(PDF) Increased photon emission from the

1 Explanations step by step about Bókkon’s biophysical picture representation model (also called intrinsic biophysical virtual visual reality) during visual perception and imagery 2014 by Bókkon In 2013, I have managed to take several emails with Prof Kosslyn and explained him my biophotonic molecular picture model. Prof Kosslyn wrote me: "I think I understand this much better now, and it strikes me as a very interesting hypothesis. It's well worth testing -- especially if the tests can pit the electrical view against your view." My idea of biophysical visual virtual reality in retinotopic areas can be the first possible biophysical basis of Kosslyn’s reality simulation principle in the case of visual imagery Retinal visual information can be re-represented (re-experience) through regulated biophotons in retinotopically organized, mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase-rich V1 visual areas during visual imagery, PHOSPHENES Press gently and continuously your closed eye for some seconds by your finger and you will see lights. Phosphenes represent the perceived sensation of flashes of light in the absence of external photon visual stimulation. The perceived phosphene lies within the visual hemifield contra-lateral to the stimulated cortical hemisphere, at a location reflecting the retinotopic organization of the visual cortex. Phosphenes can be produced by various stimuli (mechanical, electrical, magnetic, etc.) of cells in the visual pathway as well as random firing of cells in the visual system. BIOPHOTONS Many experiments proved that all living cells and neurons emit ultraweak biophotons that are originated from free radical (oxidative) reactions. Mitochondrial oxidative processes, lipid peroxidation are the main sources of biophotons. Isojima, Y., Isoshima, T., Nagai, K., Kikuchi, K., and Nakagawa, H. (1995). Ultraweak biochemiluminescence detected from rat hippocampal slices. NeuroReport 6, 658–660. Jansen, K. (1989). Near death experience and the NMDA receptor. Br. Med. J. 298, 1708. Kataoka, Y., Cui, Y., Yamagata, A., Niigaki, M., Hirohata, T., Oishi, N., Watanabe, Y., (2001). Activity- Dependent Neural Tissue Oxidation Emits Intrinsic Ultraweak Photons. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 285, 1007–1011. Kobayashi, M., Takeda, M., Ito, K., Kato, H., and Inaba, H., (1999a). Two-dimensional photon counting imaging and spatiotemporal characterization of ultraweak photon emission from a rat’s brain in vivo. J. Neurosci. Methods. 93, 163–168. Kobayashi, M., Takeda, M., Sato, T., Yamazaki, Y., Kaneko, K., Ito, K., et al. (1999b). In vivo imaging of spontaneous ultraweak photon emission from a rat’s brain correlated with cerebral energy metabolism and oxidative stress. Neurosci. Res. 34, 103–113. The phrase “ultraweak biophoton emission” a bit confusing, since biophoton intensity can be considerably higher inside cells and neurons than that expected from biophoton measurements, which are performed at a distance of several centimeters away from the cells. What we can measure in biophoton experiments are biophotons principally produced from natural oxidation processes on the surfaces of cellular membranes as was demonstrated by Blake et al. (2011). 2 Blake, T., Dotta, B. T., Buckner, C. A., Cameron, D., Lafrenie, R. M., and Persinger, M. A. (2011). Biophoton emissions from cell cultures: biochemical evidence for the plasma membrane as the primary source Gen. Physiol. Biophys. 30, 301–309. NOW SEE THE CONNECTION BETWEEN RETINAL PHOSPHENES AND BIOPHOTONS Several factors – as electrical or magnetic stimulation of the visual system, mechanical effects on the visual system, various drugs, stress, high-energy ionizing radiation optic nerve diseases, etc. – can induce phosphenes. However, these factors have a common feature, i.e., all of them can cause overproduction of free radicals and excited biomolecules, as I pointed out it. Bókkon I. (2008) Phosphene phenomenon: a new concept. BioSystems 92, 168-174. My prediction about one kind of retinal phosphenes (i.e. phosphene perception during space travel (Bókkon, 2008)) was experimentally supported by Narici et al. According to his work, ionizing radiation induced free radicals produce ultaweak photons through processes including by lipid peroxidation. These photons are then absorbed by the photoreceptors and initiate a photo-transduction cascade, which results in the perception of phosphenes. Namely, Narici et al. (2013) revealed that the lipid peroxidation of the photoreceptors can produce ultra- weak bio photons that generate anomalous visual effects, such as those associated with retinal phosphenes. Narici L, Paci M, Brunetti V, Rinaldi A, Sannita WG, Carozzo S, Demartino A. Bovine rod rhodopsin: 2. Bleaching in vitro upon 12C ions irradiation as source of effects as light flash for patients and for humans in space. Int J Radiat Biol. 2013 Oct;89(10):765-769. In addition, recently, we, Wang, Bókkon et al. (2011) presented first experimental demonstration of spontaneous and visible light-induced photon emission from freshly isolated whole eye, lens, vitreous humor and retina samples from rats. Our results also suggest that the source of retinal phosphenes, can originate from natural biophotons within the eyes. Wang C, Bókkon I, Dai J, Antal I. (2011) presented first experimental demonstration of spontaneous and visible light-induced photon emission from rat eyes. Brain Res. 1369. 