - Most Yemeni university English teachers are not qualified and prepared pedagogically or educationally. Therefore, they may not have the necessary skills and competencies to plan their teaching. - They may not be aware of the importance of planning teaching. - They may not have time to truly plan their teaching because of being overloaded. They are working besides teaching in universities as the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (2006) indicated. - The absence of seminars and workshops which aim at highlighting the importance of planning teaching and courses and at training faculty members in planning teaching and courses, which may lead to issues in this regard. In general, the results of responses to the statements of this domain are consistent with those of Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), which indicated that the practice of the faculty members of the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University for the skills of planning did not reach the required level from the perspective of postgraduate students. They are also consistent, to some extent, with those of Al-Gifri (2002), which indicated that female postgraduate students considered the performance of the faculty members of Umm Al-Qura University in preparing and planning for teaching acceptable but did not reach the required level and with those of Al-Kubaisi (2011), which indicated that there was a decline in the skills of the faculty members of Al-Anbar University in terms of planning for teaching courses. 191 On the other hand, the results of responses to the statements of this domain do not agree with those of Al-Ser (2004), which showed that the average of the evaluative estimations for planning skills of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza reached the level of quality from the perspective of the faculty members themselves and with those of Elsaid (2010), which indicated that the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression of Zagazig University put short-term plans for the activities of teaching and learning and long-term plans for different teaching and learning process. 5.2.1.2. The second domain: Implementing teaching To identify the degree of practicing the teaching competencies of the domain ‗Implementing teaching‘ by Yemeni university English teachers, the researcher calculated the means, the standard deviations, and the percentages for each statement of the three sub-domains (Physical classroom environment – Teaching strategies – Communication) of this domain and arranged them in descending order within each sub-domain. The researcher also calculated these values for each sub-domain and for the domain as a whole as shown in Tables (5.3), (5.4), and (5.5). 191 a. Physical classroom environment Table 5.3: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Sub-domain „Physical Classroom Environment‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Estimation Statement of competency M SD % Organizing the physical space in the 1 12 2.45 0.80 48.99 low classroom appropriately. Arranging students seating (rows, 2 13 clusters, circles, pairs, u-shape) 2.27 0.89 45.49 low according to activities. Arranging students seating in a way 3 14 that allows the teacher to monitor 2.06 0.90 41.27 low their activities. Encouraging students to decorate the classroom with posters, wallpapers, 4 15 1.44 0.74 28.87 very low charts, etc. to create a motivating learning environment. Using various types of music in 5 16 1.11 0.35 22.14 very low accordance with activities. Total average of this sub-domain 1.87 0.50 37.35 low Table (5.3) shows that the averages of the statements of the sub-domain ‗Physical classroom environment‘ ranged from (2.45) to (1.11) with corresponding percentages ranged from (48.99%) to (22.14%). The total average of the statements of this sub-domain was (1.87) out of (5) and its corresponding percentage was (37.35%). At the level of each statement of this sub-domain, Table (5.3) reveals the following findings: - No statement of this sub-domain reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice, i.e., no statement received a mean of (3) or more out of (5). - The highest rating was given to statement 12, Organizing the physical space in the classroom appropriately, which received a mean of (2.45) and a percentage of (48.99%), followed by statement 13, Arranging students seating (rows, clusters, circles, pairs, u-shape) according to 192 activities, which received a mean of (2.27) and a percentage of (45.49%). In the third rank came statement 14, Arranging students seating in a way that allows the teacher to monitor their activities, with a mean of (2.06) and a percentage of (41.27%). All the three statements got low estimation level, and they represent (60%) of the total number of statements of this sub-domain. - The lowest rating was given to statement 16, Using various types of music in accordance with activities, which received a mean of (1.11) and a percentage of (22.14%), followed by statement 15, Encouraging students to decorate the classroom with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create a motivating learning environment, with a mean of (1.44) and a percentage of (28.87%). Both statements got very low estimation level, and they represent (40%) of the total number of statements of this sub-domain. In the light of these results, it can be stated that Yemeni university English teachers practice the competencies of structuring and arranging the physical classroom environment with a low degree, which may affect the process of teaching and learning because effective teaching and learning cannot take place in a poorly arranged physical environment. They practice the three competencies related to arranging students seating and the physical space of the classroom with a low degree and the two competencies related to using music in the classroom and decorating the classroom with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. with a very low degree. In the researcher‘s opinion, this can be attributed to many reasons that can be listed below: - Most Yemeni university English teachers are not pedagogically qualified or prepared and may have no idea about how to arrange the physical environment of their classrooms. - They may not have an idea about the role that music can play in managing classes, making the learning process more interesting and enjoyable, maintaining a positive mood, and increasing learning effectiveness. - They may be unaware of the importance of decorating the classroom with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create a motivating learning environment. 193 - Teaching mainly with the lecture method which requires arranging students seating in rows. - In most cases, there are a large number of students in classes. This makes it difficult to arrange the physical classroom environment, including students seating properly. - The nature of university lecture halls is another important reason. In most cases, university lecture halls are designed for large classes and typically have fixed chairs. 194 b. Teaching strategies Table 5.4: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Sub-domain „Teaching Strategies‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Statement of competency Estimation M SD % Encouraging students to ask and 1 28 3.02 0.94 60.50 moderate answer questions. Presenting an overview of the lecture 2 19 topic at the beginning including the 2.96 0.90 59.29 moderate main elements and objectives. Revising the previous lesson/unit to 3 18 2.95 0.89 58.91 moderate establish a link with the present one. Using some techniques to attract students focus on the lecture (e.g., 4 17 2.85 0.81 56.90 moderate telling a joke, asking a question, making a surprising statement, etc.). Using appropriate instructional strategies such as whole class 5 21 discussion and group discussion with 2.80 0.82 55.97 moderate lecturing to achieve desired instructional goals. Encouraging students to participate 6 27 in classes and promoting 2.77 0.89 55.47 moderate collaborative learning. Motivating students by highlighting 7 20 2.68 0.93 53.58 moderate the importance of the lecture topic. Creating an atmosphere of fun and 8 29 2.66 0.83 53.21 moderate humour in the classroom. Using various teaching materials 9 24 2.52 1.05 50.42 low (e.g., handouts, CDs, tapes, etc.). Using appropriate and various 10 25 2.22 0.93 44.37 low instructional activities in teaching. Getting students feedback about 11 30 2.18 0.86 43.50 low teaching. Managing students‘ activities 12 26 1.98 1.00 39.60 low effectively. Using variety of instructional 13 22 strategies to meet the individual 1.97 0.96 39.47 low differences of students. Using teaching techniques that 14 23 1.96 0.96 39.10 low enhance students‘ motivation. Total average of the sub-domain 2.54 0.56 50.73 low 195 Table (5.4) reveals that the averages of the statements of the sub-domain ‗Teaching strategies‘ ranged from (3.02) to (1.96) with corresponding percentages ranged from (60.50%) to (39.10%). The total average of the statements of this sub- domain was (2.54) out of (5) and its corresponding percentage was (50.73%). At the level of each statement of this sub-domain, Table (5.4) reveals the following findings: - The highest rating was given to statement 28, Encouraging students to ask and answer questions, which got moderate estimation level and reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. It received a mean of (3.02) out of (5) with a corresponding percentage of (60.50%). This statement represents (7.14%) of the total number of statements of this sub- domain. - Seven statements out of fourteen (50.00% of the total number of statements of this sub-domain) got moderate estimation level, but they did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. The numbers of these statements are 19, 18, 17, 21, 27, 20, and 29. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.96 (59.29%), 2.95 (58.91%), 2.85 (56.90%), 2.80 (55.97%), 2.77 (55.47%), 2.68 (53.58%), and 2.66 (53.21%) respectively. - Six statements (42.86% of the total number of statements of this sub- domain) got low estimation level. The numbers of these statements are 24, 25, 30, 26, 22, and 23. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.52 (50.42%), 2.22 (44.37%), 2.18 (43.50%), 1.98 (39.60%), 1.97 (39.47%), and 1.96 (39.10%) respectively. - The lowest rating was given to statement 23, Using teaching techniques that enhance students’ motivation, which got low estimation level. This statement received a mean of (1.96) and a percentage of (39.10%). Given these results, it can be stated that Yemeni university English teachers practice the competencies of the sub-domain ‗Teaching strategies‘ with a low degree. Out of the fourteen competencies, they practice eight competencies with a moderate degree and six competencies with a low degree. All the competencies related to 196 setting the scene for a lecture topic and attracting students‘ attention before starting a lecture topic are practiced with a moderate degree. In addition to these competencies, three more competencies are practiced with a moderate degree, namely competency No 21, which is related to using appropriate instructional strategies; competency No 27, which is related to encouraging students to participate in classes and promoting collaborative learning; and competency No 29, which is related to creating an atmosphere of fun and humor in the classroom. The six competencies which Yemeni university English teachers practice with a low degree are those related to using various instructional strategies, techniques, materials, and activities to meet the individual differences of students and to enhance their motivation except one competency which is related to getting feedback from students about teaching. It seems that Yemeni university English teachers have some teaching competence which is about to be enough in relation to setting the scene for their lectures effectively, but which is not enough in relation to meeting the variety of their students‘ needs and enhancing their motivation through the use of various materials, activities, methods, and techniques. The researcher thinks that there are some reasons that stand behind these results: - Most Yemeni university English teachers are not pedagogically and educationally qualified or trained. - They may think that they are doing a good job by using the lecture method in their teaching; therefore, in their opinion, there is no need for variation in teaching methods and techniques. - They may still use traditional ways of teaching. Teachers who believe in traditional ways of teaching think that students are the same and learn in the same rates and have the same learning needs. Therefore, they may think that there is no need for using various strategies and activities in teaching. - The absence of seminars and workshops on teaching in higher education and teaching English is a vital reason in this regard. - The large number of students in the classroom may make Yemeni university English teachers depend mainly on lecturing method regardless 197 whether such a method meets the needs of students with a variety of learning styles or not. Comparing the results of this sub-domain to those of similar domains in previous studies, the researcher found that there are some similarities with the study of Al-Ghazyuwat (2005), which indicated that students of social studies were not satisfied with the use of the faculty members of the College of Educational Sciences at Mutah University for the traditional methods of teaching; the study of Jan (2010), which revealed that female postgraduate students were not satisfied with the use of the faculty members in educational departments of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah for the traditional methods of teaching; and the study of Al-Subaiei (2010), which indicated that the degree of practicing the skills of teaching methods and strategies by female faculty members in sciences departments at Umm Al-Qura University ranged between moderate and weak degrees. However, the results of this sub-domain are not consistent with those of Elsaid (2010), which indicated that the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression of Zagazig University used various teaching methods and strategies to meet the needs of their students. 198 c. Communication Table 5.5: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Sub-domain „Communication‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Statement of competency Estimation M SD % Providing students with related and 1 39 3.32 1.04 66.48 moderate useful handouts. Asking questions related to the 2 40 3.30 0.97 65.98 moderate objectives and content of the topic. Speaking clearly, audibly, and at a 3 36 3.20 0.89 64.00 moderate moderate pace. Responding to students questions 4 41 3.15 0.94 63.07 moderate effectively and meaningfully. 5 38 Presenting the subject matter clearly. 3.05 0.91 61.09 moderate Communicating effectively with students through body language (eye 6 31 2.97 0.83 59.47 moderate contact, facial expressions, gestures, etc.). Keeping proper distance from 7 34 students in the classroom to make 2.92 1.09 58.48 moderate them feel at ease. Keeping students attentive through 8 32 2.92 0.97 58.39 moderate regular eye contact. Using different levels of pitch for 9 37 attracting students‘ attention and 2.85 0.98 56.90 moderate emphasizing certain purposes. Motivating students through 10 33 appropriate facial expressions and 2.84 0.99 56.74 moderate eye contact. Moving in the classroom in a way 11 35 that raises students‘ interest and 2.58 0.94 51.57 low attentiveness. Total average of the sub-domain 3.01 0.59 60.20 moderate Total average of the whole domain 2.60 0.49 51.97 low It is clear from Table (5.5) that the averages of the statements of the sub- domain ‗Communication‘ ranged from (3.32) to (2.58) with corresponding percentages 199 ranged from (66.48%) to (51.57%). The total average of the statements of this sub- domain was (3.01) and its corresponding percentage was (60.20%). At the level of each statement of this sub-domain, Table (5.5) reveals the following findings: - The highest rating was given to statement 39, Providing students with related and useful handouts, which received a mean of (3.32) and a percentage of (66.48%); followed by statement 40, Asking questions related to the objectives and content of the topic, with a mean of (3.30) and a percentage of (65.98%); followed by statement 36, Speaking clearly, audibly, and at a moderate pace, with a mean of (3.20) and a percentage of (64.00%); followed by statement 41, Responding to students questions effectively and meaningfully, with a mean of (3.15) and a percentage of (63.07%); followed by statement 38, Presenting the subject matter clearly, with a mean of (3.05) and a percentage of (61.09%). All these statements got moderate estimation level and reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. They represent (45.45%) of the total number of statements of this sub-domain. - Five more statements of this sub-domain (45.45% of the total number of statements of this sub-domain) got moderate estimation level, but they did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. The numbers of these statements are 31, 34, 32, 37, and 33. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.97 (59.47%), 2.92 (58.48%), 2.92 (58.39%), 2.85 (56.90%), and 2.84 (56.74%) respectively. - The lowest rating was given to statement 35, Moving in the classroom in a way that raises students’ interest and attentiveness, which got low estimation level. It received a mean of (2.58) and a percentage of (51.57%). This statement represents (9.09%) of the total number of statements of this sub-domain. With these results, it can be stated that Yemeni university English teachers practice the competencies of the sub-domain ‗Communication‘ with a moderate 211 degree reaching the minimum standard limit set for acceptable degree of practice (3 degrees out of 5) in relation to the competencies of verbal communication but not in relation to competencies of non-verbal communication and paralanguage features. In the researcher‘s opinion, there are some reasons that stand behind the results of this sub-domain: - Yemeni university English teachers may not have the skills to communicate non-verbally with their students in the classroom. - They may not be aware of the importance of non-verbal communication. - As they depend mainly on the lecture method in their teaching, more concern is given to the aspects of verbal communication than the aspects of non-verbal communication. - The absence of training on the aspects of non-verbal communication is a vital reason in this regard. The results of this sub-domain are consistent, to some extent, with those of Al-Subaiei (2010), which revealed that the degree of practicing the interaction and communication skills with students by female faculty members of the College of Applied Sciences was weak, in the light of the total quality standards, from the perspective of female students of Umm Al-Qura University. They are also quite similar to those of Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), which indicated that the skills of communication of the faculty members of the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University were low from the perspective of students. On the other hand, the results of this sub-domain are different from those of Al-Ser (2004), which revealed that the average of the evaluative estimations for the skills of communication with students of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza reached the level of quality. At the level of the domain ‗Implementing teaching,‘ it is clear from Tables (5.3), (5.4), and (5.5) that the averages of the statements of this domain ranged from (3.32) to (1.11) with a total average of (2.60). The corresponding percentages of these statements ranged from (66.48%) to (22.14%) with a total percentage of (51.97%). 211 At the level of each statement of this domain, Tables (5.3), (5.4), and (5.5) reveal the following findings: - Six statements out of thirty (20.00% of the total number of statements of this domain) reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice, i.e., they received means of (3) or more out of (5). - Twelve statements (40% of the total number of statements of this domain) got moderate estimation level, but they did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. - Ten statements (33.33% of the total number of statements of this domain) got low estimation level. - Two statements (6.67% of the total number of statements of this domain) got very low estimation level. Generally speaking, Yemeni university English teachers practice the competencies of the domain ‗Implementing teaching‘ with a low degree as Tables (5.3), (5.4), and (5.5) indicate. The researcher found that the results of this domain are consistent, to some extent, with those of some previous studies, such as Al-Ser (2004), which revealed that the averages of the evaluative estimations for implementing the teaching skills by the faculty of Al-AQSA University in Gaza did not reach the level of quality; Al-Kubaisi (2011), which indicated that there was a decline in the skills of implementing teaching of the faculty members of Al-Anbar University; and Padmadewi (2008), which indicated that the competencies of English teachers of Junior High Schools in Singaraja Bali in relation to conducting the teaching learning process was not satisfactory in terms of domination of the teachers, students involvement in the learning process, and variation of teaching strategies. 5.2.1.3. The third domain: Using technology To identify the degree of practicing the teaching competencies of the domain ‗Using technology‘ by Yemeni university English teachers, the researcher calculated the means, the standard deviations, and the percentages for each statement of this domain and arranged them in descending order. The researcher also calculated these values for the domain as a whole as shown in Table (5.6). 212 Table 5.6: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the domain „Using Technology‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Statement of competency Estimation M SD % Using common classroom 1 42 technologies such as tape recorders, 3.00 0.52 60.00 moderate cassettes, etc. Designing activities that require 2 49 students to use electronic sources for 1.80 0.87 36.00 very low gathering specific information. Using multimedia (audio, video, 3 43 1.75 0.69 35.01 very low text, animation, etc.) in teaching. Using presentation tools such as 27.29 4 44 1.36 0.63 very low PowerPoint presentation in teaching. % Communicating with students 5 46 through Internet applications, such 1.31 0.60 26.29 very low as email. Using the Internet and its applications such as Messenger, Facebook, 6 45 Weblogs, and e-mail effectively to 1.23 0.52 24.56 very low develop students‘ English skills and collaborative learning. Using the interactive whiteboards 7 50 and language laboratories for more 1.13 0.38 22.54 very low exposure and practice of language. Developing a course website with 8 47 1.10 0.36 22.02 very low resources and information. Moderating online discussions to 9 52 develop students‘ critical thinking 1.10 0.37 21.92 very low and student-student interaction. Using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer and retrieve teaching and 10 48 1.06 0.28 21.15 very low learning materials and share them with students. Using Learning Management 11 51 Systems such as WebCT, Moodle, 1.03 0.20 20.68 very low etc. in teaching. Total average of the domain 1.44 0.28 28.86 very low It is clear from Table (5.6) that the averages of the statements of the domain ‗Using technology‘ ranged from (3.00) to (1.03) with corresponding percentages 213 ranged from (60.00%) to (20.68%). The total average of the statements of this domain was (1.44) out of (5) and its corresponding percentage was (28.86%). At the level of each statement of this domain, Table (5.6) reveals the following findings: - The highest rating was given to statement 42, Using common classroom technologies such as tape recorders, cassettes, etc., which got moderate estimation level and reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. It received a mean of (3.00) with a percentage of (60.00%). This statement represents (9.09%) of the total number of statements of this domain. - Ten statements out of eleven (90.91% of the total number of statements of this domain) got very low estimation level. The numbers of these statements are 49, 43, 44, 46, 45, 50, 47, 52, 48, and 51. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 1.80 (36.00%), 1.75 (35.01%), 1.36 (27.29%), 1.31 (26.29%), 1.23 (24.56%), 1.13 (22.54%), 1.10 (22.02%), 1.10 (21.92%), 1.06 (21.15%), and 1.03 (20.68%) respectively. - The lowest rating was given to statement 51, Using Learning Management systems such as WebCT, Moodle, etc. in teaching, which got very low estimation level. This statement received a mean of (1.03) and a percentage of (20.68%). These results indicate that Yemeni university English teachers practice all the competencies of the domain ‗Using technology‘ with a very low degree according to the norms stated for judging that, except one competency which is related to using common classroom technologies. They practice this competency with an acceptable degree. The researcher thinks that this may be because of the availability and simplicity of using common classroom technologies. In general, it can be stated that the process of teaching and learning in the English departments at Yemeni universities is limited to classroom. Teachers do not expand this process beyond the boundaries of the classroom and the time of lectures, which does not match with the characteristics of this age. It means also that Yemeni university English teachers still teach English 214 courses in a traditional way. By doing this, they deprive their students of the benefits of using technologies in the process of teaching and learning. In the researcher‘s opinion, there are many reasons that stand behind such results. These reasons represent a mixture of factors that relate to the facilities available, the universities themselves, or the faculty members‘ competence and attitudes and beliefs in using technologies in their teaching: - Yemeni university English teachers may not have enough skills or experience to use technologies in teaching and this may be due to the absence of training workshops and seminars on using technologies in the teaching and learning process. - They may not believe in the effectiveness of technologies in enhancing teaching and learning. - They may not be encouraged to use technologies in their teaching. - They may still believe in traditional ways of teaching. - The overload of Yemeni university English teachers may be considered an important factor in this regard. In fact, technologies may require at the beginning more time to plan for using them in teaching. - The teaching halls are not provided with most technologies that can be used for teaching English courses, such as interactive whiteboards, Data Show, etc. However, providing the required technologies does not guarantee and ensure effective use of them. The researcher found that the results of the domain ‗Using technology‘ of this study are consistent with those of Al-Subaiei (2010), which revealed that the degree of practicing the skills related to instruction aids and techniques by female faculty members of the College of Applied Sciences was weak, in the light of the total quality standards, from the perspective of female students of Umm Al-Qura University, but inconsistent with those of Elsaid (2010), which indicated that the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression of Zagazig University used technology in their teaching whenever possible. 215 5.2.1.4. The fourth domain: Human relations To identify the degree of practicing the teaching competencies of the domain ‗Human relations‘ by Yemeni university English teachers, the researcher calculated the means, the standard deviations, and the percentages for each statement of this domain and arranged them in descending order. The researcher also calculated these values for the domain as a whole as shown in Table (5.7). Table 5.7: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Domain „Human Relations‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Statement of competency Estimation M SD % 1 62 Calling students by their names. 3.30 1.05 65.95 moderate Setting up classroom rules based on 2 61 3.26 1.04 65.15 moderate respect and etiquettes. Giving praise and approval on 3 59 2.96 0.93 59.26 moderate students‘ comments and responses. Greeting students with a smile when 4 58 2.93 0.98 58.70 moderate meeting them. Building and maintaining good 5 53 2.81 0.81 56.22 moderate rapport (relation) with students. Developing constructive and 6 60 cooperative human relations among 2.66 0.99 53.24 moderate students. Using constructive humour in the 7 63 2.58 0.90 51.66 low classroom. Dealing with students in a 8 57 2.40 0.97 47.94 low democratic way. Sharing some personal information 9 54 2.31 0.90 46.26 low and experiences with students. Considering the psychological 10 55 2.16 1.00 43.26 low aspects of students. Considering the social and economic 11 56 2.10 1.04 41.98 low conditions of students. Total average of the domain 2.68 0.65 53.60 moderate It is clear from Table (5.7) that the averages of the statements of the domain ‗Human relations‘ ranged from (3.30) to (2.10) with corresponding percentages 216 ranged from (65.95%) to (41.98%). The total average of the statements of this domain was (2.68) out of (5) and its corresponding percentage was (53.60%). At the level of each statement of this domain, Table (5.7) reveals the following findings: - The highest rating was given to statement 62, Calling students by their names, which received a mean of (3.30) and a percentage of (65.95%), followed by statement 61, Setting up classroom rules based on respect and etiquettes, which received a mean of (3.26) and a percentage of (65.15%). Both statements reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. They got moderate estimation level, and they represent (18.18%) of the total number of statements of this domain. - Four more statements (36.36% of the total number of statements of this domain) got moderate estimation level, but they did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice, namely statements 59, 58, 53, and 60. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.96 (59.26%), 2.93 (58.70%), 2.81 (56.22%), and 2.66 (53.24%) respectively. - Five statements (45.45% of the total number of statements of this domain) got low estimation level, namely statements 63, 57, 54, 55, and 56. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.58 (51.66%), 2.40 (47.94%), 2.31 (46.26%), 2.16 (43.26%), and 2.10 (41.98%) respectively. - The lowest rating was given to statement 56, Considering the social and economic conditions of students, which received a mean of (2.10) and a percentage of (41.98%). Given these results, it can be stated that Yemeni university English teachers generally practice the competencies of the domain ‗Human relations‘ with a moderate degree according to the norms stated for judging the degree of practicing the teaching competencies in question. They practice only two competencies of this domain with an acceptable degree. These competencies are related to calling students by their names and setting up classroom rules based on respect and etiquettes. It is not strange that the degree of practicing these two statements reached the minimum standard limit 217 set for acceptable degree of practice. This can be explained by the ability of Yemeni university English teachers to identify their students and call them by their names, which may have a positive impact on students and encourage them to participate in classes, and by their desire to control and manage their classes through setting some rules. Table (5.7) also reveals that Yemeni university English teachers practice four more competencies with a moderate degree but not enough to be acceptable as they did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable degree of practice. These competencies are related to praising students on their comments and responses, greeting them with a smile when meeting them, building and maintaining rapport with students, developing constructive and cooperative human relations among students, and using constructive humour in the classroom. This indicates that Yemeni university English teachers‘ behaviours that can contribute to developing good relationship with and among students, students‘ participation, and creating a positive learning environment for their students should be more positive and supportive. Moreover, Table (5.7) indicates that Yemeni university English teachers practice four competencies with a low degree. Two competencies of these are related to dealing with students in a democratic way and sharing personal experiences and information with them. This indicates the desire of Yemeni university English teachers to keep barriers between them and their students and their desire to be the source of authority in the classroom. The other two competencies are related to considering the psychological aspects and the social and economic conditions of students. This indicates that many important aspects and conditions that may affect the learning of English students at Yemeni universities are still neglected. The researcher thinks that there are some reasons stand behind the results of this domain: - Most Yemeni university English teachers are not educationally and pedagogically qualified or trained. - They may still use traditional methods of teaching, which are not student- centred and which neglect establishing good rapport between the teacher and students and among students. 218 - They may be unaware of the importance of human relations in the classroom in creating a positive learning environment and enhancing students learning. - The absence of pedagogical training for Yemeni university teachers, including those of the English departments, which may result in unqualified university teachers who are unfamiliar with the importance of human aspects in the teaching and learning process. Here, the researcher finds it appropriate to refer to the study of Al-Ghazyuwat (2005), which indicated that students of social studies were not satisfied with the inhumane treatment and intolerance to opinions of the faculty members of the College of Educational Sciences at Mutah University and to the study of Jan (2010), which revealed that female postgraduate students were not satisfied with the inhumane treatment of female faculty members in educational departments of Umm Al-Qura University in Makkah. 5.2.1.5. The fifth domain: Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback To identify the degree of practicing the competencies of the domain ‗Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback‘ by Yemeni university English teachers, the researcher calculated the means, the standard deviations, and the percentages for each statement of this domain and arranged them in descending order. The researcher also calculated these values for the domain as a whole as shown in Table (5.8). 219 Table 5.8: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Statement of the Domain „Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback‟ Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No Statement of competency Estimation M SD % Assessing students with various 1 66 methods: activities, assignments, 2.77 0.94 55.44 moderate homework, tests, group projects, etc. Assessing students fairly and 2 71 2.60 0.92 51.94 low precisely. Using assessment strategies 3 64 appropriate for the learning 2.45 0.86 48.99 low objectives. Giving students immediate and constructive feedback on their 4 72 2.44 0.82 48.71 low performance in the classroom, in tests and exams, and in assignments. Using appropriate assessment 5 65 strategies in consistency with 2.27 0.89 45.46 low teaching methodology. Designing assessment activities that 6 70 2.01 0.92 40.19 low enhance collaborative learning. Creating opportunities for students‘ 7 68 1.74 0.73 34.73 very low self-assessment. Creating opportunities for students 8 69 1.70 0.69 33.95 very low to carry out peer-assessment. Using the evaluation data to improve 9 73 or change the current way of 1.68 0.82 33.61 very low teaching. Using technology to assess students 10 67 1.10 0.38 22.02 very low and to give them feedback. Total average of the domain 2.08 0.51 41.50 low Table (5.8) reveals that the averages of the statements of the domain ‗Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback‘ ranged from (2.77) to (1.10) with corresponding percentages ranged from (55.44%) to (22.02%). The total average of the statements of this domain was (2.08) out of (5) and its corresponding percentage was (41.50%). 211 At the level of each statement of this domain, Table (5.8) reveals the following findings: - No statement of this domain reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice, i.e., no statement received a mean of (3) or more out of (5). - The highest rating was given to statement 66, Assessing students with various methods: activities, assignments, homework, tests, group projects, etc., which received a mean of (2.77) and a percentage of (55.44%). This statement got moderate estimation level, and it represents (10%) of the total number of statements of this domain. - Five statements out of ten (50% of the total number of statements of this domain) got low estimation level, namely statements 71, 64, 72, 65, and 70. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 2.60 (51.94%), 2.45 (48.99%), 2.44 (48.71%), 2.27 (45.46%), and 2.01 (40.19%) respectively. - Four statements out of ten (40% of the total number of statements of this domain) got very low estimation level, namely statements 68, 69, 73, and 67. The means and the corresponding percentages (shown in parentheses) of these statements were 1.74 (34.73%), 1.70 (33.95%), 1.68 (33.61%), and 1.10 (22.02%) respectively. - The lowest rating was given to statement 67, Using technology to assess students and to give them feedback, which received a mean of (1.10) and a percentage of (22.02%). With these results, it can be stated that Yemeni university English teachers practice the competencies of the domain ‗Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback‘ with a low degree according to the norms stated for judging the degree of practicing the teaching competencies under investigation. They practice one competency of this domain with a moderate degree, five competencies with a low degree, and four competencies with a very low degree. It is clear from Table (5.8) that the competency that is practiced with a moderate degree is related to assessing students with various methods. It is also clear that the competencies that are practiced with a low degree are related to assessing 211 students precisely in a way that is appropriate for the learning objectives and in consistency with teaching methodology, giving students constructive feedback on their performance, and enhancing collaborative learning through assessment activities. The competencies which are practiced with a very low degree are those related to alternative assessment methods (self-assessment and peer- assessment) and using technology as a tool of assessment. A fourth competency which is practiced with a very low degree is related to using the data of evaluation to improve or change the current way of teaching. This does not match with the fact that the process of assessment and evaluation is not an end in itself. In the researcher‘s opinion, there are a number of reasons that stand behind the results of this domain: - Most Yemeni university English teachers are not prepared educationally and pedagogically to be teachers. Therefore, they may have no idea about the various forms of assessment, including the alternative forms of assessment or about how to use technology as a tool of assessment, i.e., technology-based assessment. - The large number of students in the classroom may be another reason that makes Yemeni university English teachers depend on traditional methods of assessment. - The nature of evaluation system and the distribution of marks that are followed by Yemeni universities can be a reason too. In most cases, there are a mid-term exam and a final-term exam for each course. Usually, (70%) of the course grade is based on the final exam and (30%) or (20%) on the mid-term exam if (10%) is based on assignments or on students‘ attendance for lectures. This makes Yemeni university English teachers consider exams as the main tool for assessing students. This agrees, to a large extent, with what Al-Qudah and Al-Bursan (2012) stated regarding the evaluation methods applied in higher education. Qudah and Al-Bursan claimed that the nature of assessment in higher education mainly focuses on measuring the information stored in students‘ memories. 212 Comparing the results of the domain ‗Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback‘ of this study with the results of some previous studies; the researcher can state that there are some similarities between this study and some previous studies such as Al-Ghazyuwat (2005) and Jan (2010), which indicated that students were not satisfied with the use of the faculty members for the traditional methods of teaching and evaluation; Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), which revealed that the level of practicing the teaching skills of assessment by the faculty members of the College of Education at Sultan Qaboos University was low from the perspective of students; Al- Ser (2004), which indicated that the averages of the evaluative estimations for the evaluation skills of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza did not reach the level of quality; and Al-Khuthaylah (2000), which indicated that the faculty members of King Saud University depended mainly on traditional ways of evaluation as perceived by female students. However, the researcher found that the results of this domain are not consistent with those of Elsaid (2010), which revealed that the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics used a variety of tools and methods of evaluation which are appropriate for learning outcomes. At the level of the whole instrument, it was found that Yemeni university English teachers practice only nine competencies (12.33% of the total number of competencies of the whole instrument) with an acceptable degree, i.e., the practice degree of these competencies reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice which was determined by receiving a mean of (3) or more out of (5); nineteen competencies (26.03% of the total number of statements of the whole instrument) with a moderate degree, but their degree of practice did not reach the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice; twenty-nine competencies (39.73% of the total number of statements of the whole instrument) with a low degree, and sixteen competencies (21.92% of the total number of statements of the whole instrument) with a very low degree. In Table (5.9), the researcher presents a full picture of the target sample responses to the domains and the study instrument as a whole. This table shows the averages, the standard deviations, and the percentages of the target sample responses to the domains of the study instrument in descending order. It also shows these values for the study instrument as a whole. 213 Table 5.9: Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Each Domain of the Study Instrument Sorted in Descending Order Degree of practice Rank No of domain Estimation Domain M SD % 1 4 Human relations 2.68 0.65 53.60 moderate 2 2 Implementing teaching 2.60 0.49 51.97 low 3 1 Planning teaching 2.33 0.58 46.67 low Assessment, evaluation, 4 5 2.08 0.51 41.50 low and giving feedback 5 3 Using technology 1.44 0.28 28.86 very low Total average of the whole instrument 2.33 0.42 46.50 low 5 4 3 2.68 Degree of practice 2 2.60 2.33 2.08 1 1.44 0 Domains of the study instrument Figure 5.1: Means of the degree of practice of the five domains of the study instrument. 214 It is clear from Table (5.9) and Figure (5.1) that no domain reached the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice. The averages of the five domains ranged from (2.68) to (1.44) with percentages ranged from (53.60%) to (28.86%). The total mean score of the whole instrument is (2.33) out of (5) and the total percentage is (46.50%). This means that no domain of the five domains got high estimation level or close to it. The domain ‗Human relations‘ came in the first rank (M = 2.68, Percentage = 53.60%), followed by the domain ‗Implementing teaching‘ (M = 2.60, Percentage = 51.97%). The domain ‗Planning teaching‘ came in the third rank (M = 2.33, Percentage = 46.67%), followed by the domain ‗Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback‘ (M = 2.08, Percentage = 41.50%). In the last rank came the domain ‗Using technology‘ (M = 1.44, Percentage = 28.86%). With these results, it is clear that the level of university teaching in the English departments of Yemeni universities is not satisfactory, which urges Yemeni universities to create opportunities for training Yemeni university English teachers in teaching with a view to improving the quality of teaching that they offer in English departments. The researcher thinks that there are several reasons that stand behind the deficiency in the practice of Yemeni university English teacher for the teaching competencies in question and that explain the results of the current study: - Most Yemeni university English teachers did not take any pedagogical disciplines during their study because they are graduates of colleges where pedagogical disciplines are not taught. - The absence of pedagogical and educational preparation and training for Yemeni university English teachers, especially that the criteria of appointing new faculty members to teach in English departments at Yemeni universities give more concern to academic discipline knowledge than pedagogical competence. - The limited availability of educational resources and facilities that can be used by Yemeni university English teachers in their teaching. - Because of the promotion policy of Yemeni universities, more concern and attention is given to research than teaching. This may make Yemeni university English teachers pay no attention to their teaching performance. 215 - The absence of teaching evaluation systems which can help to focus attention on the practice of good teaching to create a culture in which teaching is highly valued. - The university environment is not encouraging and promotive for the faculty members to improve their teaching as there are no rules and regulations that encourage the faculty members in this regard (Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, 2006, p 25). - The large number of students in the classroom may play a negative role in adopting Yemeni university English teachers for traditional methods of teaching, especially lecturing. According to the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (2006), the large number of students is considered one of the most important factors which affect the quality of university instruction in Yemen (p. 36). - The decline in the faculty members‘ job satisfaction due to low income can be a vital reason in this regard. The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (2006) indicated that the low income of the faculty members makes them try to increase their income by working besides their jobs as university teachers (p. 25). - The workload of the faculty members can be considered another reason. Most Yemeni university English teachers are overloaded and teach in more than one college. It is true that most of the previous studies dealt with teaching skills or competencies of the faculty members of different universities and different majors other than English, and the current study is limited to the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers; however, there are still some similarities between them. In general, the results of the current study are consistent with those of some previous studies, such as Al-Khuthaylah (2000), Al-Gifri (2002), Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), Al-Ghazyuwat (2005), and Al-Kubaisi (2011). All these studies highlighted the low quality of university teaching due to the lack of the faculty members for the necessary teaching skills and competencies. Therefore, it is suggested and recommended conducting training courses and workshops for faculty members to develop their teaching competencies. 