1-9. Although intensity of biophoton emissions is weak, biophotons can have direct effect in the retinal layers of photoreceptors, thus it can create relatively strong light sensation. During natural sight, the external photon intensity is strong, but most photons are absorbed before they reach the retinal photoreceptors. When you press your eyes or perform electric stimulation in retina etc., you induce an excess biophoton production, and if it goes above a distinct threshold, it can emerge as phosphene light in our mind since the brain interprets these absorbed retinal biophotons as if they originate from the external world. Now you may understand that several evidence support that retinal phosphenes really can be originated from intrinsic biophotons of retinal oxidation/free radical reactions and our brain interprets these absorbed retinal biophotons as if they were originated from the external world. 3 INDUCED PHOSPHENES IN V1 Phosphenes lights can also be easily induced in V1 without any retinal input (without photo-transduction cascade). You know that during visual perception, we can see by V1 (V2) visual areas (not directly by our eyes) that have "perfect" retinotopic maps. Furthermore, phosphenes are only perceived by blind subjects who have prior visual experience, suggesting that early visual exposure is essential to maintain any level of residual visual function. Several experiments proved that all living cells and neurons produce biophotons, but what the specific is regarding to V1 (and V2)? The specificity is the structure, namely good retinotopic structure of V1 and V2, they areas preserve the local spatial geometry of the retina, so patterns of activation in them depict shape. Motor or auditory cortex cannot perform biophysical picture representation via biophotons because there is the lack of structural retinotopic representation. I have proposed a molecular hypothesis about the natural biophysical substrate of visual perception and imagery (Bókkon, 2009. BioSystemsBókkon and D'Angiulli, 2009. Bioscience Hypotheses). Namely, the retina absorbs external photons during vision, and then transforms photon signals into electrical signals that are carried to the V1. Then, V1 retinotopic electrical signals (spike-related electrical signals along classical axonal-dendritic pathways) can be converted into regulated biophotons within retinotopic neurons that make it possible to create internal biophysical pictures (intrinsic re-representation of perceived external objects) during visual perception and imagery. Therefore, information in the brain appears not only as electrical (chemical) signal but also as a controlled biophoton signal of synchronized V1 neurons. Bókkon I. (2009) Visual perception and imagery: a new hypothesis. BioSystems 96, 178-184. Bókkon I, D'Angiulli A. (2009) Emergence and transmission of visual awareness through optical coding in the brain: A redox molecular hypothesis on visual mental imagery. Bioscience Hypotheses 2, 226-232. Recent experiments by Sun et al. (2010) revealed that biophotons can conduct along the neural fibers that can support the relevance of our biophysical picture hypothesis. It seems that biophoton and neuroelectronic activities are not independent biological events in the nervous system, and their synergistic action may play an important role in neural signal processes. Sun, Y., Wang, Ch., and Dai, J. (2010). Biophotons as neural communication signals demonstrated by in situ biophoton autography. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 9, 315–322. Newly, Dotta, Saroka and Persinger (2012 Neurosci. Lett.) performed some novel experiments. Specifically, volunteers who imagined a white light in a dark room were compared to those who engaged in simple casual thinking. The authors found significant increases in biophoton emissions (300%) from the right hemisphere but not from the left in the former participant group. Namely, there was a cognitive coupling with biophoton emission in the brain during subjective visual imagery. They emphasized that the emissions of biophotons are strongly correlated with the action potentials of axons. These results support our biophysical picture hypothesis that subjective visual imagery is strongly correlated with the release of biophotons and may be the actual experience of organized matrices of biophotons. Dotta, B.T. Saroka, K.S. Persinger, M.A. (2012). Increased photon emission from the head while imagining light in the dark is correlated with changes in electroencephalographic power: Support for Bókkon’s Biophoton Hypothesis. Neuroscience Letters, doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2012.02.021 4 Figure. A simple illustration of the biophysical picture