216 On the other hand, the results of the current study are not consistent with those of Al-Ser (2004), which indicated that the average of the evaluative estimations for total teaching skills of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza reached the level of quality from the perspective of the faculty members themselves. They are also different from the results of Elsaid (2010), which indicated that the reality of the teaching skills of the faculty members of the Department of Exercise and Gymnastics and Mentor Expression of Zagazig University was good. 5.2.2. The Second question Are there any statistically significant differences in the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of the sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz)? Here, the researcher used one-way analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA) to answer the first part of this question: whether there are statistically significant differences according to the variable of the sample type (university English teachers, students, and chairmen of English departments). The researcher also used the same statistical tool to answer the second part of the question: whether there are statistically significant differences according to the variable of geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz). The results of using one-way ANOVA to identify whether there are statistically significant differences according to the variable of the sample type are shown in Table (5.10). 217 Table 5.10: Results of One-way ANOVA Analysis for the Variable of „Sample Type‟ Order Source of Sum of Mean Domain df F Sig. Variance Squares Square Between Groups 65.881 2 32.941 Planning 0.000 Within Groups 154.174 642 0.240 137.169 teaching Total 220.055 644 Between Groups 34.932 2 17.466 Implementing 0.000 Within Groups 116.570 642 0.182 96.192 teaching Total 151.502 644 Between Groups 9.095 2 4.548 Using 0.000 Within Groups 41.791 642 0.065 69.859 technology Total 50.886 644 Between Groups 62.930 2 31.465 Human 0.000 Within Groups 209.707 642 0.327 96.327 relations Total 272.637 644 Assessment, Between Groups 49.571 2 24.786 evaluation, 0.000 Within Groups 116.632 642 0.182 136.432 and giving feedback Total 166.203 644 Between Groups 39.035 2 19.518 The whole 167.444 0.000 Within Groups 74.833 642 0.117 instrument Total 113.868 644 It is clear from Table (5.10) that for each and every domain and at the level of the whole instrument, there were statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses according to the variable of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) at the (0.05) level of significance. The F-values for the five domains of the study instrument (Planning teaching; Implementing teaching; Using technology; Human relation; and Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback) were (137.169), (96.192), (69.859), (96.327), and (136.432) respectively; indicating significant differences at α 218 = 0.05 since for all the five domains the p-values < 0.05 (p = 0.000). At the level of the whole instrument, the F-value was (167.444), and it was significant at α = 0.05 since p < 0.05 (p = 0.000). This means that the three types of sample gave different estimations for the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers. Figure (5.2) shows the means of the degree of practice of each domain and the study instrument as a whole according to the variable of ‗sample type‘. Degree of practice 5 4 3.74 3 3.39 3.38 3.38 3.32 3.15 3.14 3 2.98 2.83 2.59 2.53 2 2.25 2.24 1.99 1.91 1.81 1 1.41 0 teachers teachers teachers teachers teachers teachers students students students students students students chairmen chairmen chairmen chairmen chairmen chairmen Domain1 Domain 2 Domain 3 Domain 4 Domain 5 Whole instrument Domain 1 (Planning teaching), Domain 2 (Implementing teaching), Domain 3 (Using technology), Domain 4 (Human relations), and Domain 5 (Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback) Figure 5.2: Means of the degree of practice according to the variable of ‘sample type.’ To determine the sources of these differences, the researcher used Scheffé test. The results of this test are shown in Table (5.11). 219 Table 5.11: Results of Scheffé Test for the Differences in the Averages According to the Variable of „Sample Type‟ Sample Order Sample Mean Std. Domain M Sig. type (I) type (J) Difference (I-J) Error Teachers - 1.152* 0.073 0.000 Students 2.24 Chairmen - 1.082* 0.201 0.000 Planning Students 1.152* 0.073 0.000 Teachers 3.39 teaching Chairmen 0.069 0.211 0.948 Students 1.082* 0.201 0.000 Chairmen 3.32 Teachers - 0.069 0.212 0.948 Teachers - 0.856* 0.063 0.000 Students 2.53 Chairmen - 0.616* 0.175 0.002 Implementing Students 0.856* 0.063 0.000 Teachers 3.38 teaching Chairmen 0.239 0.184 0.431 Students 0.616* 0.175 0.002 Chairmen 3.14 Teachers - 0.239 0.184 0.431 Teachers - 0.405* 0.038 0.000 Students 1.41 Chairmen - 0.510* 0.105 0.000 Using Students 0.405* 0.038 0.000 Teachers 1.81 technology Chairmen - 0.155 0.110 0.372 Students 0.510* 0.105 0.000 Chairmen 1.91 Teachers 0.155 0.110 0.372 Teachers - 1.151* 0.085 0.000 Students 2.59 Chairmen - 0.794* 0.235 0.003 Human Students 1.151* 0.085 0.000 Teachers 3.74 relations Chairmen 0.358 0.247 0.351 Students 0.794* 0.235 0.003 Chairmen 3.38 Teachers - 0.358 0.247 0.351 Teachers - 1.009* 0.063 0.000 Students 1.99 Chairmen - 0.843* 0.175 0.000 Assessment, evaluation, Students 1.009* 0.063 0.000 Teachers 3.00 and giving Chairmen 0.167 0.184 0.665 feedback Students 0.843* 0.175 0.000 Chairmen 2.83 Teachers - 0.167 0.184 0.665 Teachers - 0.898* 0.051 0.000 Students 2.25 Chairmen - 0.727* 0.140 0.000 The whole Students 0.898* 0.051 0.000 Teachers 3.15 instrument Chairmen 0.171 0.148 0.513 Students 0.727* 0.140 0.000 Chairmen 2.98 Teachers - 0.171 0.148 0.513 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. 221 It is clear from Table (5.11) that the statistically significant differences were found in the means of the target sample responses, at the level of each and every domain and the whole instrument, between teachers and students on the one hand and between students and chairmen on the other hand. As Table (5.11) and Figure (5.2) show, at the level of the whole instrument, the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers was perceived as low by the students (M = 2.25) and as moderate by the teachers (M = 3.15) and the chairmen (M = 2.98). However, there were no statistically significant differences between the means of responses of teachers and chairmen as Table (5.11) indicates. See Appendix (VI) for more information. It seems that the students are not satisfied with the teaching performance of their teachers. This is clear from their responses to the statements of each and every domain of the study instrument. They may feel that the traditional ways of teaching English courses in English departments at Yemeni universities does not meet their needs and interests. These findings are in agreement with the findings and results of many previous studies, such as Al-Khuthaylah (2000), Al-Gifri (2002), Al-Ghazyuwat (2005), Jan (2010), and Al-Subaiei (2010). In contrast, Yemeni university English teachers are quite satisfied with the teaching level in English departments. This is clear from their responses to the statements of the study instrument. In all the domains of the study instrument, except in the domain of ‗Using technology,‘ they rated their practice for the teaching competencies in question above the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice (i.e., 3 degrees or more out of 5). In this, the study is different from Silva (2001), which indicated that the pedagogical competence of the professors at the Federal University in Brazil was not enough from the overview of the professors themselves. This was explained by the fact that the professors at the Federal University did not have pedagogical disciplines during their study, their position is more concerned with research than teaching, and the criteria of employment which give more concern to academic discipline knowledge than pedagogical competence. It is also different from the study of Al-Kubaisi (2011), which indicated that there was a decline in the quality level of university teaching from the perspective of the faculty members of Al-Anbar University, which might be attributed to the fact that some of 221 the faculty members of scientific divisions did not receive enough educational preparation. However, the results of the current study are quite similar to those of Al- Ser (2004), which indicated that the averages of the evaluative estimations for the total teaching skills reached the level of quality from the perspective of the faculty members of Al-AQSA University in Gaza. In the researcher‘s opinion, Yemeni university English teachers may not be aware of their teaching performance and feel that they are already doing a good job. This goes with what Seldin (1995) stated, ―Some university teachers fail to recognize the need for improvement in their own teaching. They think that they are already doing a good job in the classroom, a perception that reduces their interest in teaching improvement programs‖ (p. 2). The evaluation of the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers was quite different from that of students and quite similar to that of teachers from the perspective of the chairmen of English departments. As Table (5.11) and Figure (5.2) show, the chairmen of English departments rated the practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies in question below the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice at the level of the whole instrument and two more domains (Using technology and Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback) and above the minimum standard limit set for acceptable practice at the level of three domains, namely Planning teaching, Implementing teaching, and Human relations. The researcher found that there are some similarities and some differences between the results of the current study and those of Al-Hattami, Muammar, and Elmahdi (2013), which highlighted – from the perspective of faculty members, students, chairmen and colleges‘ boards, colleges‘ deans, and deanships‘ deans – the need and importance of providing training programmes to improve the teaching competencies of the faculty members of the Saudi universities in various areas, including course development and design, teaching strategies, information technology, communication skills, and assessment. 222 The results of using one-way ANOVA to identify whether there are statistically significant differences according to the variable of geography are shown in Table (5.12). Table 5.12: Results of One-way ANOVA Analysis for the Variable of „Geography‟ Order Source of Sum of Mean Domain df F Sig. Variance Squares Square Between Groups 1.224 2 0.612 Planning Within Groups 218.831 642 0.341 1.795 0.167 teaching Total 220.055 644 Between Groups 0.718 2 0.359 Implementin Within Groups 150.784 642 0.235 1.528 0.218 g teaching Total 151.502 644 Between Groups 0.043 2 0.021 Using Within Groups 50.843 642 0.079 0.271 0.762 technology Total 50.886 644 Between Groups 1.904 2 0.952 Human Within Groups 270.732 642 0.422 2.258 0.105 relations Total 272.636 644 Assessment, Between Groups 0.589 2 0.294 evaluation, Within Groups 165.615 642 0.258 1.141 0.320 and giving feedback Total 166.204 644 Between Groups 0.511 2 0.255 The whole Within Groups 113.358 642 0.177 1.447 0.236 instrument Total 113.869 644 It is clear from Table (5.12) that for each and every domain and at the level of the whole instrument, there were no statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses according to the variable of geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz) at the (0.05) level of significance. The F-values for the five domains of the study instrument (Planning teaching, Implementing teaching, Using technology, 223 Human relation, and Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback) were (1.795), (1.528), (0.271), (2.258), and (1.141) respectively; indicating non-significant differences at α = 0.05 since for all the five domains the p-values > 0.05 (the p-values for the five domains were 0.167, 0.218, 0.762, 0.105, and 0.320 respectively). At the level of the whole instrument, the F-value was (1.447), and it was not significant at α = 0.05 since p > 0.05 (p = 0.236). See Appendix (VII) for more information. In the researcher‘s opinion, this may be due to the similarity of conditions in which the process of teaching and learning in the English departments of Yemeni universities takes place. In fact, all Yemeni universities share the same circumstances. They are suffering from the lack of facilities necessary for creating effective learning environments and the absence of pedagogical training for the faculty. In all Yemeni universities, the same rules and regulations are followed when appointing English teachers to teach in English departments; more concern is given to subject matter knowledge than pedagogical competence. Moreover, all Yemeni universities are suffering from the lack of workshops, seminars, and training programmes that aim at improving the teaching performance of the faculty members. 5.3.3. The third question What are the components of the proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies which they need in the light of this age characteristics? The process of constructing the proposed training programme passed through some procedures and stages which referred to in the previous chapter. After preparing the first version of the proposed training programme, the researcher sent it to a group of experts, requesting them to review it and make the necessary modifications that they think are important. In the light of the modifications suggested by the referees, the researcher prepared the revised version of the proposed training programme. Here, the researcher refers to the rationale for designing the proposed training programme, its vision, and its various components in detail: 224 5.3.3.1. Rationale behind designing the proposed training programme There are some excuses that stand behind the researcher‘ decision to design the proposed training programme: - The main excuse for designing the proposed training programme was the results of administering the questionnaire to the target sample which revealed that Yemeni university English teachers lack most the teaching competencies of the five domains mentioned in the study instrument. Yemeni university English teachers‘ lack of teaching competencies is not the same in all the domains in question; the level of their practice for the teaching competencies ranged from moderate to low. Therefore, the researcher proceeded with the process of designing the proposed training programme which aims at developing the teaching competencies that Yemeni university English teachers need to teach effectively. - Most Yemeni university English teachers did not take pedagogical disciplines during their study. They depend on their personal experience and practice in teaching. However, university teaching should not be left to chance. It requires more structured approaches to be developed. Therefore, a training programme like the one proposed in the current study is necessary for Yemeni university English teachers to provide them with the teaching competencies that they need to make their teaching effective. - The recommendations and suggestions that many previous studies made regarding conducting seminars, workshops, training courses and programmes with a view to developing the teaching competencies of university teachers. - The national and international tendencies towards developing university teaching which some of them went to consider training university teachers in teaching necessary and must be compulsory. - The desire of Yemeni universities to improve the quality of their outcomes, including that of the English departments, which is tied up with the quality of teaching that their faculty members offer. 225 - The desire of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research to enhance the quality of higher education, including that of the English departments to meet the total quality standards. The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research established a Council of Academic Accreditation and Quality Assurance at the level of the ministry and directorates or centres for academic development and quality assurance at the level of each university which are responsible for academic development. - The learning environment of higher education has changed a lot. University teachers are required now to be able to integrate educational technologies into their teaching and use new pedagogical strategies and assessment methods that enhance the role of students as a center of the learning process. 5.3.3.2. Vision of the proposed training programme The vision of the current proposed training programme is based on the desire of Yemeni universities to improve the quality of teaching that they offer. This desire cannot be achieved unless their faculty members are competent pedagogically. It is also based on the growing emphasis on the importance of possessing university teachers for teaching skills and competencies. The ultimate goal of the current proposed training programme is training Yemeni university English teachers to become competent pedagogically in terms of - planning teaching and making it effective through the use of various teaching strategies, methods, and materials to meet the various needs and learning styles of students and through structuring the physical environment of the classroom in a way that makes interaction in the classroom easy and the learning environment more comfortable which, in turn, results in learning occurrence; - communicating effectively nonverbally with students, which is very important in creating a lively learning environment; 226 - integrating technologies into teaching, which can make the process of teaching and learning in the English departments of Yemeni universities more effective, enjoyable, and interesting; - becoming more aware of the importance of human relations in the process of teaching and learning and building and maintaining rapport with and among students, which is very essential in the process of teaching and learning; and - assessing students properly using various tools and methods, giving them constructive feedback on their performance, interpreting assessment results, and evaluating teaching, courses, and assessment tools. 5.3.3.3. Components of the proposed training programme To highlight the various components of the proposed training programme, the researcher represents them diagrammatically in Figure (5.3). 227 The proposed training programme for developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers Goals & Objectives of each Training Domain Assessment, Planning Implementing Using Human Evaluation, and Teaching Teaching Technology Relations Giving Feedback (1) goal (1) goal (1) goal (1) goal (1) goal (10) objectives (23) objectives (11) objectives (8) objectives (10) objectives Content & Topics (3) topics (15) topics (13) topics (4) topics (13) topics (21) sub-topics (90) sub-topics (72) sub-topics (28) sub-topics (89) sub-topics related to related to related to related to related to Planning Implementing Using Human Assessment, Teaching Teaching Technology Relations Evaluation, and Giving Feedback Methods – Aids – Tools (14) Training instruction methods (12) Training aids (6) Evaluation tools The Procedures of Implementing the Training Programme Selecting appropriate trainers Selecting trainees Determining a location Determining a timetable Determining the responsible body Determining a management Determining motives for participants Figure 5.3: Diagrammatic representation of the proposed training programme. 228 Here, the researcher presents the proposed training programme that can be used to develop the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in detail: The First Part: Goals and Objectives A) The goals The proposed training programme aims at improving the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers 1. in planning teaching; 2. in implementing teaching in terms of - structuring the physical classroom environment, - teaching strategies, and - non-verbal communication; 3. in using technologies such as CALL in teaching; 4. in human relations; and 5. in assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. 229 B) The objectives The objectives of the proposed training programme indicate what the participants will possess and be able to do due to being trained on the topics of the proposed training programme. In other words, Yemeni university English teachers trained by the proposed training programme will be able to: 1. set course goals and write objectives. 2. determine appropriate course content. 3. determine some motivational strategies for their students. Planning teaching domain 4. determine instructional strategies to achieve the learning objectives. 5. select instructional materials and resources that are appropriate for achieving course goals and objectives. 6. select appropriate instructional aids to achieve the teaching goals and objectives. 7. determine appropriate assessment tools for students learning. 8. determine the methods of getting feedback about the course content, teaching strategies, and assessment procedures. 9. plan lectures effectively. 10. prepare course outline including all the basic components, such as goals, objectives, topics, assessment methods, etc. a. Physical classroom environment 1. arrange students seating (rows, clusters, circles, pairs, u-shape) Implementing teaching domain according to activities. 2. guide students to decorate the classroom with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create English related and motivating environment. 3. use various types of music in accordance with activities. 231 B) The objectives 4. introduce lecture topics effectively. 5. motivate students and draw their attention to focus on lectures . 6. establish connection between lectures topics. 7. use a variety of instructional strategies and techniques such as lecturing, whole class discussion, group discussion, cooperative groups, peer coaching, etc. to support students‘ learning and enhance their motivation. b. Teaching strategies 8. present English language skills and sub-skills effectively. 9. present English language systems (grammar, vocabulary, functions, and pronunciation) effectively. 10. use appropriate teaching materials such as textbooks, audio-visual materials, realia, etc. 11. use various instructional activities to facilitate student learning. Implementing teaching domain 12. manage students‘ activities effectively. 13. encourage students to participate in classroom activities, such as whole class discussions, group work, role play, simulations, etc. 14. create positive classroom atmosphere through constructive humour and fun. 15. get feedback from students about teaching. 16. demonstrate familiarity with the process of communication in order to communicate with students effectively. 17. demonstrate familiarity with the importance of non-verbal c. Non-verbal communication communication in the classroom. 18. demonstrate familiarity with the barriers to effective communication. 19. demonstrate familiarity with the components of non-verbal communication. 20. recognise students‘ thoughts and feelings through their body language. 21. motivate and keep students attentive through regular eye contact and facial expressions. 22. demonstrate familiarity with the role and importance of moving in the class and keeping appropriate distance from students. 23. demonstrate familiarity with the vocal elements of paralanguage and how to use them effectively. 231 B) The objectives 1. demonstrate familiarity with the importance and the role of using technologies in teaching. 2. use multimedia in teaching. 3. use Presentation software such as PowerPoint. 4. use Language Labs to create opportunities for students to practice English. Using technology domain 5. use the interactive whiteboard as an instructional tool. 6. use Internet-based communication tools such as Messenger, Facebook, Weblogs, and e-mail to communicate with students and to develop their English skills and collaborative learning. 7. moderate and facilitate online discussions to develop students‘ critical thinking and student-student interaction. 8. use the Learning Management Systems (Moodle and Blackboard) in teaching. 9. develop a web-based course. 10. use file sharing services such as File Transfer Protocol to share files. 11. use and create WebQuests to enhance students‘ literacy skills of English language. 1. demonstrate familiarity with the importance of building rapport with students. 2. demonstrate familiarity with the characteristics of good teacher- student relationship. Human relations 3. build and maintain good rapport with students. 4. develop interpersonal relationships and gain students‘ trust through sharing experiences and personal information. 5. demonstrate familiarity with the internal and external factors that can influence on students‘ learning. 6. adopt the humanistic approach to dealing with students. 7. create a comfortable learning environment. 8. develop constructive and cooperative human relations among students. 232 B) The objectives 1. demonstrate familiarity with the function, types, principles, methods, Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback domain and techniques of assessment. 2. relate the assessment methods to the objectives, the content of the course, and the teaching methodology. 3. use formative assessment activities. 4. assess students through alternative methods including self- and peer- assessment. 5. use technology to assess students and to give them feedback. 6. develop assessment processes and tools appropriate for assessing collaborative learning. 7. give clear test instructions. 8. write various types of questions. 9. give students constructive feedback both oral and written on their performance. 10. interpret test scores and report assessment findings. 233 The Second Part: The content and topics of the proposed training programme Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept, the importance, and the purposes of instructional planning - The nature of instructional planning in higher education Instructional - Steps of planning process 2 4 6 3 planning - Components of an instructional plan - Descriptors for instructional planning - Evaluating instructional plans - Some samples of instructional plans Planning Teaching - Steps of planning a college course - Contextual influences on a course planning - Communicating course plans to students - A backwards design approach to planning a course Planning 2 4 6 3 courses - A five- step systematic approach to course design and planning (analyzing, planning, conducting, assessing, and reflecting on your teaching) - Points considered while planning courses 234 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - Setting goals and writing objectives - Determining topics and selecting content - Choosing instructional strategies, methods, and activities Planning Teaching Planning - Selecting motivational strategies in teaching teaching English as a foreign language 4 4 8 4 in higher - Selecting teaching aids and instructional education materials - Selecting assessment methods and techniques - Preparing a course outline - Planning lectures 235 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept and importance of physical classroom environment - Descriptors and principles of arranging Classroom the physical classroom environment 1 1 2 1 arrangement - Ways and techniques of arranging the seating of students in the classroom - Descriptors for cooperative learning groups - The importance of decorating classrooms - Things to consider regarding classroom decoration Decorating a. Physical classroom environment - The pedagogical power of posters the Implementing Teaching classroom - Criteria of posters 1 1 2 1 with - Characteristics of posters posters - Strategies of maximizing the educational value of posters - Visual posting strategies - The concept and nature of music - Reasons and benefits of using music in the classroom - The influence of music on mood - The effects of music on classroom Using music in management 3 3 6 3 the - Music and learning classroom - The effects of music on language acquisition - Music and learning ESL/EFL - Criteria for choosing what music to play - Music for different activities 236 Hours allotted Number of sessions The content Theoretical Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The importance of attracting students‘ attention for topics at the beginning of Preparing lectures students - Techniques of attracting students‘ 1 1 2 1 for the lecture attention - Motivating students to the topic - Presenting overview - Lecture - Whole class discussion - Small group work Implementing Teaching b. Teaching Strategies - Pair work - Solowork Methods of - Role play instruction 4 4 8 4 - Integrating technology Delivery - Cooperative learning - Practice - Questions - Instructional games - Debate - Approaches of teaching English Teaching - Methods of teaching English English - Techniques and strategies of teaching language 4 6 10 5 English skills skills and systems - Techniques and strategies of teaching English systems 237 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of instructional materials - The importance of instructional materials Instructional - Procedures of selecting instructional materials 2 2 4 2 materials - Types of instructional materials - Developing instructional materials - The concept of instructional activity - Principles of instructional activities Instructional - Implementing Teaching How to design an instructional activity b. Teaching Strategies 2 2 4 2 activities - The importance of using various instructional activities - The concept of classroom management - Goals of classroom management - Roles and responsibilities of teacher and students in managing classroom activities Managing students’ - Classrrom interaction 2 2 4 2 activities - Runing activities - Grouping and seating learners - Giving instructions - Mentoring activities - Timing activities 238 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of motivation - Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation - How to motivate students? - The responsibility of motivating students - Ingredients for improving student Motivation and motivation 2 2 4 2 motivating - Ways of motivating EFL students in the students classroom - Factors that affect motivation - Encouraging active learning Implementing Teaching b. Teaching Strategies - Ways to encourage students to ask questions - The concept of humour - Reasons of using humour in the Humour in the classroom 1 1 2 1 classroom - Techniques for using humour and fun in the classroom - Sources and methods of feedback on teaching (self, academic staff, students) - Techniques of getting feedback about Feedback teaching 2 2 4 2 on teaching - Collegial feedback on teaching - The process for peer review of teaching - The benefits of peer review of teaching - Protocols for peer review 239 Hours allotted Number of sessions The content Theoretical Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of communication - The importance of communication - Process of communication Communication - Types of communication 1 1 2 1 - Barriers to effective communication - The nature of instructional communication c. Nonverbal communication - The concept of nonverbal Implementing Teaching communication - The importance of nonverbal communication in the classroom Nonverbal - Tools of nonverbal communication communication 2 2 4 2 - Functions and roles of nonverbal communication in the classroom - The effect of nonverbal tools of communication on the teaching learning process - The concept of paralanguage - The features of paralanguage Paralanguage 1 1 2 1 - The importance of paralanguage features in the classroom 241 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept and importance of instructional technology - Principles of using technology in the classroom - The historical development of CALL Instructional - Requirements of teaching with 2 -- 2 1 technology technology - Reasons of using technology in ELT - Barriers to adapting technologies for teaching and learning English - The role of teachers in virtual learning environment Using Technology - The concept of multimedia - Characteristics of multimedia - The importance and benefits of using multimedia in teaching English - Teaching English using multimedia Multimedia - Theories of using multimedia in English 2 2 4 2 teaching - Principles of using multimedia in English teaching - Multimedia tools used for teaching - The concept of hypermedia - The concept of PowerPoint - Advantages of using PowerPoint PowerPoint - Principles of PowerPoint presentation 2 4 6 3 Presentation - The uses of PowerPoint - Creating a PowerPoint presentation 241 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - Advantages of using videos - The quality of videos used in the classroom - The phases of viewing videos Videos 2 2 4 2 - Techniques for using videos in the classroom - Using videos to promote language learning - What is a Language Lab? - The importance of using Language Labs in the language learning process Using Technology Language - The benefits of using Language Labs in 2 4 6 3 Labs English language teaching and learning - The uses of Language Labs in English language teaching and learning - The concept of interactive whiteboards - How interactive whiteboards work - The benefits of the interactive whiteboards - Some available products of the Interactive interactive whiteboards 2 4 6 3 whiteboards - The interactive whiteboards software tools - The uses of interactive whiteboards - Using the interactive whiteboards in a foreign language classroom 242 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of virtual learning environments - The benefits of virtual learning environments Virtual - The available products of virtual learning 2 4 6 3 learning environments environments - Tools of virtual learning environments - Using the tools and products of virtual learning environments in teaching and learning English Using Technology - The concepts of synchronous and asynchronous communication Synchronous - Tools of synchronous communication & - Using synchronous communication tools asynchronous 2 4 6 3 in teaching and learning EFL tools of communication - Tools of asynchronous communication - Using asynchronous communication tools in teaching and learning EFL - Benefits of online discussions - Strategies for moderating online Online discussions 1 1 2 1 discussions - Instructor/peer facilitation in online discussions 243 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of (LMSs) - The products of LMSs Learning - The characteristics and features of LMSs Management - The benefits of using LMSs in teaching systems - Barriers to using LMSs in teaching 2 4 6 3 (LMSs) - LMSs learning materials - Using MLSs in teaching in higher education - Using MLSs in teaching English language courses - The concept of (FTP) File Transfer - Benefits of (FTP) 1 1 2 1 Protocol - Accessing (FTP) websites and download files Using Technology (FTP) - How to upload files to an (FTP) website - The concept of web-based courses - Steps of developing web-based courses Web-based - The concept of WebQuests courses and - Design, implementation and evaluation activities of web-based activities (WebQuests) 2 4 6 3 - Types of web-based language learning activities - Using web-based activities in the ELT classroom - The concept of e-learning - The benefits of e-learning - Delivery systems in e-learning E-learning 2 2 4 2 - Supporting learning and teaching English through e-learning - Nature of e-learning courses 244 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of rapport - The benefits and reasons of establishing rapport with students - Factors for building rapport Rapport 2 2 4 2 - Strategies and teachers behaviours for developing rapport with students - Tips for building rapport - Cultural barriers of building rapport - The nature of teacher-students relationship in higher education Teacher- - Characteristics of good teacher-student students relationship relationship Human Relations and - Ways of developing good teacher- 2 2 4 2 relationships students relationships. among - Classroom connectedness students - Developing relationships among students - The concept of humanism - The importance of humanism in teaching - Characteristics of the humanist teacher The - The humanistic approach to education humanistic - Humanistic approach to English 4 2 6 3 approach to education language teaching - Principles of humanistic education - The humanistic theory to teaching - Instructional implications of humanistic theory 245 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - Factors that influence students learning (Internal vs. external) - Internal factors (Psychological and physiological aspects) - The influence of psychological and physiological aspects on students - The importance of considering the psychological and physiological aspects of students Human Relations Factors - Ways of considering the psychological that and physiological aspects of students influence 3 3 6 3 - External factors (economic condition – students learning social conditions – university environment) - The influence of social and economic conditions and university environment on students - The importance of considering the social and economic conditions of students - Ways of considering social and economic conditions of students 246 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept and importance of assessment - The goals of assessment Assessment 2 -- 2 1 - The principles of assessment - The process of assessment - Reasons for assessing students - Summative assessment vs. formative assessment - The roles of assessment types Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback - The measurement model vs. the standards model of assessment - Norm-referenced assessment vs. Types of Criterion-referenced assessment 3 3 6 3 assessment - Summative assessment methods - Functions and purposes of summative assessment - Problems with summative assessment - Formative assessment methods and activities - The principles of formative assessment - Peer assessment - Self-assessment - Self-assessment methods Alternative - Peer-assessment methods 2 4 6 3 assessment - Peer- self assessment in EFL - Performance-based assessment - Portfolios - Observation 247 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - Assessment and technology - Computer-assisted assessment (CAA) - Computer-assisted language testing Assessment (CALT) and 2 2 4 2 - Forms of technology for assessing technology students - E-assessment techniques - Advantages of e-assessments Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback - The concept of measurement - Measurement qualities - Scales of measurement Measurement 2 2 4 2 - Properties and characteristics of measurement scales - Steps in measurement - Types of tests - Characteristics of a good test - Creating test specifications - Constructing tests - Types of test items and questions - Advantages and disadvantages of each Tests type of questions 3 3 6 3 - Writing effective tests instructions - Test-taking strategies - Strategies of helping students to cope with test anxiety - Tests administration - Cheating and how to deal with it 248 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - Subjective and objective testing - Test of grammar - Test of vocabulary Testing - Testing listening comprehension English 4 4 8 4 - Testing the speaking skills language - Testing pronunciation - Testing reading comprehension Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback - Testing the writing skills - The concept of marking - Scoring procedure Marking - Grading objective and subjective tests 1 1 2 1 - Grading in a formative system - Setting performance standards - The role of error - Errors vs. slips - Types of errors - Reasons of making errors by foreign/second language learners Errors & - Oral mistakes and written mistakes 2 2 4 2 correction - Correcting learners‘ errors: strategies of correction, when and when not to correct - Techniques for correcting oral and written mistakes 249 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - The concept, purpose, and importance of feedback - The qualities of feedback - Types of feedback - Timely feedback vs. delayed feedback - The principles of giving good feedback Feedback 2 2 4 2 - The focus of feedback - The benefits of feedback for teachers and Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback students - Using ICTs to give feedback to students - Ways of making feedback more effective - Frameworks for providing feedback - Methods of evaluating teaching - Source of information for evaluating teaching - The evaluation cycle - Formative evaluation of teaching - Areas of formative evaluation of Evaluating teaching 3 3 6 3 teaching - Tools for conducting formative evaluation of teaching - Teaching portfolio - Summative evaluation of teaching - Developing an effective summative evaluation system for teaching 251 Hours allotted Number of sessions Theoretical The content Practical Total Domain Topics Items - Item analysis Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving o Item difficulty/facility analysis Evaluating o Item discrimination analysis 2 2 4 2 tests o Distractor efficiency analysis Feedback - Criteria of a good test - Interpreting test scores - Criteria for assessing courses Evaluating - Evaluation measures 2 2 4 2 courses - Characteristics of effective courses Total Time Total number Total number Domain of topics of sub-topics Hours Sessions Days Planning teaching 20 10 5 3 21 Implementing 60 30 15 15 90 teaching Using technology 60 30 15 13 72 Human relations 20 10 5 4 28 Assessment, evaluation & 60 30 15 13 89 giving feedback Total 220 110 55 48 300 251 The Third Part: Methods, Aids, and Tools The third component of the proposed training programme is the training instruction methods that will be used to deliver the content of the training programme; the training aids that can facilitate participants learning and help trainers to simplify instruction; and the tools that will be used to evaluate the participants in terms of their learning and attitudes towards the training programme, to evaluate the trainers, to evaluate the activities of the training programme, and to evaluate any other aspects of the proposed training programme. Methods, aids, and tools Training instruction methods 1. Lecture 6. Small group work 11. Games 2. Lecturette 7. Individual work 12. Microteaching 3. Presentation 8. Discussions (group – panel) 13. Debate 4. Brainstorming 9. Role playing 14. Outside speakers 5. Question and answer 10. Practice Training aids 1. Computers and 5. Screen for presentation 9. Handouts laptops 6. Blackboards and chalks/ 10. Language Labs 2. Internet whiteboard and markers 11. Videos 3. Loudspeakers/headsets 7. Flip charts 12. Interactive 4. Data Show Projector 8. Posters whiteboard Tools of evaluation 1. A reaction sheet relative to content, facilities, schedule, handouts, training aids, exercises, meals, etc. 2. A pretest and posttest related to the content of the programme. 3. A performance pretest and posttest to measure the improved/learnt skills. 4. A paper-and-pencil test to measure the participants‘ attitudes. 5. A form for evaluating trainers. 6. A survey and/or an interview for one or more of the following: the participants, their students, and chairmen to measure changes in the behaviour of the trainees. 252 The Fourth Part: Procedures Required for Implementing the Proposed Training Programme In order to implement the proposed training programme, there are a number of procedures that should be done. These procedures are related to selecting the trainers and the target participants of the training programme, determining a responsible body and a management for the training programme, determining a location and a timetable for conducting the training programme, and determining motives for the participants. Here is a detailed description of all these procedures. # The procedure 1 Selecting appropriate trainers Carrying out such a training programme requires experts (trainers) in different disciplines: a. Instructional planning, b. Curricula and ELT methodology and teaching in higher education, c. Educational psychology, d. Educational technology, and e. Educational evaluation and measurement 2 Selecting the target participants The target participants are the faculty members of English departments in all Yemeni public universities whether they are assistant, associate, or full professors, especially those who do not have pedagogical background. 3 Determining a location for implementing the training programme The training programme should be carried out in an appropriate place in terms of size, arrangement flexibility; the availability of training aids, equipments, and facilities; access; temperature; light; and acoustics. 253 # The procedure 4 Determining a timetable for implementing the training programme The required time for implementing the proposed programme is as follows: - (55) training days - Each day is of (2) training sessions with a break of (20-30) minutes between them. - Each session is of (2) training hours. One of the following plans can be adopted according to the conditions of each university: A) During summer vacation: - One month a year for three years except the third year (three weeks) - Five training days a week B) During study time: - One day a week during the two semesters (seven months) - (4) training days a month and (28) training days a year for two years 5 Determining a body responsible for the training programme The proposed training programme has to be adopted by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and conducted by the directorates of academic development and quality assurance at the level of each university according to their conditions. 6 Determining a training programme management The training programme staff management should include a. an academic supervisor responsible for the training programme and its implementation; b. a principal responsible for monitoring the process of training, providing training requirements, and any administrative affairs; c. a secretary; d. a technical staff to help the principal to prepare for the training process and to help trainers while conducting training sessions; e. a computer technician; and f. a service committee of (3) individuals. 254 # The procedure 7 Determining motives for participants Motives for participants may include the following: a. Participation certificates b. Tying up university teachers‘ career advancements with participation in training courses and programmes c. Providing payment for participants d. Giving the participants priority to participate in national and international conferences on teaching 255 CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS & SUGGESTIONS CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS & SUGGESTIONS 6.1. Introduction This chapter presents a final comment on the study objectives stated in chapter one. It also provides a summary of the whole study. On the basis of data analysis and interpretation with the help of statistical devices and discussion in chapter five, conclusions are drawn in this chapter. Moreover, recommendations for the sake of improving university teaching in the English departments of Yemeni universities and implementing the proposed training programme are given and suggestions for future research are made. 6.2. Summary of the Study This study aimed at investigating the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers with a view to identifying the mean score of practicing the teaching competencies in question by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments; identifying if there are any statistically significant differences in the mean scores of practicing teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variables of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and of geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz); and determining and setting the components of a proposed training programme which aims at helping Yemeni university English teachers to acquire the teaching competencies that they need to teach effectively in the light of this age characteristics. The study provided a theoretical background for teaching and teaching competencies and training and designing training programme. It also shed light on some previous studies related to the two fields of the study: teaching competencies and constructing or evaluating the effectiveness of teacher training programmes. In each field, the previous studies were classified into two groups: Arabic studies 256 (studies conducted in the Arab countries) and foreign studies (studies conducted abroad). To achieve the objectives of this study, the researcher used the descriptive design to describe the degree of practice of Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies in question. Drawing upon the related literature, the researcher developed a questionnaire which reflected the teaching competencies required by university English teachers. To check the validity of this questionnaire, the researcher sent it to a group of experts from different universities to review it for its content validity. The researcher requested them to make the necessary modifications in terms of adding items, deleting items, rewording items, moving items, and merging items with others. The researcher also conducted a pilot study with a view to obtaining feedback about how clear the instructions are, identifying any confusions and ambiguities towards any items in the questionnaire, and predicting any potential problems in administering the questionnaire to the actual target sample. Moreover, the researcher measured the reliability of the questionnaire via two methods: test-retest method and Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient. The correlation coefficient between the responses to the items of the questionnaire in the first administration and the second one was (0.948) and an alpha coefficient value of (0.963) was achieved, which indicates that the questionnaire was highly reliable. After making sure of the validity and reliability of the study instrument, the researcher administered it to the target sample with a view to collecting the required data. Then, the collected data were analysed using some statistical tools to come up with the findings of the study regarding the degree of practicing teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers that can be summarized in the following points: - The degree of practicing Yemeni university English teachers for the teaching competencies in question is low (M = 2.33, Percentage =. 