representation idea (also called intrinsic biophysical virtual visual reality) during visual perception and imagery (Bókkon, 2009Bókkon and D'Angiulli, 2009). External photon signals reflected from an object are converted into retinotopic electrical signals inside the retina. Next, retinotopic electrical signals are conveyed to the V1 and transformed into controlled biophotons by mitochondrial redox processes within the V1 neurons. Specifically, spike-related, retinotopic electrical signals create synchronized biophotons along classical axonal-dendritic pathways through a redox reaction within retinotopic V1 neurons. Small groups of visual neurons can function as “visual pixels” that are appropriate to the topological distribution of the retina’s photonic signals. Thus, we can get an intrinsic computational biophysical picture of the object created by biophotons in the retinotopic V1. The long-term visual information is not stored as pictures but as epigenetic codes. We are able to identify objects since the same epigenetic processes are activated every time we see an object. Therefore, the representation stored in long-term visual memory will match the representation that is created while the object is seen again. Top-down mechanisms control the epigenetically encoded, long-term visual information during visual processing. Then, according to this retrieved epigenetic information, synchronized retinotopic neurons generate dynamic patterns of biophotons through redox reactions. Finally, biophotons within the millions of synchronized neurons (Bókkon et al., 2011a; 2011b) can create biophysical pictures in the early retinotopic visual area. During visual perception and imagery, visual information is linked and combined with different sensory modalities and higher-order associational areas during multisensory interactions. It should be emphasized that neural electrical signals are transmitted between neurons, but biophotons are generated within retinotopic visual neurons. In addition, intrinsic biophysical pictures (images) are not like rigid objects but we can alter images ad-lib, which make it possible that the visual system can also produce irrationally assembled pictures and scenes during REM dreams and visual hallucinations. Figure source is: Bókkon I, Mallick BN and Tuszynski JA (2013). Near death experiences: A multidisciplinary hypothesis. Front. Hum. Neurosci. 7:533.  5 The long-term visual biophysical pictures are not stored as pictures but as epigenetic codes. We are able to identify objects since the same epigenetic processes are activated every time we see an object. Therefore, the representation stored in long-term visual memory will match the representation that is created while the object is seen again. During visual perception and imagery, visual information is linked and combined with different sensory modalities and higher-order associational areas during multisensory interactions. It should be emphasized that neural electrical signals are transmitted between neurons, but biophotons are generated within retinotopic visual neurons. In addition, intrinsic biophysical pictures (images) are not like rigid objects but we can alter images ad-lib, which make it possible that the visual system can also produce irrationally assembled pictures and scenes during REM dreams and visual hallucinations. Rudenko, A., and Tsai, L. H. (2013). Epigenetic regulation in memory and cognitive disorders. Neuroscience pii: S0306-4522(12)01222–5 What can be happened with produced biophotons within neurons? Photosensitive biomolecules of neurons can absorb produced biophotons and transfer the absorbed biophotons energy to nearby biomolecules, which can induce conformation changes and trigger complex signal processes. Since retinal and cortical induced phosphenes may have a similar molecular biophysical basis, if it can be demonstrated that perception of V1 cortical induced phosphenes is due to biophotons, intrinsic regulated biophotons in early retinotopic visual system can be seen to serve as a natural biophysical substrate of visual perception and imagery. If biophotons would play a significant role in visual imagery within the brain, then we would expect that simply shining a bright visible or infrared light into the (during open brain surgery) skull would swamp normal visual imagery. NO NO. The energy of external visible or infrared photons are too weak to perturb visual perception and imagery or produce phosphenes (i.e. inducing strong, excess biophoton emission), so we cannot experience phosphenes upon open brain operations. HOMUNCULUS We presented an iterative model of the homunculus. Namely, we suggest that during visual imagery, iterative feed forward and feedback processes can be interpreted in terms of a homunculus ("little man") looking at the biophysical picture-representation by biophotons. There is a real possibility that biophysical pictures are part of the re-entrant feed forward and feedback processes, and they are not separate from each other because of the re-entry. Thus, a separate homunculus looking at biophotonic representations can be a misleading concept, because it is a iterative matching process. The matching element is both in physical and mental aspects of feed forward and feedback signals. However, we can render the visual homunculus and its mind's eye by showing that it may be reduced to a set of nonlinear biophysical iterative processes. Bókkon I, Salari V, Tuszynski J. (2011) Emergence of intrinsic representations of images by feedforward and feedback processes and bioluminescent photons in early retinotopic areas (Toward biophysical homunculus by an iterative model). J Integr Neurosci. 