46.50%). The averages of the five domains ranged from (2.68) to (1.44) with percentages ranged from (53.60%) to (28.86%). The domain ‗Human relations‘ came in the first rank with a moderate estimation level (M = 2.68, Percentage = 53.60%), followed by the domain ‗Implementing teaching‘ with a low estimation level (M = 2.60, Percentage = 51.97%). 257 The domain ‗Planning teaching‘ came in the third rank with a low estimation level (M = 2.33, Percentage = 46.67%), followed by the domain ‗Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback‘ with a low estimation level (M = 2.08, Percentage = 41.50%). In the last rank came the domain ‗Using technology‘ with a very low estimation level (M = 1.44, Percentage = 28.86%). - There were statistically significant differences in the means of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers according to the variable of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and chairmen of English departments) at α = 0.05. These significant differences were found in the means of responses between teachers and students on the one hand and between students and chairmen on the other hand. However, there were no statistically significant differences between the means of the responses of teachers and chairmen. - There were no statistically significant differences in the means of the target sample responses according to the variable of geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz). The study also resulted in designing a proposed training programme that aims at developing the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers. The main excuse for designing the proposed training programme was the results of administering the questionnaire to the target sample which revealed that Yemeni university English teachers need training in teaching. Therefore, the researcher designed a training programme that can be used for this purpose. The proposed training programme consisted of the goals and objectives, the content and topics, the training instruction methods and aids, the tools required for evaluating the various aspects proposed training programme, and the procedures required for implementing it. Generally speaking, the current study confirmed the results of some previous studies and contributed additional evidence of the discontent among university students about the performance of their teachers. It provided insights from the perspective of students to the low quality of university teaching in the English departments of Yemeni universities. In this, it is similar to some previous studies which highlighted the discontent among university students about the teaching 258 performance of their teachers, such as Al-Gifri (2002), Al-Shuail and Khatabiya (2002), Malik et al. (2003), Jan (2010), Al-Subaiei (2010), and Al-Kubaisi (2011). The current study also added to the growing body of literature on teaching and training in higher education in general and teaching and training in English departments at Yemeni public universities in particular. It made several noteworthy contributions that can be summarized in the following points: - It presented a clear picture of the teaching performance of Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments of Yemeni universities. - It highlighted the need of Yemeni university English teachers for training in teaching. Thus, it does not match with the old assumption that university teachers do not need training in teaching. - It also proposed a training programme that can be used by Yemeni universities to improve and develop the teaching competencies of the faculty members of English departments in various domains: planning teaching; implementing teaching; using technologies in teaching; human relations; and assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. In other words, the proposed training programme suggested by the researcher can be used as a starting point for in-service training of Yemeni university English teachers and the results of this study may be a starting point for improving teaching English and English courses at Yemeni universities and changing the traditional methods and techniques used for teaching English and English courses at Yemeni universities. - Drawing upon the related literature and considering the opinions of a group of experts, the current study made a list of the teaching competencies required by a university English teacher to teach effectively. This list can be used as a checklist for evaluating the teaching performance of university English teachers and then suggesting the appropriate remedies for them. 259 - It presented a systematic model for designing training programmes for professional development in higher education which can be utilized by professionals while designing training programmes. - Finally, the results of this study may motivate those who are in charge of appointing teachers at Yemeni universities to rethink about the policy of doing that and to focus on all the competencies required by a university teacher, including teaching competencies. 6.3. Conclusions The current study was set out to investigate the teaching competencies practiced by Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments and according the variables of sample type (university English teachers, their students, and the chairmen of English departments) and geography (Sana‘a, Aden, and Taiz). By looking at the findings of the study presented and discussed in the previous chapter, the researcher can draw the following conclusions: - The teaching performance of Yemeni university English teachers is low. This indicates the need of Yemeni university English teachers for training in the teaching competencies that they need to make their teaching effective. - The practice of planning teaching in the English departments of Yemeni universities is low, which indicates that Yemeni university English teachers do not realize the importance of planning teaching to improve the quality of teaching and learning process. - The environment of most English classrooms in Yemeni universities is not supportive, which may be out of Yemeni university English teachers‘ control in terms of arranging the physical classroom environment due to the nature of university halls, but which is under their control in terms of creating a pleasant, positive, and effective environment through the use of music and aesthetical and scientific posters in the classroom. - There is no variation in the instructional strategies, techniques, materials, and activities used to teach students of English language at Yemeni 261 universities. This does not enhance their learning and motivation or help to meet their individual differences. - The learning and teaching process in English departments of Yemeni universities lacks motivation and liveliness created through teachers‘ effective use of non-verbal communication, which may make students feel bored and less attentive in the classroom. - A surprising conclusion is related to using technology in teaching. Although we live in the 21st century, the century of technologies, Yemeni university English teachers do not enhance their teaching through technologies, which may be due to either their lack of technological competence or the unavailability of some technologies. - Although human relations competencies were given the highest rating, Yemeni university English teachers still have to develop more good relationships with and among their students and adopt the humanistic approach in their teaching, which can help in creating a positive classroom climate in which students are more involved and comfortable. - Students in English departments of Yemeni universities are assessed mainly through traditional methods which are summative in nature. They are not assessed through alternative assessment methods, including self- assessment, peer-assessment, and performance assessment. - Students of English departments at Yemeni universities are not satisfied with the teaching performance of their teachers. They rated the teaching performance of their teachers as low. This is clear from their responses to the items of the study instrument. - Although most Yemeni university English teachers are graduates of colleges where teaching disciplines are not taught and have no training in teaching, they rated their practice for the teaching competencies in question as acceptable. It seems that Yemeni university English teachers are not aware of their teaching performance and feel that they are already doing a good job. In this, the current study is different from the study of Silva (2001), which indicated that the professors of the Federal University in Brazil thought that their pedagogical competence was not enough due to not having pedagogical disciplines during their study, their position which is more concerned with research than teaching, and the criteria of 261 employment which give more importance to academic discipline knowledge than pedagogical competence. The study is also different from Al-Hattami et al. (2013), which indicated the need of the faculty members at Saudi universities for training in various areas including curriculum design, teaching strategies, technology, communication, and assessment from the perspective of the faculty members and chairmen of departments. - The level of teaching performance of Yemeni university English teachers may be the same in all Yemeni public universities. This is clear from the absence of the effect of the variable of geography on the estimation of the target sample for the degree of practicing the teaching competencies by Yemeni university English teachers. In the researcher‘s opinion, this can be attributed to the fact that Yemeni universities follow the same terms and conditions when appointing English teachers to teach in English departments and also to the availability of the same circumstances and facilities in all English departments of Yemeni universities. 6.4. Limitations of the Study Although the current study was carefully prepared and achieved its aims, there are some important limitations that need to be acknowledged and referred to here: - First, because of the time limit and money required, the researcher administered the study instrument to three Yemeni public universities out of nine. It is true that these universities can be considered as a representative sample for the study population. However, it was preferable to include all the nine universities in the study in order to ensure the generalization of the results. - Second, due to the nature of university teaching, the job of Yemeni university teachers, and the budget and facilities required; the researcher did not experiment with the proposed training programme to examine its effectiveness in achieving its goals and objectives and making the necessary improvement in the performance of Yemeni university English teachers. The researcher just recommended the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research or the directorates and centres of 262 academic development and quality assurance of universities adopt the proposed training programme and implement it. - Third, the study instrument was administered to the study sample during the academic year 2012-2013 when Yemen was living exceptional circumstances at all levels – social, economic, political, and security – which might affect the responses of the sample members to the items of the study instrument. 6.5. Recommendations Based on the findings reached and the conclusions drawn, the researcher made the following recommendations for the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, Yemeni universities, and the faculty members of English departments to be considered to improve the process of teaching in the English departments of Yemeni universities: - There should be specific criteria for appointing English faculty members to teach in English departments. These criteria should reflect all the competencies required from a university English teacher, including teaching competencies. - New faculty members of English departments should not be set to teach before undertaking a minimal level of teaching preparation. They should complete either a preparation programme in teaching or a teaching portfolio to demonstrate their teaching competence. - It is recommended to establish academic development directorates or centres responsible for developing the teaching performance of university teachers. These directorates or centres should be provided with enough budget to be able to provide comprehensive ongoing professional development for faculty members. - Workshops and seminars relating to teaching and its importance should be conducted with a view to changing English university teachers‘ attitudes towards teaching and raising their awareness of the importance of possessing teaching skills and competencies. 263 - Workshops, seminars, and training courses in teaching should be conducted from time to time with a view to updating the knowledge and teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers and providing them with what is new in the field of English teaching and teaching in higher education. - Yemeni university English teachers should be encouraged and provided with opportunities to participate and attend international seminars and conferences on teaching English and teaching in higher education. - The most visible function of university teachers is teaching; therefore, it should be given the concern that it deserves. - Yemeni universities should be specifically funded as part of their operating budget to provide comprehensive ongoing professional development for their faculty members (including the faculty members of English departments) to ensure teaching quality for the students in higher education. - Tools for evaluating the process of teaching and learning in the English departments of Yemeni universities should be constructed and all people concerned should participate in the process of evaluation. - Schemes which recognise university English teachers who demonstrate high quality teaching should be established and rewards should be given in this state of affairs. - Yemeni university English teachers‘ career advancements should be tied up with the researches they conduct as well as their teaching performance in the classroom. - To make training in teaching in higher education more effective, it is recommended to give training more institutional and departmental recognition and commitment as well as individual motivation through making it rewarding and enjoyable. - It is recommended to adopt the list of teaching competencies mentioned in the instrument of the current study as a minimum standard for teaching performance in English departments of Yemeni universities. - New frameworks for teaching competencies should be developed from time to time and the tool of training should be used to provide the faculty 264 members of English departments with whatever new competencies they need to teach effectively. - The researcher recommends Yemeni university English teachers use various teaching strategies and assessment methods and to provide their students with timely and constructive feedback. - Yemeni university English teachers should adopt the student-centred approach rather than the teacher-centred approach in their teaching. - University English classrooms should be provided with the necessary facilities, resources, and technologies that can help teachers to make teaching English more effective and enjoyable. - The physical environment of university English classrooms should be flexible to allow university English teachers to structure the physical environment of their classrooms according to the nature of the courses that they teach. - There should be a library in every English department containing books on teaching methodology as well as books that can be used as teaching materials. The researcher also made some recommendations regarding the proposed training programme and the procedures that should be followed to implement it successfully: - Adopting the proposed training programme by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research or the directorates or centres of academic development of universities. - Allotting an enough budget for the proposed training programme. - Selecting a group of experts and charging them with developing the scientific material of the proposed training programme and preparing the necessary manuals to conduct it. - Providing the training aids, materials, and facilities suggested to conduct the proposed training programme. - Following the procedures suggested to conduct the proposed training programme. 265 - Preparing the assessment tools suggested in the proposed training programme to ensure effective evaluation for it. - Conducting the parts of the proposed training programme that are applicable in the Yemeni university environment for the time being, namely Planning teaching; Implementing teaching; Human relations; and Assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. The part related to Using technology domain can be delayed because the training topics of this domain need special infrastructure and the Yemeni university environment, for the time being, is not supportive to practice the competencies acquired by the participants due to training on the topics of this domain. This recommendation was suggested by many referees. - Placing the training programme on the priorities of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and universities in order to encourage Yemeni university English teachers to appreciate and participate in it. 6.6. Suggestions Ongoing investigations on teaching and teaching competencies of university teachers will help to improve the quality of university teaching. 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Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/ 297 LIST OF APPENDICIES Appendix І: The Questionnaire before Refereeing Appendix ІІ: List of the Questionnaire‘s Referees Appendix ІІІ: The Final Version of the Questionnaire Appendix IV: The Proposed Training Programme before Refereeing Appendix V: List of the Proposed Training Programme‘s Referees Appendix VI: Responses to the Statements of the Questionnaire According to the Variable of Sample Type Appendix VIІ: Responses to the Statement of the Questionnaire According to the Variable of Geography 298 Appendix (І) The Questionnaire before Refereeing Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University School of Languages, Literature and Cultural Studies Yeshwant College English Department Dear Sir, Dr/Prof. ………………………………….……………………………… Designation Specialization University/Place of Work Prof. ( ) Assoc. Prof. ( ) Asst. Prof. ( ) Other: (………….…) The researcher is undertaking a study entitled ―Designing a Proposed Training Programme for Developing Teaching Competencies of Yemeni University English Teachers” to get a Ph. D. degree in English. The aim of the study is to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers from the point of view of their students, the teachers themselves, and the chairmen of English department; and then to design a proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers to develop their teaching competencies in the light of this contemporary age characteristics. As an expert, your help in refereeing the questionnaire will be appreciated. The researcher seeks your feedback on the following:  Whether each statement belongs to its designated domain or not.  Questionnaire validity and suitability for the topic and its being correct grammatically.  Modifying the statements (deleting, rewording, moving, merging one statement with another)  Adding some more items that you think are important to each domain. Thank you very much for your cooperation. The Researcher 299 Does the item belong Is the item valid? to/fit in the domain? # Statement of Competency To which Adaption Suggested Yes No domain it Yes No needed adaption belongs The First Domain: Planning teaching Determining the goals and objectives of 1. the course. Determining the objectives for each 2. lecture. Determining the course topics matched 3. to the goals and objectives. Determining course content suitable for 4. the students‘ level. Determining course content that meets 5. the needs of the students. Arranging the course topics in a logical 6. order. 7. Preparing a course schedule. Determining teaching strategies, 8. methods, and techniques consistent with the course goals and objectives. Determining the teaching aids, materials, and instructional resources 9. needed for achieving the goals and objectives of the course. Determining assessment methods that 10. will be used to assess students. Preparing an organized, gradual and 11. flexible outline for the course. Determining the methods of getting feedback from students and colleagues 12. regarding the course, teaching strategies, and evaluation procedures. Preparing the teaching aids, materials, 13. and instructional resources needed for each lecture in advance. Determining the methods of evaluating 14. the course. Determining the methods of evaluating 15. the topics of the course. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this domain. 1. 2. The Second Domain: Implementing Teaching a. Physical Classroom Environment Organizing the physical space in the 16. classroom appropriately. 311 Does the item belong Is the item valid? to/fit in the domain? # Statement of Competency To which Adaption Suggested Yes No domain it Yes No needed adaption belongs Arranging students seating (rows, 17. clusters, circles, pairs, u-shape) according to activities. Arranging students seating in a way that 18. lets the teacher to monitor their activities. Encouraging students to decorate the classroom with posters, wallpapers, 19. charts, etc. to create a motivating learning environment. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this sub-domain. 1. 2 b. Teaching Strategies Setting the scene of the lecture topic at 20. the beginning of the lecture. Using some techniques to attract students focus on the lecture, such as 21. telling a joke, asking a question, making a surprising statement, etc. Presenting an overview of the lecture 22. topic at the beginning including the main elements and objectives. Motivating students by highlighting the 23. importance of the lecture topic. Using appropriate instructional 24. strategies in teaching. Using appropriate teaching methods to 25. achieve desired instructional goals. 26. Using variety of instructional strategies. Using teaching techniques that enhance 27. the motivation of students. Integrating other methods with 28. lecturing, such as whole class discussion, group discussion, etc. Using various teaching materials such as 29. handouts, CDs, tapes, etc. Using appropriate and various 30. instructional activities in teaching. Managing students‘ activities 31. effectively. 32. Encouraging students to participate in classes. 33. Encouraging students to ask questions. 311 Does the item belong Is the item valid? to/fit in the domain? # Statement of Competency To which Adaption Suggested Yes No domain it Yes No needed adaption belongs Creating an atmosphere of fun and 34. humour in the classroom. 35. Promoting collaborative learning. Getting students feedback about 36. teaching. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this sub-domain. 1. 2. c. Communication Communicating effectively with 37. students through body language (eye contact, facial expression, etc.). Keeping students attentive through 38. regular eye contact. Controlling the students through eye 39. contact. Motivating students through appropriate 40. eye contact. Motivating students through appropriate 41. facial expressions. Keeping proper distance from students 42. in the classroom to make them feel at ease. Moving in the classroom in a way that 43. raise students‘ interest and attentiveness. Speaking clearly, audibly, and at a 44. moderate pace. Attracting students attention through 45. effective use of pitch. Using different levels of pitch for 46. emphasizing certain purposes. 47. Presenting the subject matter clearly. Providing students with related and 48. useful handouts. Asking questions related to the 49. objectives. Responding to students questions 50. effectively. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this sub-domain. 1. 2. 312 Does the item belong Is the item valid? to/fit in the domain? # Statement of Competency To which Adaption Suggested Yes No domain it Yes No needed adaption belongs The Third Domain: Using Technology Using common classroom technologies 51. such as tape recorders, cassettes, etc. Using multimedia (audio, video, text) in 52. teaching. Using presentation tools such as 53. PowerPoint presentation in teaching. Using computer-based technology as an 54. integral part of classroom instruction. Using the Internet effectively to develop 55. students‘ English skills and collaborative learning. Communicating with students through 56. Internet applications, such as email. Facilitating students‘ access to the web 57. to practice language. Developing a course website with 58. resources and information. Using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer and retrieve teaching and 59. learning materials and share them with students. Designing activities that require students 60. to use electronic sources for gathering specific information. Using the Internet applications such as Messenger, Facebook, Web logs, and e- 61. mail to create more opportunities to practice English. Using the interactive whiteboards for 62. more exposure and practice of language. Moderating online discussions to 63. develop student-student interaction. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this domain. 1. 2. The Fourth Domain: Human Relations 64. Developing good rapport with students. Sharing some personal information and 65. experiences with students. Considering the psychological aspects of 66. students. Dealing with students in a democratic 67. way. 313 Does the item belong Is the item valid? to/fit in the domain? # Statement of Competency To which Adaption Suggested Yes No domain it Yes No needed adaption belongs Greeting students with a smile when 68. meeting them. Offering praise and approval for students 69. appropriately. Developing constructive and cooperative 70. human relations among students. 71. Setting up rules in the classes. 72. Calling students by their names. Using constructive humour in the 73. classroom. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this domain. 1. 2. The Fifth Domain: Assessment, Evaluation, & Giving Feedback Using assessment methods and tools 74. appropriate for the learning objectives. Using appropriate assessment strategies 75. which reflect teaching. Assessing students with various 76. methods: activities, assignments, homework, tests, group projects, etc. Using the interactive whiteboards to 77. assess students‘ learning progress. Creating opportunities for students‘ self- 78. assessment. Creating opportunities for students to 79. carry out peer-assessment. Designing assessment activities that 80. enhance collaborative learning. Giving feedback to students on their 81. performance. Giving feedback to students on their 82. work immediately or within a reasonable time. Giving students feedback in a way that 83. encourages them to achieve the desired goals. Using the evaluation data to improve or 84. change teaching. Please, add any other competencies you think are important in this domain. 1. 2. 314 Appendix (ІІ) List of the Questionnaire’s Referees # Name Specialization Designation Place of Work ELT, Teacher 1. Jayashree Mohanraj Prof. EFLU, Hyderabad Education Curricula & Methods 2. Qaid Farea Prof. Ibb University of ELT 3. Manmatha Kundu ELT Prof. NISER, Bhubaneswar Mohammad Abdu 4. Linguistics & ELT Prof. Sana‘a University Al-Mekhlafi 5. S. Mohanraj ELT Prof. EFLU, Hyderabad K. K. University, 6. Sultan Al-Mekhlafi Educational Planning Prof. KSA 7. Wahbiya Muharram ELT Prof. Taiz University Abdullah Al- Curricula & Teaching 8. Assoc. Prof. Taiz University Mekhlafi methods of sciences Abdulrahman G. U. A. E. University, 9. Educational Technology Assoc. Prof. Almekhlafi UAE Abdul Wahed Q. G. K. K. University, 10. Applied Linguistics Assoc. Prof. Al-Zumor KSA 11. Abed N. Al-Sameai Linguistics Assoc. Prof. Taiz University 12. Mahmoud Al-Maqtri ELT Assoc. Prof. Ibb University 13. Rafiq Al-Shamiri ELT Assoc. Prof. Ibb University Abdulhafeed 14. ELT Asst. Prof. Taiz University Modhish 15. Ameen Al-Hemyari ELT Asst. Prof. Qatar University 16. Gingine Ashok P. Research Methods Asst. Prof. S. R.T.M. University Curricula & ELT 17. Hussein Al-Maktary Asst. Prof. Taiz University Methodology 18. Taha Ahmed Hasan ELT Asst. Prof. Taiz University Curricula & Methods 19. Nabil K. M. Abdullah Master Aden University of ELT 315 Appendix (ІІІ) The Final Version of the Questionnaire Swami Ramanand Teerth Marathwada University School of Languages, Literature and Cultural Studies Yeshwant College English Department Dear Prof./Dr./Student, The researcher is undertaking a study entitled ―Designing a Proposed Training Programme for Developing Teaching Competencies of Yemeni University English Teachers” to get a Ph. D. degree in English. The aim of the study is to investigate the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers from the perspective of the teachers themselves, their students, and the chairmen of English departments; and then to design a proposed training programme that can help Yemeni university English teachers develop their teaching competencies in the light of this contemporary age characteristics. The information will be kept confidential and used only for the purpose of this study. Note: Please, note that this questionnaire is of (4) pages. Thank you very much for your cooperation. The Researcher 316  Please, fill in the appropriate information using ( √). 1. Sample type Teacher Student Chairman 2. University Sana‘a Aden Taiz  Instructions: Please, use (√) to indicate the actual degree of practice of each item of the questionnaire using the following five- point scale: - 5 = always - 4 = often - 3 = sometimes - 2 = rarely - 1 = never The Degree of Practice Sometimes Always Rarely Never Often # Statement of Competency 5 4 3 2 1 The First Domain: Planning Teaching 1. Determining course goals and objectives. .‫ذ أ٘ذاف اٌّمشس‬٠‫رذذ‬ 2. Determining the objectives for each lecture. .‫ذ أ٘ذاف وً ِذبظشح‬٠‫رذذ‬ 3. Determining course topics in alignment to its goals and objectives. .ٗ‫ء أ٘ذاف‬ٛ‫ ظ‬ٟ‫ػبد اٌّمشس ف‬ٛ‫ظ‬ِٛ ‫ذ‬٠‫رذذ‬ 4. Determining course content suitable for the students‘ level and needs. .‫بجبد اٌطالة‬١‫ادز‬ٚ ٜٛ‫ اٌّمشس إٌّبعت ٌّغز‬ٜٛ‫ذ ِذز‬٠‫رذذ‬ 5. Determining some motivational strategies to develop and sustain an interest in learning English among students. .‫خ‬٠‫ض‬١ٍ‫ رؼٍُ اٌٍغخ اإلٔج‬ٟ‫ اٌطالة ف‬ٞ‫إداِخ اٌشغجخ ٌذ‬ٚ ‫خ‬١ّٕ‫خ ٌز‬٠‫ض‬١‫بد اٌزذف‬١‫ج‬١‫ذ ثؼط االعزشار‬٠‫رذذ‬ 6. Determining teaching strategies appropriate to teach the course content and to achieve its goals and objectives. .ٗ‫ك أ٘ذاف‬١‫رذم‬ٚ ‫ اٌّمشس‬ٜٛ‫ظ ِذز‬٠‫ظ إٌّبعجخ ٌزذس‬٠‫بد اٌزذس‬١‫ج‬١‫ذ اعزشار‬٠‫رذذ‬ 7. Determining the teaching aids, materials, and instructional resources needed for achieving course goals and objectives. .‫ك أ٘ذاف اٌّمشس‬١‫اد اٌالصِخ ٌزذم‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬ٚ ٍُ‫اٌزؼ‬ٚ ُ١ٍ‫ِصبدس اٌزؼ‬ٚ ‫ٕبد‬١‫ذ ِؼ‬٠‫رذذ‬ 8. Determining the evaluation methods that will be used to assess students‘ learning, and to evaluate the course and its topics. .ٗ‫ػبر‬ٛ‫ظ‬ِٛٚ ٟ‫ُ اٌّمشس اٌذساع‬٠ٛ‫رم‬ٚ ‫ُ رؼٍُ اٌطالة‬١١‫ُ اٌالصِخ ٌزم‬٠ٛ‫ت اٌزم‬١ٌ‫ذ أعب‬٠‫رذذ‬ 9. Determining the methods of getting feedback from students and colleagues regarding the course, teaching strategies, and evaluation procedures. ‫بد‬١‫ج‬١‫اعزشار‬ٚ ‫زؼٍك ثبٌّمشس‬٠ ‫ّب‬١‫اٌضِالء ف‬ٚ ‫خ اٌشاجؼخ ِٓ اٌطالة‬٠‫ت أخز اٌزغز‬١ٌ‫ذ أعب‬٠‫رذذ‬ .ُ١١‫إجشاءاد اٌزم‬ٚ ‫ظ‬٠‫اٌزذس‬ 10. Preparing the teaching aids, materials, and instructional resources needed for each lecture in advance. .‫ظ لجً اٌّذبظشح‬٠‫اد اٌالصِخ ٌٍزذس‬ٌّٛ‫ا‬ٚ ٍُ‫اٌزؼ‬ٚ ُ١ٍ‫ِصبدس اٌزؼ‬ٚ ‫ٕبد‬١‫ض ِؼ‬١ٙ‫رج‬ 11. Preparing an organized outline for all the elements of the course including a course schedule for the semester. ‫غ ِفشداد‬٠‫ص‬ٛ‫ ٌز‬ِٟٕ‫ي ص‬ٚ‫ رٌه جذ‬ٟ‫ ثّب ف‬،‫شًّ وً اٌؼٕبصش‬٠ ‫إػذاد ِخطػ ِٕظُ ٌٍّمشس‬ .ٟ‫اٌّمشس خالي اٌفصً اٌذساع‬ 317 The Degree of Practice Sometimes Always Rarely Never Often # Statement of Competency 5 4 3 2 1 The Second Domain: Implementing Teaching a. Physical Classroom Environment 12. Organizing the physical space in the classroom appropriately. .‫ ٌٍمبػخ ثشىً ِٕبعت‬ٟٔ‫ض اٌّىب‬١‫ُ اٌذ‬١‫رٕظ‬ 13. Arranging students seating (rows, clusters, circles, pairs, u-shape) according to activities. .‫فمب ٌألٔشطخ‬ٚ )U ‫ دشف‬،‫اج‬ٚ‫ أص‬،‫ائش‬ٚ‫ د‬،‫ػبد‬ّٛ‫ ِج‬،‫ف‬ٛ‫ط اٌطالة (صف‬ٍٛ‫ت ج‬١‫رشر‬ 14. Arranging students seating in a way that allows the teacher to monitor their activities. .ُٙ‫مخ رغّخ ٌألعزبر ِزبثؼخ أٔشطز‬٠‫ط اٌطالة ثطش‬ٍٛ‫ت ج‬١‫رشر‬ 15. Encouraging students to decorate the classroom with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create a motivating learning environment. .ٍُ‫شح ٌٍزؼ‬١‫ئخ ِث‬١‫ اٌخ ٌخٍك ث‬... ‫ساق اٌذبئػ‬ٚ‫ أ‬ٚ ‫ٓ اٌمبػخ ثبٌٍّصمبد‬١٠‫ رض‬ٍٝ‫غ اٌطالة ػ‬١‫رشج‬ 16. Using various types of music in accordance with activities. .‫فمب ٌألٔشطخ‬ٚ ٝ‫م‬١‫ع‬ٌّٛ‫اع ِخزٍفخ ِٓ ا‬ٛٔ‫اعزخذاَ أ‬ b. Teaching Strategies 17. Using some techniques to attract students focus on the lecture (e.g., telling a joke, asking a question, making a surprising statement, etc.). ،‫ غشح عؤاي‬،‫ي ٔىزخ‬ٛ‫ ِثً ل‬،‫ اٌّذبظشح‬ٍٝ‫ض ػ‬١‫بد ٌجزة أزجبٖ اٌطالة ٌٍزشو‬١ٕ‫اعزخذاَ رم‬ .‫ اٌخ‬... ،‫شح‬١‫ي ػجبسح ِث‬ٛ‫ل‬ 18. Revising the previous lesson/unit to establish a link with the present one. .‫خ‬١ٌ‫دذح اٌذب‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٚ‫ب ثبٌذسط أ‬ٙ‫دذح اٌغبثمخ ٌشثط‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬/ ‫ِشاجؼخ اٌذسط‬ 19. Presenting an overview of the lecture topic at the beginning including the main elements and objectives. .‫األ٘ذاف‬ٚ ‫خ‬١‫غ‬١‫خ اٌّذبظشح رشًّ اٌؼٕبصش اٌشئ‬٠‫ ثذا‬ٟ‫ع اٌّذبظشح ف‬ٛ‫ظ‬ِٛ ٓ‫ُ ٌّذخ ػبِخ ػ‬٠‫رمذ‬ 20. Motivating students by highlighting the importance of the lecture topic. .‫ع اٌّذبظشح‬ٛ‫ظ‬ِٛ ‫خ‬١ّ٘‫ أ‬ٍٝ‫ء ػ‬ٛ‫ػ اٌع‬١ٍ‫ض اٌطالة ِٓ خالي رغ‬١‫رذف‬ 21. Using appropriate instructional strategies such as whole class discussion and group discussion with lecturing to achieve desired instructional goals. ‫ػبد ِغ‬ّٛ‫ ٔمبػ اٌّج‬ٚ ،‫خ‬١‫ظ إٌّبعجخ ِثً إٌّبلشخ اٌجّبػ‬٠‫بد اٌزذس‬١‫ج‬١‫اعزخذاَ اعزشار‬ .‫ح‬ٛ‫خ اٌّشج‬١ّ١ٍ‫ك األ٘ذاف اٌزؼ‬١‫ة اٌّذبظشح ٌزذم‬ٍٛ‫أع‬ 22. Using variety of instructional strategies to meet the individual differences of students. .‫ٓ اٌطالة‬١‫خ ث‬٠‫ االخزالفبد اٌفشد‬ٟ‫ػخ رٍج‬ٕٛ‫ظ ِز‬٠‫بد رذس‬١‫ج‬١‫اعزخذاَ إعزشار‬ 23. Using teaching techniques that enhance students‘ motivation. .‫ اٌطالة‬ٜ‫خ ٌذ‬١‫ظ رؼضص اٌذافؼ‬٠‫بد رذس‬١ٕ‫اعزخذاَ رم‬ 24. Using various teaching materials (e.g., handouts, CDs, tapes, etc.). .‫ اٌخ‬...‫األششغخ‬ٚ ‫األلشاص اٌّذِجخ‬ٚ َ‫ ِثً اٌّالص‬،‫ظ‬٠‫اد ِخزٍفخ ٌٍزذس‬ِٛ َ‫اعزخذا‬ 25. Using appropriate and various instructional activities in teaching. .‫ظ‬٠‫ اٌزذس‬ٟ‫ػخ ف‬ٕٛ‫ ِز‬ٚ ‫خ ِٕبعجخ‬١ّ١ٍ‫اعزخذاَ أٔشطخ رؼ‬ 26. Managing students‘ activities effectively. .‫خ‬١ٍ‫إداسح أٔشطخ اٌطالة ثفبػ‬ 27. Encouraging students to participate in classes and promoting collaborative learning. .ٟٔٚ‫ض اٌزؼٍُ اٌزؼب‬٠‫رؼض‬ٚ ‫خ‬١‫ اٌّشبسوخ اٌصف‬ٍٝ‫غ اٌطالة ػ‬١‫رشج‬ 318 The Degree of Practice Sometimes Always Rarely Never Often # Statement of Competency 5 4 3 2 1 28. Encouraging students to ask and answer questions. .‫ب‬ٕٙ‫ اإلجبثخ ػ‬ٍٝ‫ػ‬ٚ ‫ غشح األعئٍخ‬ٍٝ‫غ اٌطالة ػ‬١‫رشج‬ 29. Creating an atmosphere of fun and humour in the classroom. .‫اٌفىب٘خ أثٕبء اٌّذبظشح‬ٚ ‫ ِٓ اٌّشح‬ٛ‫خٍك ج‬ 30. Getting students feedback about teaching. .‫ظ‬٠‫ي اٌزذس‬ٛ‫خ ساجؼخ ِٓ اٌطالة د‬٠‫أخز رغز‬ c. Communication 31. Communicating effectively with students through body language (eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, etc.). .)‫ اٌخ‬،‫ّبءاد‬٠‫ اإل‬،ٗ‫ج‬ٌٛ‫شاد ا‬١‫ رؼج‬، ٓ١‫خ ِغ اٌطالة ِٓ خالي ٌغخ اٌجغذ (اٌؼ‬١ٍ‫اصً ثفبػ‬ٛ‫اٌز‬ 32. Keeping students attentive through regular eye contact. .ُ‫ إٌّزظ‬ٞ‫اصً اٌجصش‬ٛ‫ٓ ِٓ خالي اٌز‬١ٙ‫إثمبء اٌطالة ِٕزج‬ 33. Motivating students through appropriate facial expressions and eye contact. .‫ إٌّبعت‬ٞ‫اصً اٌجصش‬ٛ‫اٌز‬ٚ ٗ‫ج‬ٌٛ‫شاد ا‬١‫ض اٌطالة ِٓ خالي رؼج‬١‫رذف‬ 34. Keeping proper distance from students in the classroom to make them feel at ease. .‫ْ ثبٌشادخ‬ٚ‫شؼش‬٠ ٍُٙ‫ اٌمبػخ ٌجؼ‬ٟ‫ ِغبفخ ِٕبعجخ ِٓ اٌطالة ف‬ٍٝ‫اإلثمبء ػ‬ 35. Moving in the classroom in a way that raises students‘ interest and attentiveness. .‫أزجبٖ اٌطالة‬ٚ َ‫ش ا٘زّب‬١‫ث‬٠ ‫ة‬ٍٛ‫اٌزذشن داخً اٌمبػخ ثأع‬ 36. Speaking clearly, audibly, and at a moderate pace. .‫شح ِٕبعجخ رّىٓ اٌطالة ِٓ اٌّزبثؼخ‬١‫ر‬ٛ‫ث‬ٚ ‫ع‬ّٛ‫ِغ‬ٚ ‫اظخ‬ٚ ‫د‬ٛ‫اٌزذذس ثص‬ 37 Using different levels of pitch for attracting students‘ attention and emphasizing certain purposes. .‫ٕخ‬١‫ذ أغشاض ِؼ‬١‫ ٌزأو‬ٚ ‫د ٌجزة أزجبٖ اٌطالة‬ٛ‫بد ِخزٍفخ ٌطجمبد اٌص‬٠ٛ‫اعزخذاَ ِغز‬ 38. Presenting the subject matter clearly. .‫ح‬ٛ‫ظ‬ٛ‫ع اٌّذبظشح ث‬ٛ‫ظ‬ِٛ ‫ػشض‬ 39. Providing students with related and useful handouts. .‫راد صٍٗ ثبٌّمشس‬ٚ ‫ذح‬١‫ذ اٌطالة ثّالصَ ِف‬٠ٚ‫رض‬ 40. Asking questions related to the objectives and content of the topic. .‫ اٌذسط‬ٜٛ‫ ِذز‬ٚ ‫غشح أعئٍخ رشرجػ ثبأل٘ذاف‬ 41. Responding to students questions effectively and meaningfully. .‫ة فؼبي‬ٍٛ‫ أعئٍخ اٌطالة ثأع‬ٍٝ‫اٌشد ػ‬ The Third Domain: Using Technology 42. Using common classroom technologies such as tape recorders, cassettes, etc. .‫ اٌخ‬... ‫خ‬١‫األششغخ اٌغّؼ‬ٚ ً‫خ اٌشبئؼخ ِثً اٌّغج‬١‫بد اٌصف‬١ٕ‫اعزخذاَ اٌزم‬ 43. Using multimedia (audio, video, text, animation, etc.) in teaching. .‫ظ‬٠‫ اٌزذس‬ٟ‫َ اٌّزذشوخ) ف‬ٛ‫ اٌشع‬،‫ص‬ٛ‫إٌص‬،ٛ٠‫ذ‬١‫ اٌف‬، ‫د‬ٛ‫عبئػ اٌّزؼذدح (اٌص‬ٌٛ‫اعزخذاَ ا‬ 44. Using presentation tools such as PowerPoint presentation in teaching. .‫ظ‬٠‫ اٌزذس‬ٟ‫ٕذ ف‬٠ٛ‫س ث‬ٚ‫اد اٌؼشض ِثً ػشض ثب‬ٚ‫اعزخذاَ أد‬ 45. Using the Internet and its applications such as Messenger, Facebook, Weblogs, and e-mail effectively to develop students‘ English skills and collaborative learning. ً‫ً ثشى‬١ّ٠‫اال‬ٚ ‫خ‬١ٔٚ‫ٔبد االٌىزش‬ٚ‫اٌّذ‬ٚ ‫ن‬ٛ‫غج‬١‫اٌف‬ٚ ‫مبرٗ ِثً اٌّبعٕجش‬١‫رطج‬ٚ ‫اعزخذاَ االٔزشٔذ‬ .‫ اٌطالة‬ٜ‫ ٌذ‬ٟٔٚ‫اٌزؼٍُ اٌزؼب‬ٚ ‫خ‬٠‫ض‬١ٍ‫بساد اٌٍغخ اإلٔج‬ِٙ ‫خ‬١ّٕ‫فؼبي ٌز‬ 319 The Degree of Practice Sometimes Always Rarely Never Often # Statement of Competency 5 4 3 2 1 46. Communicating with students through Internet applications, such as email. .ٟٔٚ‫ذ اإلٌىزش‬٠‫ وبٌجش‬،‫مبد االٔزشٔذ‬١‫اصً ِغ اٌطالة ِٓ خالي رطج‬ٛ‫اٌز‬ 47. Developing a course website with resources and information. .‫ِبد‬ٍٛ‫اٌّؼ‬ٚ ‫شًّ اٌّصبدس‬٠ ‫ شجىخ االٔزشٔذ‬ٍٝ‫ش ِمشس ػ‬٠ٛ‫رط‬ 48. Using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer and retrieve teaching and learning materials and share them with students. ‫ب ِغ‬ٙ‫ِشبسوز‬ٚ ‫خ‬١ّ١ٍ‫اد اٌزؼ‬ٌّٛ‫اعزشجبع ا‬ٚ ً‫) ٌٕم‬FTP( ‫ي ٔمً اٌٍّفبد‬ٛ‫و‬ٛ‫ر‬ٚ‫اعزخذاَ ثش‬ .‫اٌطالة‬ 49. Designing activities that require students to use electronic sources for gathering specific information. .‫ِبد‬ٍٛ‫خ ٌجّغ اٌّؼ‬١ٔٚ‫ُ أٔشطخ رزطٍت ِٓ اٌطالة اعزخذاَ اٌّصبدس االٌىزش‬١ّ‫رص‬ 50. Using the interactive whiteboards and language laboratories for more exposure and practice of language. ‫ِؼبًِ اٌٍغخ ٌخٍك فشص أوثش ٌٍطالة ٌّّبسعخ‬ٚ )‫خ‬١ٔٚ‫سح اٌىزش‬ٛ‫خ (عج‬١ٍ‫سح اٌزفبػ‬ٛ‫اعزخذاَ اٌغج‬ .‫اٌٍغخ‬ 51. Using Learning Management Systems such as WebCT, Moodle, etc. in teaching. ‫( … اٌخ‬WebCT) ٟ‫ ر‬ٟ‫ت ع‬٠ٌٛ‫ ا‬ٚ (Moodle( ‫دي‬ٌّٛ‫اعزخذاَ ٔظُ إداسح اٌزؼٍُ ِثً ا‬ .‫ظ‬٠‫ اٌزذس‬ٟ‫ف‬ 52. Moderating online discussions to develop students‘ critical thinking and student-student interaction. .‫ٓ اٌطالة‬١‫ اٌزفبػً ث‬ٚ ٞ‫ش إٌمذ‬١‫خ اٌزفى‬١ّٕ‫ االٔزشٔذ ٌز‬ٍٝ‫إدا سح إٌّبلشبد ػ‬ The Fourth Domain: Human Relations 53. Building and maintaining good rapport (relation) with students. .‫ب‬ٙ١ٍ‫اٌذفبظ ػ‬ٚ ‫ذح ِغ اٌطالة‬١‫ثٕبء ػاللخ ج‬ 54. Sharing some personal information and experiences with students. .‫خ‬١‫اٌخجشاد اٌشخص‬ٚ ‫ِبد‬ٍٛ‫ ثؼط اٌّؼ‬ٟ‫ِشبسوخ اٌطالة ف‬ 55. Considering the psychological aspects of students. .‫خ ٌٍطالة‬١‫أت إٌفغ‬ٛ‫ِشاػبح اٌج‬ 56. Considering the social and economic conditions of students. .‫خ ٌٍطالة‬٠‫االلزصبد‬ٚ ‫خ‬١‫ف االجزّبػ‬ٚ‫ِشاػبح اٌظش‬ 57. Dealing with students in a democratic way. .ٟ‫ّمشاغ‬٠‫ة د‬ٍٛ‫اٌزؼبًِ ِغ اٌطالة ثأع‬ 58. Greeting students with a smile when meeting them. .ُ٘‫ٖ اٌطالة ػٕذ ٌمبء‬ٛ‫ج‬ٚ ٟ‫االثزغبَ ف‬ٚ ‫ت‬١‫اٌزشد‬ 59. Giving praise and approval on students‘ comments and responses. .ُٙ‫اعزجبثبر‬ٚ ‫مبد اٌطالة‬١ٍ‫ رؼ‬ٍٝ‫االعزذغبْ ػ‬ٚ ‫ُ اٌثٕبء‬٠‫رمذ‬ 60. Developing constructive and cooperative human relations among students. .‫ٓ اٌطالة‬١‫خ ث‬١ٔٚ‫اٌزؼب‬ٚ ‫خ اٌجٕبءح‬١ٔ‫خ اٌؼاللبد اإلٔغب‬١ّٕ‫ر‬ 61. Setting up classroom rules based on respect and etiquettes . .‫ اٌمبػخ‬ٟ‫ن ف‬ٍٛ‫آداة اٌغ‬ٚ َ‫ االدزشا‬ٍٝ‫خ ػ‬١ٕ‫اػذ ظبثطخ ِج‬ٛ‫ظغ ل‬ٚ 62. Calling students by their names. .ُٙ‫ِٕبداح اٌطٍجخ ثأعّبئ‬ 63. Using constructive humour in the classroom. .‫ اٌمبػخ‬ٟ‫ح اٌذػبثخ اٌجٕبءح ف‬ٚ‫اعزخذاَ س‬ 311 The Degree of Practice Sometimes Always Rarely Never Often # Statement of Competency 5 4 3 2 1 The Fifth Domain: Assessment, Evaluation, & Giving Feedback 64. Using assessment strategies appropriate for the learning objectives. .ٍُ‫ُ إٌّبعجخ أل٘ذاف اٌزؼ‬١١‫بد اٌزم‬١‫ج‬١‫اعزخذاَ اعزشار‬ 65. Using appropriate assessment strategies in consistency with teaching methodology. .‫ظ‬٠‫خ اٌزذس‬١‫ج‬ِٕٙ ‫ُ ِٕبعجخ رؼىظ‬١١‫بد رم‬١‫ج‬١‫اعزخذاَ اعزشار‬ 66. Assessing students with various methods: activities, assignments, homework, tests, group projects, etc. ‫غ‬٠‫ اٌّشبس‬،‫ االخزجبساد‬،‫خ‬١ٌ‫اججبد إٌّض‬ٌٛ‫ ا‬،َ‫ب‬ٌّٙ‫ ا‬،‫ األٔشطخ‬:‫ت ِخزٍفخ‬١ٌ‫ُ اٌطالة ثأعب‬١١‫رم‬ .‫ اٌخ‬... ،‫خ‬١‫اٌجّبػ‬ 67. Using technology to assess students and to give them feedback. .‫خ ساجؼخ‬٠‫إػطبءُ٘ رغز‬ٚ ‫ُ اٌطالة‬١١‫ رم‬ٟ‫ب ف‬١‫ج‬ٌٕٛٛ‫اعزخذاَ اٌزى‬ Creating opportunities for students‘ self-assessment. 68. .ُٙ‫ُ أٔفغ‬١١‫خٍك فشص ٌٍطالة ٌزم‬ 69. Creating opportunities for students to carry out peer-assessment. .ُٙ‫ُ ٌضِالئ‬١١‫خٍك فشص ٌٍطالة إلجشاء رم‬ 70. Designing assessment activities that enhance collaborative learning. .ٟٔٚ‫ُ رؼضص اٌزؼٍُ اٌزؼب‬١١‫ُ أٔشطخ رم‬١ّ‫رص‬ 71. Assessing students fairly and precisely. .‫مخ‬١‫دل‬ٚ ‫سح ػبدٌخ‬ٛ‫ُ اٌطالة ثص‬١١‫رم‬ 72. Giving students immediate and constructive feedback on their performance in the classroom, in tests and exams, and in assignments. .َ‫ب‬ٌّٙ‫ا‬ٚ ‫ االخزجبساد‬ٟ‫ف‬ٚ ‫ُ داخً اٌمبػخ‬ٙ‫ أدائ‬ٍٝ‫ثٕبءٖ ػ‬ٚ ‫خ‬٠‫س‬ٛ‫خ ساجؼخ ف‬٠‫إػطبء اٌطالة رغز‬ 73. Using the evaluation data to improve or change the current way of teaching. .‫خ‬١ٌ‫ظ اٌذب‬٠‫مخ اٌزذس‬٠‫ش غش‬١١‫ رغ‬ٚ‫ٓ أ‬١‫ُ ٌزذغ‬٠ٛ‫بٔبد اٌزم‬١‫اعزخذاَ ث‬ 311 Appendix (IV) The Proposed Training Programme before Refereeing 312 First: Goals & Objectives Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption A) The Goals: The proposed training programme aims at achieving the following goals: 1 Improving the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in planning teaching. 2 Improving the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in implementing teaching in terms of - structuring the physical classroom environment, - teaching strategies, and - non-verbal communication. 3 Improving the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in using technologies in teaching. 4 Improving the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers related to human relations. 5 Improving the teaching competencies of Yemeni university English teachers in assessment, evaluation, and giving feedback. B) The Objectives of the proposed training programme are to enable Yemen university English teachers to First domain: Planning teaching 1 measure the current level of the learners. 2 set course goals and write objectives. 313 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption 3 determine appropriate course content. 4 determine some motivational strategies for students. 5 determine instructional strategies to achieve the learning objectives. 6 determine the teaching aids, materials, and instructional resources needed for achieving course goals and objectives. 7 determine appropriate assessment methods and techniques to assess students‘ learning. 8 determine the methods of getting feedback about the course, teaching, and assessment. 9 plan lectures effectively. 10 prepare course outline including all the components. Second domain: Implementing teaching a. Physical classroom environment 1 organize the physical space in the classroom appropriately. 2 arrange students seating (rows, clusters, circles, pairs, u-shape) according to activities. guide students to decorate the classroom with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create a scientific and 3 motivating environment. 314 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption 4 use various types of music in accordance with activities. b. Teaching strategies 5 introduce lecture topics effectively. 6 motivate students and draw their attention to focus on lectures. 7 establish connections between lectures topics. use a variety of instructional strategies such as lecture, whole class discussion, group discussion, etc. to 8 support students learning. 9 teach English language skills and sub-skills effectively. 10 teach English language systems (grammar, vocabulary, functions, and pronunciation) effectively. 11 use teaching techniques that enhance students‘ motivation. 12 use appropriate teaching materials. 13 use various instructional activities to facilitate students learning. 14 manage students‘ activities effectively. 15 encourage students to participate in classes and promote collaborative learning. 315 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption 16 create positive classroom atmosphere through humour and fun. 17 know how to get feedback from students about teaching. c. Nonverbal communication 18 know the importance of nonverbal communication in the classroom. 19 understand the process of communication in order to communicate with students effectively. 20 know the barriers to effective communication. 21 know the components of non-verbal communication. 22 read students‘ thoughts and feelings through their body language. 23 motivate and keep students attentive through regular eye contact and facial expressions. 24 know the role and importance of moving in the class and keeping proper distance from students. 25 know the vocal elements of paralanguage and how to use them effectively. Third domain: Using technology 1 know the importance and the role of technologies in teaching and learning process. 2 use multimedia tools in teaching. 316 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption 3 use PowerPoint for presenting materials. 4 use the Internet and its applications such as Messenger, Facebook, Weblogs, and e-mail effectively to develop students‘ English skills and collaborative/ cooperative learning. 5 communicate with students through Internet applications, such as email. 6 develop a web-based course. 7 use File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer and retrieve teaching and learning materials and to share them with teachers and/or students. 8 use and create web-based activities for students. 9 use the interactive whiteboards as an instructional tool. 10 use the Learning Management Systems (Moodle, Blackboard and WebCT) in teaching. moderate and facilitate online discussions to develop students‘ critical thinking and student-student 11 interaction. Forth domain: Human relations 1 know the importance of building rapport with students. 2 know the characteristics of good teacher-student relationship. 3 build and maintain good rapport with students. 317 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption 4 develop interpersonal relationships and gain students‘ trust through sharing personal information and experiences. 5 know the impact of the psychological factors on students learning. 6 know the impact of the social and economic conditions on students learning. 7 adopt the humanistic approach to dealing with students. 8 create a comfortable learning environment. 9 develop constructive and cooperative human relations among students. Fifth domain: Assessment, evaluation & giving feedback 1 know the function, types, principles, methods, and techniques of assessment. 2 know their responsibilities and students‘ responsibilities in the assessment process. 3 relate the assessment methods to the objectives, the content of the course, and the teaching methodology. 4 use formative assessment activities. 5 assess students through alternative methods including self- and peer- assessment. 6 use technology to assess students. 7 develop assessment processes and tools appropriate for assessing collaborative learning. 318 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The item Suggested adaption 8 write clear test instructions. 9 write various types of questions. 10 give students constructive feedback both oral and written on their performance. 11 interpret test scores and report assessment findings. 319 Second: Content and Topics of the Proposed Training Programme   Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - The concept, the importance, and the purposes of 2 2 4 2 instructional planning - The nature of instructional planning in higher education Instructional - Steps of planning process planning - Components of an instructional plan - Descriptors for instructional planning Planning Teaching - Evaluating instructional planning - Some samples of instructional plans - Planning goals and objectives 2 4 6 3 - Planning topics and selecting content Planning - Planning instructional strategies, methods, and activities teaching - Planning motivational strategies in teaching English as a foreign language in higher - Selecting teaching aids and instructional materials education - Planning assessment methods and techniques - Creating a course outline - Planning lectures 320 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - Steps of planning a college course 2 4 6 3 Planning Teaching - Contextual influences on a course planning - Communicating course plans to students - A backwards design approach to planning a course Planning courses - A five- step systematic approach to course design and planning (analyzing, planning, conducting, assessing, and reflecting on your teaching) - Points considered while planning courses 321 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Theoretical Inappropriate Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - The concept and importance of physical classroom 1 1 2 1 environment Classroom - Descriptors and principles of arranging the physical arrangement classroom environment - Ways of arranging the seating of students in the classroom a. Physical classroom environment - Descriptors for learning groups - The importance of decorating classrooms 2 2 4 2 Implementing Teaching - Things to consider regarding classroom decoration - The pedagogical power of posters Classroom - Criteria of posters decoration - Characteristics of posters - Strategies of maximizing the educational value of posters - Visual posting strategies - The concept and nature of music 4 2 6 3 - Reasons and benefits of using music in the classroom - The influence of music on mood - The effects of music on classroom management Using music in - Music and learning the classroom - The effects of music on language acquisition - Music and learning ESL/EFL - Criteria for choosing what music to play - Music for different activities 322 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion Inappropriate The content Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - The importance of attracting students‘ attention at the 1 1 2 1 Preparing beginning of lectures students for the - Techniques of attracting students‘ attention lecture - Motivating students to the topic - Presenting overview - Approaches of teaching English 6 6 12 6 Implementing Teaching Teaching English b. Teaching strategies - Methods of teaching English language skills - Teaching English skills and systems - Teaching English systems - Lecture 4 4 8 4 - Whole class discussion - Small group work - Pair work Methods of - Solowork instruction - Role play delivery - Integrating technology - Cooperative learning - Practice - questions - debate 323 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion Inappropriate The content Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 2 4 2 - The concept of instructional activity Instructional - Principles of instructional activities activities - How to design an instructional activity - The importance of using various instructional activities Implementing Teaching b. Teaching strategies 2 2 4 2 - The concept of instructional materials Instructional - The importance of instructional materials materials - Procedures of selecting instructional materials - Types of instructional materials 2 2 4 2 - The concept of motivation Motivation and - Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivation motivating - How to motivate students? students - The responsibility of motivating students - Ingredients for improving student motivation - Ways of motivating EFL students in the classroom - Encouraging active learning 324 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion Inappropriate The content Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 2 4 2 - Sources and methods of feedback on teaching (self, Academic staff, students) - Techniques of getting feedback about teaching Feedback on - Collegial feedback on teaching teaching Implementing Teaching - The process for peer review of teaching b. Teaching strategies - The benefits of peer review of teaching - Protocols for peer review - The concept of humour 1 1 2 1 Humour in the - Reasons of using humour in the classroom classroom - Techniques for using humour and fun in the classroom 2 2 4 2 - The concept of classroom management Managing - Goals of classroom management students’ - Teacher roles and responsibilities activities - Grouping learners - Correcting learners 325 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 1 1 2 1 - The concept of communication - Process of Communication Communication - Types of communication - Barriers to effective communication c. Nonverbal communication 2 2 4 2 Implementing Teaching - The concept of nonverbal communication - The importance of nonverbal communication in the classroom Nonverbal - Tools of nonverbal communication communication - Functions and roles of nonverbal communication in the classroom - The effect of nonverbal tools of communication on the teaching learning process 1 1 2 1 - The concept of paralanguage - The features of paralanguage Paralanguage - The importance of paralanguage features in the classroom 326 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 -- 2 1 - The concept and importance of educational technology - Reasons of using technology in teaching - The historical development of CALL Requirements of teaching with technology Educational - Barriers to adapting technologies for teaching and technology learning English - The role of teachers in virtual learning environment Using Technology - Attitudes towards using technology in the teaching learning process - The concept of multimedia 2 2 4 2 - Characteristics of multimedia - The importance and benefits of using multimedia in teaching English - Teaching English using multimedia Multimedia - Theories of using multimedia in English teaching - Principles on using multimedia in English teaching - Multimedia tools used for teaching 327 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - Setting up the Overhead Projector 4 4 8 4 Overhead - Advantages of using the Overhead Projector Projector - The purpose of using overhead transparencies & - Preparing overhead transparencies Data projectors - The concept and uses of the Data Projector & - The concept of PowerPoint PowerPoint - Advantages of using PowerPoint Presentation - The uses of PowerPoint Using Technology - Creating a PowerPoint presentation - Advantages of using videos 2 2 4 2 - The phases of viewing videos - Techniques for using videos in the classroom Videos and slides - Using videos to promote language learning - The use of slides - Using a slide projector in the classroom - What is a Language Lab? 2 4 6 3 - The importance of using Language Labs in the language learning process Language Labs - The benefits of using Language Labs in English language learning and teaching - The uses of Language Labs in English language learning and teaching 328 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - The concept of interactive whiteboards 2 4 6 3 - How interactive whiteboards work - The benefits of the interactive whiteboards Interactive - Some available products of the interactive whiteboards whiteboards - Interactive whiteboards software tools - The uses of interactive whiteboards - Using interactive whiteboards in a foreign language classroom Using Technology - The concept of virtual learning environments 4 4 8 4 - The benefits of virtual learning environments Virtual learning - The available products of virtual learning environments environments - Tools of virtual learning environments - Using the tools and products of virtual learning environments in teaching and learning English - The concept of (LMSs) 4 4 8 4 - The products of LMSs - The characteristics of LMSs Learning - The features and tools of LMSs Management - The benefits of using LMSs in teaching Systems (LMSs) - Barriers to using LMSs in teaching - Using MLSs in teaching in higher education - Using MLSs in teaching English language courses 329 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - Web-based courses 2 4 6 3 - Steps of developing web-based courses - Web-based training (WBT) Web-based - Design options for WBT courses and - Design considerations for WBT activities - Design, implementation and evaluation of web-based activities - Types of web-based language learning activities - Using web-based activities in the ESL/EFL classroom Using Technology - The concept of File Transfer Protocol (FTP) 1 1 2 1 File Transfer - Benefits of FTP Protocol (FTP) - Accessing FTP websites and download files - How to upload files to an FTP website - Benefits of online discussions 1 1 2 1 Online - Strategies for moderating online discussions discussions - Instructor/peer facilitation in online discussions - The concept of e-learning 2 2 4 2 - The benefits of e-learning E-learning - Supporting learning and teaching English through e- learning 330 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion Inappropriate The content Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 -- 2 1 - The concept of rapport - The benefits and reasons of establishing rapport with students - Strategies and teachers behaviours for developing Rapport rapport with students Human Relations - The results of rapport - Factors for building rapport - Tips for building rapport 2 2 4 2 - The nature of teacher-students relationship in higher Teacher-students education relationship and - Characteristics of good teacher-student relationship relationships - Developing relationships among students among students - Making a connection between faculty and students - Classroom connectedness 331 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 2 4 2 - The concept of humanism - The importance of humanism in teaching - A humanist teacher The humanistic - The humanistic approach to education approach to - Humanistic approach to English language teaching education - Principles of humanistic education - The humanistic theory to teaching - Instructional implications of humanistic theory Human Relations 2 - 2 1 - Factors that influence students learning (Internal vs. external) - Psychological factors - The importance of considering the psychological aspects Factors that of students influence - Ways of considering the psychological aspects of students learning students - The influence of social and economic conditions on students - The importance of considering the social and economic conditions of students 332 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - The concept and importance of assessment 2 -- 2 1 - The goals of assessment Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback - The principles of assessment Assessment - The process of assessment - Reasons for assessing students - Summative assessment vs. formative assessment 2 4 6 3 - The roles of assessment types - The measurement model vs. the standards model of assessment - Norm-referenced assessment vs. Criterion-referenced Types of assessment assessment - Summative assessment methods - Functions and purposes of summative assessment - Problems with summative assessment - Formative assessment methods and activities - The principles of formative assessment - Peer assessment 2 2 4 2 - Self-assessment Alternative - Self-Assessment methods assessment - peer-assessment methods - Peer- self assessment in EFL 333 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 2 4 2 - Assessment and technology Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback Assessment and - Computer-assisted assessment (CAA) technology - Computer-assisted language testing (CALT) - Forms of technology for assessing students - The concept of measurement 1 1 2 1 - Measurement qualities Measurement - Properties and characteristics of measurement scales - Steps in measurement - Types of tests 4 4 8 4 - Characteristics of a good test - Constructing tests - Types of test items and questions Tests - Advantages and disadvantages of each type of questions - Writing effective tests instructions - Strategies of helping students to cope with test anxiety - Tests administration - Cheating and how to deal with it 334 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items - Subjective and objective testing 2 4 6 3 - Test of grammar Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback - Test of vocabulary Testing English - Testing listening comprehension language - Testing the speaking skills - Testing reading comprehension - Testing the writing skills - The concept of marking 1 1 2 1 - Scoring procedure Marking - Grading objective and subjective tests - Grading in a formative system - Interpreting test scores - The role of error 2 2 4 2 - Errors vs. slips - Types of errors Errors - Reasons of making errors by foreign/second language & learners Correction - Oral mistakes and written mistakes - Correcting errors - Techniques for correcting oral and written mistakes 335 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 2 4 6 3 - The concept, purpose, and importance of feedback Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback - The qualities of feedback - Types of feedback - The principles of giving good feedback Feedback - The focus of feedback - The benefits of feedback for teachers and students - Using ICTs to give feedback to students - Ways of making feedback more effective - Frameworks for providing feedback 2 2 4 2 - Item analysis o Item difficulty/facility analysis Evaluating tests o Item discrimination analysis o Distractor efficiency analysis - Criteria of a good test 2 2 4 2 - Criteria for assessing courses Evaluating - Evaluation measures courses - Characteristics of effective courses 336 Hours Expert’s Number of Sessions allotted opinion The content Inappropriate Theoretical Appropriate Practical Suggested adaption Total Domain Topics Items 4 4 8 4 - Formative evaluation of teaching Evaluation, and Giving - Areas of formative evaluation of teaching - Tools for conducting formative evaluation of teaching Assessment, Feedback - Teaching portfolio Evaluating - Summative evaluation of teaching teaching - Developing an effective summative evaluation system for teaching - Methods of evaluating teaching - Source of information for evaluating teaching - The evaluation cycle Total of training hours Total of training sessions Total of training days Theoretical Practical 103 109 106 53 212 337 Third: Methods, Aids, and Tools   Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The Item Suggested adaption 1 Training instruction methods The proposed training programme will be delivered using the following training instruction methods: 1. Lecture 7. Individual work 13. Practice 2. Lecturette 8. Discussions (group – panel) 14. Games 3. Presentation 9. Debate 15. Films and Videos 4. Brainstorming 10. Case study 16. Outside Speakers 5. Question and answer 11. Microteaching 6. Small group work 12. Role playing 2 Training aids The proposed training programme needs these training aids to be delivered: 1. Computers and laptops 5. Screen for presentation 9. Blackboards and chalks/ whiteboard and markers 2. Languages laboratory 6. Flip charts 10. Videos 3. Data projector 7. Posters 11. Loudspeakers/headsets 4. Overhead projector 8. Handouts 12. Interactive whiteboards 338 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The Item Suggested adaption 3 Tools of evaluation These are the various tools that will be used for the process of evaluation: 1. A reaction sheet relative to content, facilities, schedule, handouts, training aids, exercises, meals, etc. 2. A pretest and posttest/posttest related to the content of the programme. 3. A performance pretest and posttest/posttest to measure the improved/learnt skills. 4. A paper-and-pencil test to measure the participants‘ attitudes. 5. A survey and/or an interview for one or more of the following: the participants, their students, the chairmen to measure changes in the behaviour of the trainees. 6. A form for evaluating trainers 339 Fourth: Procedures of Implementing the Proposed Training Programme   Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The Item Suggested adaption 1 Selecting the trainers Carrying out such a training programme requires experts (trainers) in different disciplines: a. Educational planning, b. ELT and teaching in higher education, c. Educational psychology, d. Educational technology, and e. Educational evaluation and measurement 2 Selecting the target participants The target participants are the faculty members of English departments in all Yemeni public universities whether they are assistant, associate, or full professors. 3 Determining a location for implementing the programme The training programme should be carried out in an appropriate place in terms of size, arrangement flexibility, the availability of training aids, equipments, facilities, access, temperature, light, and acoustics. 4 Determining a timeframe for implementing the training programme - The training programme should take place during one month in summer vacation for about three years. - Four training hours a day with a break of (20-30) minutes between them. - Two training sessions of two hours a day. - Five days a week. 340 Expert’s opinion Inappropriate Appropriate # The Item Suggested adaption 5 Determining the body responsible for the training programme - The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research can be responsible for carrying out the training programme at the level of all universities. - The training programme can also be carried out at the level of each university through their directorates of Academic Development & Quality Assurance. 6 Determining the training programme management The training programme staff management should include a. an academic supervisor responsible for the training programme and its implementation; b. a principal responsible for monitoring the process of training, providing training requirements, and any administrative affairs; c. a technical staff to help the principal to prepare for the training process and to help the trainers while conducting the training sessions; d. a secretary; e. a computer technician; and f. a service committee of (3) individuals. 7 Determining motives for participants a. Participation certificates b. Tying up university teachers‘ career advancements with participation in training courses/programmes c. Providing payment for participants. d. Giving the participants priority to participate in national and international conferences on teaching. 341 Appendix (V) List of the Proposed Training Programme’s Referees Place of Work & # Name Specialization Designation Position Director Directorate of Academic 1. Abdulkkarim Hassan Educational Foundations Prof. Development & Quality Assurance Taiz University Dean 2. Anisa Dokm Mental Health Prof. Faculty of Edu. Taiz University 3. Jayashree Mohanraj ELT, Teacher Education Prof. EFLU, Hyderabad Curricula & Methods of 4. Qaid Farea Prof. Ibb University ELT Mohammad Abdu Al- 5. Linguistics & ELT Prof. Sana‘a University Mekhlafi Head, Dept. of Training & 6. S. Mohanraj ELT Prof. Development EFLU, Hyderabad 7. Sultan Al-Mekhlafi Educational Planning Prof. K. K. University, KSA Curricula & Teaching 8. Abdullah Al-Mekhlafi Assoc. Prof. Taiz University Methods of Sciences Abdulrahman G. U. A. E. University, 9. Educational Technology Assoc. Prof. Almekhlafi UAE Coordinator Abdul Wahed Q. G. English Language 10. Applied Linguistics Assoc. Prof. Al-Zumor Programme K. K. University, KSA 11. Ali Al-Qubati Educational Technology Assoc. Prof. Taiz University Principal Curricula & Teaching 12. Jameel M. Al-Hakimi Assoc. Prof. T.C. Q. C. Methods of Sciences Taiz University 13. Khadejah Y. Ramadhan ELT Assoc. Prof. Sana‘a University 342 Place of Work & # Name Specialization Designation Position Director Directorate of Academic 14. Tariq A. Al-Mansoub Public Administration Assoc. Prof Development & Quality Assurance Ibb University 15 Mahmoud Al-Maqtri ELT Assoc. Prof. Ibb University 16. Rafiq Al-Shamiri ELT Assoc. Prof. Ibb University Chairman English Dept. 17. Yehia Al-Sohbani Applied Linguistics Assoc. Prof. Faculty Of Arts Ibb University Vice Director Directorate of Academic 18. Abdulbaset S. Alfakih Educational Technology Asst. Prof. Development & Quality Assurance Taiz University Vice Dean of Students Affairs 19. Abdulhafeed Modhish ELT Asst. Prof. Faculty of Edu. Taiz University Center of Researches 20. Ali S. Al-Mekhlafi Educational Technology Asst. Prof. & Educational Development, Sana‘a TESOL and Foreign 21. Ali Alsharafi Asst. Prof. Sana‘a University Language Education Center of Researches 22. Essam A. Al-Jaubaee Literature Asst. Prof. & Educational Development, Sana‘a Chairman Instructional 23. Hanan Al-Mikhlafi Instructional Technology Asst. Prof Technology Dept. Faculty of Edu. Taiz University Curricula & ELT 24. Hussein Al-Maktary Asst. Prof. Taiz University Methodology 25. Samir Al-Sagheer Instructional Technology Asst. Prof. Taiz University 343 Place of Work & # Name Specialization Designation Position Educational 26. Shawqi A. Al-Duais Measurement & Asst. Prof. Ministry of Edu. Evaluation Chairman English Dept. 27. Taha Ahmed Hasan ELT Asst. Prof. Faculty of Edu. Taiz University Center of Researches 28. Abduh Al-Hadad ELT Master & Educational Development, Sana‘a Teaching English to Young Learners: Basic Freelance Consultant 29. Ms. Coralyn Bradshaw Master Education and Secondary Center of Researches Mohammed 30. Translation Master & Educational Alhawsali Development, Sana‘a 344 Appendix (VI) Responses to the Statements of the Questionnaire According to the Variable of Sample Type The First Domain: Planning Teaching Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation 1 Determining course goals and objectives. 2.88 0.87 57.53 moderate 3.96 0.20 79.18 high 3.83 0.41 76.67 high 2 Determining the objectives for each lecture. 2.45 0.97 49.08 low 3.37 0.53 67.35 moderate 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Determining course topics in alignment to its goals 3 and objectives. 2.59 0.96 51.90 low 3.94 0.24 78.78 high 3.83 0.41 76.66 high Determining course content suitable for the students‘ 4 level and needs. 2.32 1.01 46.41 low 3.78 0.55 75.51 high 3.50 0.55 70.00 high Determining some motivational strategies to develop 5 and sustain an interest in learning English among 1.92 0.89 38.31 low 2.96 0.64 59.18 moderate 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate students. Determining teaching strategies appropriate to teach 6 the course content and to achieve its goals and 2.25 0.89 45.03 low 3.86 0.35 77.14 high 3.33 0.52 66.67 moderate objectives. Determining the teaching aids, materials, and 7 instructional resources needed for achieving course 1.97 0.93 39.36 low 3.51 0.68 70.20 high 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate goals and objectives. Determining the evaluation methods that will be used 8 to assess students‘ learning, and to evaluate the 2.23 0.97 44.58 low 3.31 0.58 66.12 moderate 3.33 0.52 66.67 moderate course and its topics. Determining the methods of getting feedback from 9 students and colleagues regarding the course, 2.17 0.95 43.49 low 2.69 0.51 53.88 moderate 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate teaching strategies, and evaluation procedures. Preparing the teaching aids, materials, and 10 instructional resources needed for each lecture in 1.77 0.87 35.49 very low 3.27 0.81 65.31 moderate 3.50 0.55 70.00 high advance. Preparing an organized outline for all the elements of 11 the course including a course schedule for the 2.04 0.85 40.78 low 2.63 0.60 52.65 moderate 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate semester. Total average of the domain 2.24 0.51 44.72 low 3.39 0.21 67.75 moderate 3.32 0.21 66.36 moderate 345 The Second Domain: Implementing Teaching a. Physical Classroom Environment Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Organizing the physical space in the classroom 12 appropriately. 2.43 0.81 48.64 low 2.61 0.67 52.24 moderate 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate Arranging students seating (rows, clusters, 13 circles, pairs, u-shape) according to activities. 2.24 0.89 44.78 low 2.65 0.66 53.06 moderate 2.67 0.82 53.33 moderate Arranging students seating in a way that allows 14 the teacher to monitor their activities. 2.02 0.90 40.41 low 2.53 0.68 50.61 low 2.50 0.84 50.00 low Encouraging students to decorate the classroom 15 with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create a 1.39 0.72 27.80 very low 1.98 0.72 39.59 low 2.33 0.52 46.67 low motivating learning environment. Using various types of music in accordance with 16 activities. 1.09 0.32 21.76 very low 1.33 0.52 26.53 very low 1.17 0.41 23.33 very low Total average of the sub-domain 1.83 0.49 36.68 low 2.22 0.49 44.41 low 2.30 0.33 46.00 low 346 b. Teaching Strategies Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Using some techniques to attract students focus on 17 the lecture (e.g., telling a joke, asking a question, 2.75 0.76 55.02 moderate 3.94 0.47 78.78 high 3.12 0.41 63.33 moderate making a surprising statement, etc.). Revising the previous lesson/unit to establish a 18 link with the present one. 2.86 0.88 57.29 moderate 3.88 0.39 77.55 high 3.33 0.82 66.67 moderate Presenting an overview of the lecture topic at 19 the beginning including the main elements and 2.89 0.89 57.76 moderate 3.80 0.58 75.92 high 3.67 0.52 73.33 high objectives. Motivating students by highlighting the 20 importance of the lecture topic. 2.58 0.90 51.56 low 3.84 0.37 76.73 high 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate Using appropriate instructional strategies such 21 as whole class discussion and group discussion 2.75 0.83 55.08 moderate 3.33 0.59 66.53 moderate 2.83 0.41 76.67 moderate with lecturing to achieve desired instructional goals. Using variety of instructional strategies to meet the 22 individual differences of students. 1.86 0.90 37.19 low 3.22 0.65 64.49 moderate 3.00 0.63 60.00 moderate Using teaching techniques that enhance 23 students‘ motivation. 1.81 0.84 36.27 low 3.51 0.84 70.20 high 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate Using various teaching materials (e.g., 24 handouts, CDs, tapes, etc.). 2.46 1.06 49.25 low 3.18 0.83 63.67 moderate 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate Using appropriate and various instructional 25 activities in teaching. 2.09 0.86 41.90 low 3.59 0.54 71.84 high 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate 26 Managing students‘ activities effectively. 1.84 0.91 36.85 low 3.53 0.79 70.61 high 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate Encouraging students to participate in classes 27 and promoting collaborative learning. 2.68 0.86 53.59 moderate 3.80 0.61 75.92 high 3.67 0.52 73.33 high 28 Encouraging students to ask and answer questions. 2.94 0.93 58.81 moderate 3.94 0.32 78.78 high 3.83 0.41 76.67 high Creating an atmosphere of fun and humour in 29 the classroom. 2.62 0.84 52.47 moderate 3.08 0.53 61.63 moderate 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate 30 Getting students feedback about teaching. 2.12 0.85 42.37 low 2.78 0.69 55.51 moderate 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate Total average of the sub-domain 2.45 0.50 48.96 low 3.53 0.28 70.58 high 3.17 0.27 63.33 moderate 347 c. Communication Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Communicating effectively with students through 31 body language (eye contact, facial expressions, 2.91 0.82 58.10 moderate 3.71 0.50 74.29 high 3.67 0.52 73.33 high gestures, etc.). 32 Keeping students attentive through regular eye contact. 2.85 0.97 57.08 moderate 3.69 0.47 73.88 high 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Motivating students through appropriate facial 33 expressions and eye contact. 2.76 0.99 55.29 moderate 3.67 0.47 73.47 high 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate Keeping proper distance from students in the 34 classroom to make them feel at ease. 2.86 1.09 57.25 moderate 3.59 0.81 71.84 high 3.50 0.55 70.00 high Moving in the classroom in a way that raises 35 students‘ interest and attentiveness. 2.54 0.95 50.78 low 3.00 0.65 60.00 moderate 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate 36 Speaking clearly, audibly, and at a moderate pace. 3.13 0.90 62.64 moderate 3.94 0.32 78.78 high 3.83 0.41 76.67 high Using different levels of pitch for attracting students‘ 37 attention and emphasizing certain purposes. 2.77 0.98 55.32 moderate 3.71 0.54 74.29 high 3.50 0.55 70.00 high 38 Presenting the subject matter clearly. 2.99 0.92 59.83 moderate 3.80 0.41 75.92 high 3.17 0.41 62.33 moderate 39 Providing students with related and useful handouts. 3.27 1.06 65.32 moderate 3.94 0.24 78.78 high 4.00 0.00 80.00 high Asking questions related to the objectives and content 40 of the topic. 3.24 0.99 64.85 moderate 3.94 0.24 78.78 high 3.67 0.52 73.33 high Responding to students questions effectively and 41 meaningfully. 3.07 0.95 61.49 moderate 4.00 0.00 80.00 high 4.00 0.00 80.00 high Total average of the sub-domain 2.95 0.58 58.91 moderate 3.73 0.18 74.55 high 3.50 0.21 70.00 high Total average of the whole domain 2.53 0.44 50.56 low 3.38 0.21 67.67 moderate 3.14 0.21 62.89 moderate 348 The Third Domain: Using Technology Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Using common classroom technologies such as 42 tape recorders, cassettes, etc. 2.96 0.52 59.29 moderate 3.37 0.49 67.35 moderate 3.33 0.52 66.67 moderate Using multimedia (audio, video, text, animation, 43 etc.) in teaching. 1.71 0.65 34.10 very low 2.18 0.91 43.67 low 2.67 0.52 53.33 moderate 44 Using presentation tools such as PowerPoint presentation in teaching. 1.31 0.57 26.14 very low 1.96 0.91 39.18 low 2.17 0.75 43.33 low Using the Internet and its applications such as 45 Messenger, Facebook, Weblogs, and e-mail effectively to develop students‘ English skills 1.18 0.43 23.54 very low 1.78 0.92 35.51 very low 1.83 0.75 36.67 low and collaborative learning. 46 Communicating with students through Internet applications, such as email. 1.26 0.53 25.25 very low 1.86 0.94 37.14 low 2.00 0.89 40.00 low 47 Developing a course website with resources and information. 1.05 0.24 21.08 very low 1.59 0.81 31.84 very low 1.67 0.52 33.33 very low Using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer 48 and retrieve teaching and learning materials and 1.04 0.24 20.78 very low 1.27 0.49 25.31 very low 1.17 0.41 23.33 very low share them with students. Designing activities that require students to use 49 electronic sources for gathering specific 1.78 0.86 35.69 very low 1.92 0.95 38.37 low 2.33 1.03 46.67 low information. Using the interactive whiteboards and language 50 laboratories for more exposure and practice of 1.11 0.36 22.24 very low 1.27 0.49 25.31 very low 1.50 0.55 30.00 very low language. 51 Using learning management systems such as WebCT, Moodle, etc. in teaching. 1.02 0.14 20.41 very low 1.18 0.49 23.67 very low 1.17 0.41 23.33 very low Moderating online discussions to develop 52 students‘ critical thinking and student-student 1.06 0.26 21.15 very low 1.55 0.84 31.02 very low 1.17 0.41 23.33 very low interaction. Total average of the domain 1.41 0.21 28.15 very low 1.81 0.55 36.22 low 1.91 0.37 38.18 low 349 The Fourth Domain: Human Relations Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Building and maintaining good rapport (relation) with 53 students. 2.72 0.77 54.31 moderate 3.90 0.51 77.96 high 3.33 0.52 66.67 moderate 54 Sharing some personal information with students. 2.23 0.85 44.61 low 3.20 0.93 64.08 moderate 3.17 0.75 63.33 moderate 55 Considering the psychological aspects of students. 2.01 0.89 40.24 low 3.88 0.53 77.55 high 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Considering the social and economic conditions of 56 students. 1.94 0.93 38.85 low 3.86 0.41 77.14 high 3.17 0.75 63.33 moderate 57 Dealing with students in a democratic way. 2.27 0.91 45.49 low 3.76 0.48 75.10 high 3.33 0.52 66.67 moderate 58 Greeting students with a smile when meeting them. 2.85 0.97 56.92 moderate 3.94 0.32 78.78 high 3.50 0.55 70.00 high Giving praise and approval on students‘ comments 59 and responses. 2.87 0.92 57.46 moderate 3.94 0.24 78.78 high 3.83 0.41 76.67 high Developing constructive and cooperative human 60 relations among students. 2.56 0.97 51.29 low 3.76 0.43 75.10 high 3.33 0.52 66.67 moderate Setting up classroom rules based on respect and 61 etiquettes. 3.19 1.06 63.90 moderate 3.96 0.35 79.18 high 3.67 0.52 73.33 high 62 Calling students by their names. 3.26 1.08 65.12 moderate 3.73 0.53 74.69 high 3.83 0.41 76.67 high 63 Using constructive humour in the classroom. 2.53 0.90 50.58 low 3.18 0.67 63.67 moderate 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Total average of the domain 2.59 0.59 51.70 low 3.74 0.23 74.73 high 3.38 0.25 67.57 moderate 350 The Fifth Domain: Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback Students University English Teachers Chairmen No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Using assessment strategies appropriate for the 64 learning objectives. 2.33 0.79 46.61 low 3.82 0.44 76.33 high 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Using appropriate assessment strategies in 65 consistency with teaching methodology. 2.14 0.79 42.78 low 3.80 0.50 75.92% high 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Assessing students with various methods: 66 activities, assignments, homework, tests, group 2.70 0.94 53.97 moderate 3.63 0.49 72.65 high 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate projects, etc. Using technology to assess students and to 67 1.11 0.39 22.10 very low 1.06 0.24 21.22 very Low 1.00 0.00 20.00 very low give them feedback.. Creating opportunities for students‘ self- 68 assessment. 1.66 0.70 33.19 very low 2.53 0.54 50.61 low 2.83 0.41 56.67 moderate Creating opportunities for students to carry out 69 peer-assessment. 1.64 0.67 32.81 very low 2.29 0.61 45.71 low 2.50 0.55 50.00 low Designing assessment activities that enhance 70 collaborative learning. 1.91 0.86 38.31 low 3.04 0.91 60.82 moderate 2.83 0.75 56.67 moderate 71 Assessing students fairly and precisely. 2.47 0.85 49.46 low 3.92 0.45 78.37 high 4.00 0.00 80.00 high Giving students immediate and constructive 72 feedback on their performance in the classroom, 2.36 0.79 47.25 low 3.22 0.69 64.49 moderate 3.17 0.41 63.33 moderate in tests and exams, and in assignments. Using the evaluation data to improve or change 73 the current way of teaching. 1.58 0.76 31.66 very low 2.69 0.74 53.88 moderate 3.00 0.00 60.00 moderate Total average of the domain 1.99 0.44 39.81 low 3.00 0.30 60.00 moderate 2.83 0.12 56.67 moderate Total Average of the Whole Instrument 2.25 0.35 45.00 low 3.15 0.19 62.96 moderate 2.98 0.13 59.54 moderate 351 Appendix (VII) Responses to the Statements of the Questionnaire According to the Variable of Geaography The First Domain: Planning Teaching Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation 1 Determining course goals and objectives. 3.00 0.92 60.07 moderate 3.01 0.75 60.11 moderate 2.88 0.94 57.50 moderate 2 Determining the objectives for each lecture. 2.56 0.95 51.27 low 2.59 0.79 51.73 low 2.42 1.15 48.37 low Determining course topics in alignment to its goals 3 and objectives. 2.67 1.05 53.40 moderate 2.75 0.85 55.08 moderate 2.72 1.03 54.46 moderate Determining course content suitable for the students‘ 4 level and needs. 2.43 1.09 48.51 low 2.41 0.95 48.16 low 2.50 1.10 50.00 low Determining some motivational strategies to develop 5 and sustain an interest in learning English among 2.05 0.92 41.06 low 1.89 0.84 37.88 low 2.04 1.00 40.87 low students. Determining teaching strategies appropriate to teach 6 the course content and to achieve its goals and 2.35 0.99 47.02 low 2.35 0.91 47.04 low 2.46 0.98 49.24 low objectives. Determining the teaching aids, materials, and 7 instructional resources needed for achieving course 2.09 0.99 41.70 low 2.23 0.95 44.69 low 1.98 1.07 39.57 low goals and objectives. Determining the evaluation methods that will be used 8 to assess students‘ learning, and to evaluate the 2.19 1.02 43.83 low 2.46 0.81 49.16 low 2.39 1.08 47.72 low course and its topics. Determining the methods of getting feedback from 9 students and colleagues regarding the course, 2.08 0.96 41.63 low 2.35 0.83 47.04 low 2.31 0.95 46.20 low teaching strategies, and evaluation procedures. Preparing the teaching aids, materials, and 10 instructional resources needed for each lecture in 1.78 0.87 35.53 very low 2.08 1.00 41.56 low 1.93 1.03 38.59 low advance. Preparing an organized outline for all the elements of 11 the course including a course schedule for the 2.00 0.84 40.00 low 2.24 0.85 44.80 low 2.09 0.86 41.74 low semester. Total average of the domain 2.29 0.56 45.82 low 2.40 0.54 47.93 low 2.34 0.65 46.75 low 352 The Second Domain: Implementing Teaching a. Physical Classroom Environment Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Organizing the physical space in the classroom 12 appropriately. 2.48 0.72 49.57 low 2.49 0.76 49.72 low 2.37 0.95 47.39 low Arranging students seating (rows, clusters, 13 circles, pairs, u-shape) according to activities. 2.00 0.84 39.93 low 2.23 0.81 44.69 low 2.74 0.83 54.78 moderate Arranging students seating in a way that allows 14 the teacher to monitor their activities. 1.74 0.83 34.75 very low 2.12 0.83 42.35 low 2.51 0.85 50.22 low Encouraging students to decorate the classroom 15 with posters, wallpapers, charts, etc. to create a 1.42 0.68 28.37 very low 1.20 0.48 24.02 very low 1.72 0.92 34.35 very low motivating learning environment. Using various types of music in accordance with 16 activities. 1.08 0.27 21.56 very low 1.10 0.37 22.01 very low 1.16 0.42 23.15 very low Total average of the sub-domain 1.74 0.48 34.84 very low 1.83 0.42 36.56 low 2.10 0.52 41.98 low 353 b. Teaching Strategies Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Using some techniques to attract students focus on 17 the lecture (e.g., telling a joke, asking a question, 2.75 0.85 55.04 moderate 2.91 0.69 58.21 moderate 2.92 0.83 58.48 moderate making a surprising statement, etc.). Revising the previous lesson/unit to establish a link 18 with the present one. 3.05 0.95 60.92 moderate 2.83 0.78 56.54 moderate 2.91 0.89 58.15 moderate Presenting an overview of the lecture topic at the 19 beginning including the main elements and 2.98 0.96 59.57 moderate 2.99 0.74 59.89 moderate 2.91 0.95 58.26 moderate objectives. Motivating students by highlighting the importance 20 of the lecture topic. 2.62 0.92 52.48 moderate 2.72 0.84 54.30 moderate 2.73 1.03 54.57 moderate Using appropriate instructional strategies such as 21 whole class discussion and group discussion with 2.82 0.89 56.31 moderate 2.68 0.75 53.52 moderate 2.89 0.77 57.83 moderate lecturing to achieve desired instructional goals. Using variety of instructional strategies to meet the 22 individual differences of students. 2.07 0.99 41.49 low 1.89 0.95 37.77 low 1.90 0.91 38.04 low Using teaching techniques that enhance students‘ 23 motivation. 1.89 0.90 37.73 low 2.10 1.02 42.01 low 1.92 0.99 38.37 low Using various teaching materials (e.g., handouts, 24 CDs, tapes, etc.). 2.58 1.14 51.63 low 2.50 0.97 49.94 low 2.45 1.00 49.02 low Using appropriate and various instructional activities 25 in teaching. 2.07 0.95 41.49 low 2.34 0.93 46.82 low 2.32 0.88 46.41 low 26 Managing students‘ activities effectively. 1.82 0.97 36.31 low 2.12 0.99 42.35 low 2.10 1.04 41.96 low Encouraging students to participate in classes and 27 promoting collaborative learning. 2.62 0.85 52.34 moderate 3.01 0.86 60.11 moderate 2.79 0.94 55.76 moderate 28 Encouraging students to ask and answer questions. 3.05 0.94 61.06 moderate 3.02 0.91 60.45 moderate 2.98 0.97 59.67 moderate Creating an atmosphere of fun and humour in the 29 classroom. 2.60 0.85 51.99 low 2.61 0.70 52.29 moderate 2.80 0.90 55.98 moderate 30 Getting students feedback about teaching. 2.06 0.87 41.20 low 2.30 0.72 45.92 low 2.23 0.93 44.67 low Total average of the sub-domain 2.50 0.56 49.97 low 2.57 0.53 51.44 low 2.56 0.60 51.23 low 354 c. Communication Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Communicating effectively with students 31 through body language (eye contact, facial 2.89 0.87 57.80 moderate 3.05 0.74 61.01 moderate 3.03 0.83 60.54 moderate expressions, gestures, etc.). Keeping students attentive through regular eye 32 contact. 2.90 1.00 57.94 moderate 2.87 0.76 57.43 moderate 3.00 1.08 60.00 moderate Motivating students through appropriate facial 33 expressions and eye contact. 2.76 1.06 55.18 moderate 2.87 0.79 57.32 moderate 2.93 1.05 58.59 moderate Keeping proper distance from students in the 34 classroom to make them feel at ease. 2.98 0.99 59.65 moderate 2.97 0.93 59.44 moderate 2.79 1.35 55.76 moderate Moving in the classroom in a way that raises 35 students‘ interest and attentiveness. 2.61 1.02 52.20 moderate 2.65 0.76 53.07 moderate 2.46 0.95 49.13 low Speaking clearly, audibly, and at a moderate 36 pace. 3.23 0.87 64.68 moderate 3.27 0.87 65.47 moderate 3.08 0.95 61.52 moderate Using different levels of pitch for attracting 37 students‘ attention and emphasizing certain 2.89 0.99 57.87 moderate 2.94 0.89 58.88 moderate 2.67 1.05 53.48 moderate purposes. 38 Presenting the subject matter clearly. 3.04 0.97 60.71 moderate 3.03 0.77 60.56 moderate 3.11 0.94 62.17 moderate Providing students with related and useful 39 handouts. 3.34 1.06 66.74 moderate 3.46 0.78 69.16 high 3.17 1.19 63.48 moderate Asking questions related to the objectives and 40 content of the topic. 3.32 1.05 66.31 moderate 3.40 0.78 68.04 moderate 3.17 1.01 63.48 moderate Responding to students questions effectively 41 and meaningfully. 3.18 0.97 63.69 moderate 3.14 0.86 62.79 moderate 3.12 0.97 62.39 moderate Total average of the sub-domain 3.01 0.61 60.25 moderate 3.06 0.50 61.20 moderate 2.96 0.66 59.14 moderate Total average of the whole domain 2.56 0.49 51.22 low 2.63 0.42 52.54 moderate 2.63 0.53 52.59 moderate 355 The Third Domain: Using Technology Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Using common classroom technologies such as 42 tape recorders, cassettes, etc. 3.05 0.45 60.99 moderate 2.95 0.54 58.99 moderate 2.97 0.60 59.35 moderate Using multimedia (audio, video, text, animation, 43 etc.) in teaching. 1.91 0.59 38.23 low 1.76 0.77 35.20 very low 1.49 0.68 29.89 very low Using presentation tools such as PowerPoint 44 presentation in teaching. 1.38 0.64 27.52 very low 1.48 0.66 29.61 very low 1.23 0.55 24.67 very low Using the Internet and its applications such as Messenger, Facebook, Weblogs, and e-mail 45 effectively to develop students‘ English skills 1.27 0.53 25.39 very low 1.20 0.51 24.02 very low 1.19 0.49 23.80 very low and collaborative learning. Communicating with students through Internet 46 applications, such as email. 1.39 0.62 27.80 very low 1.18 0.50 23.69 very low 1.33 0.64 26.52 very low Developing a course website with resources and 47 information. 1.11 0.35 22.27 very low 1.06 0.32 21.23 very low 1.12 0.40 22.39 very low Using File Transfer Protocol (FTP) to transfer 48 and retrieve teaching and learning materials and 1.03 0.18 20.64 very low 1.04 0.22 20.78 very low 1.11 0.41 22.28 very low share them with students. Designing activities that require students to use 49 electronic sources for gathering specific 1.62 0.79 32.34 very low 1.86 0.87 37.21 low 2.02 0.91 40.43 low information. Using the interactive whiteboards and language 50 laboratories for more exposure and practice of 1.14 0.36 22.77 very low 1.06 0.28 21.23 very low 1.17 0.47 23.48 very low language. Using learning management systems such as 51 WebCT, Moodle, etc. in teaching. 1.02 0.16 20.50 very low 1.02 0.21 20.45 very low 1.06 0.24 21.20 very low Moderating online discussions to develop 52 students‘ critical thinking and student-student 1.10 0.36 21.91 very low 1.09 0.39 21.79 very low 1.10 0.35 22.07 very low interaction. Total average of the domain 1.46 0.27 29.12 very low 1.43 0.28 28.56 very low 1.44 0.28 28.74 very low 356 The Fourth Domain: Human Relations Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Building and maintaining good rapport 53 (relation) with students. 2.74 0.85 54.82 moderate 2.84 0.71 56.76 moderate 2.89 0.84 57.83 moderate 54 Sharing some personal information with students. 2.30 0.79 45.96 low 2.23 0.93 44.58 low 2.42 1.01 48.37 low Considering the psychological aspects of 55 students. 2.07 1.04 41.35 low 2.22 0.98 44.36 low 2.26 0.95 45.11 low Considering the social and economic conditions 56 of students. 2.00 1.02 40.07 low 2.08 1.03 41.68 low 2.26 1.06 45.22 low 57 Dealing with students in a democratic way. 2.39 0.98 47.87 low 2.36 0.94 47.15 low 2.44 0.99 48.80 low Greeting students with a smile when meeting 58 them. 2.98 0.99 59.50 moderate 2.88 0.90 57.54 moderate 2.93 1.05 58.59 moderate Giving praise and approval on students‘ 59 comments and responses. 2.91 0.98 58.30 moderate 2.96 0.89 59.22 moderate 3.04 0.90 60.76 moderate Developing constructive and cooperative human 60 relations among students. 2.57 1.05 51.42 low 2.61 0.91 52.18 moderate 2.85 0.96 57.07 moderate Setting up classroom rules based on respect and 61 etiquettes. 3.15 1.08 62.91 moderate 3.34 0.89 66.70 moderate 3.35 1.09 67.07 moderate 62 Calling students by their names. 3.26 1.00 65.25 moderate 3.45 1.11 69.05 high 3.20 1.06 64.02 moderate 63 Using constructive humour in the classroom. 2.53 0.94 50.64 low 2.54 0.82 50.84 low 2.70 0.90 54.02 moderate Total average of the domain 2.63 0.67 52.55 moderate 2.68 0.58 53.64 moderate 2.76 0.67 55.17 moderate 357 The Fifth Domain: Assessment, Evaluation, and Giving Feedback Sana’a Aden Taiz No Statement M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation M SD % Estimation Using assessment strategies appropriate for the 64 learning objectives. 2.31 0.87 46.24 low 2.59 0.78 51.73 low 2.53 0.91 50.54 low Using appropriate assessment strategies in 65 consistency with teaching methodology. 2.22 0.85 44.47 low 2.30 0.91 45.92 low 2.33 0.92 46.52 low Assessing students with various methods: 66 activities, assignments, homework, tests, group 2.72 1.02 54.40 moderate 2.75 0.72 55.08 moderate 2.87 1.00 57.39 moderate projects, etc. Using technology to assess students and to give 67 them feedback. 1.16 0.45 23.12 very low 1.05 0.27 21.01 very Low 1.07 0.34 21.30 very low Creating opportunities for students‘ self- 68 assessment. 1.77 0.76 35.32 very low 1.60 0.63 31.96 very low 1.83 0.77 36.52 low Creating opportunities for students to carry out 69 peer-assessment. 1.67 0.70 33.48 very low 1.54 0.58 30.84 very low 1.89 0.73 37.72 low Designing assessment activities that enhance 70 collaborative learning. 1.88 0.90 37.52 low 2.09 0.82 41.79 low 2.14 1.01 42.72 low 71 Assessing students fairly and precisely. 2.66 0.77 53.19 moderate 2.61 0.97 52.29 moderate 2.48 1.05 49.67 low Giving students immediate and constructive 72 feedback on their performance in the classroom, 2.49 0.69 49.72 low 2.39 0.82 47.71 low 2.41 0.98 48.15 low in tests and exams, and in assignments. Using the evaluation data to improve or change 73 the current way of teaching. 1.61 0.82 32.20 very low 1.79 0.83 35.87 very low 1.68 0.80 33.59 very low Total average of the domain 2.05 0.51 40.96 low 2.07 0.46 41.42 low 2.12 0.55 42.41 low Total Average of the Whole Instrument 2.29 0.42 45.87 low 2.34 0.38 46.87 low 2.36 0.46 47.11 low 358