10, 47-64. The visual content of biophysical representations generated from regulated biophotons is progressively degraded during the transmission along pathways from V1, V2 (extrastriate visual cortical area), and additional visual areas to higher-level associative regions. Furthermore, higher-level cognitive processes might become progressively more abstract or 6 schematic. The biophysical representation hypothesis suggests that binding between analogic- perceptual and propositional-abstract formats might appear as a natural consequence of the dynamic “crosstalk” between the visual system and the rest of the brain. Thus, retinal visual information can be re-represented through regulated biophotons in retinotopically organized, mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase-rich visual areas during visual imagery, visual perception as well as during REMS associated dreams or visual hallucination. Cytochrome c- oxidase is a mitochondrial enzyme and is an endogenous metabolic marker for neuronal activity. Most neuroscientists do not know that the highest density of neurons in neocortex devoted to representing the visual field is found in V1, but it has central importance. This means that the highest mitochondrial (and biophoton) activity can be achieved in the color representation cytochrome oxidase-rich blobs. (as mentioned, one of the major source of biophotons are mitochondria, and cytochrome c-oxidase is the terminal enzyme of the mitochondrial respiratory chain). So, cytochrome c-oxidase blobs can work as pixels by their regulated biophotons during synchronized spike-related processes in V1 neurons, and produce internal pictures, internal virtual reality, i.e., produce internal reality simulation. The biophysical picture representation may be typically different from other representation forms (i.e., propositional descriptions) up to a point (at least at the level of V1 and V2 areas) in the stream of information processing. We proposed that detailed and realistic visual representation in early V1 and V2 areas cannot be guaranteed by mere electrical representations. However, the biophysical picture concept may guarantee the detailed and realistic visual representation of objects in retinotopic V1 and V2 areas by congruent patterns of regulated biophotons. In addition, visual cortex not only processes visual signals but also is involved in the processing of mathematical thinking and auditory signals among them. We argued about the essential (and more ancient) role of picture representation over linguistic representation. Previously, we suggested that dynamic series of picture-representations can carry unambiguous meaning of words. The human memory can operate through inherent dynamic picture representations and we link these biophysical pictures to each other during language learning processes. It means that our brain can use both picture-like and language-like representation processes. The language-like processes can become the basis of abstract thinking, interpersonal communication, etc., while the picture-like biophysical representation processes can guarantee computational geometric imaginary events. 7 I.Biophysical picture during visual perception Retinal system is a photon detector and converter. External photons reflected from an object are absorbed by retinal system that begin to process and convert absorbed external photon signals into electrical signals. Next, these object related retinal electric signals are conveyed to the retinotopic V1. The conveyed retinal electric signal stimulate visual V1 cortex and generates synchronized neural spikes/discharges along classical axonal-dendritic pathways. Simultaneously with synchronized neural spikes, excess biophotons are also produced within discharged retinotopic V1 neurons (see related experiments and text below). These biophotons that are produced within discharged retinotopic V1 can produce the biophysical picture, i.e. these biophotons can re-represent of object (reality simulation). Small neural groups (blobs) work as “pixels” by their biophotons in retinotopic V1. . Experiments proved that there is a direct relationship between the intensity of biophotons and neural activity in rat hippocampal slices. In in vivo experiments, the biophoton emission from a rat's brain is associated with cerebral energy metabolism, EEG activity, and oxidative processes. Thus, we can conclude that neuronal biophoton emission is in direct relationship with neural activity and neurobiochemical processes. Moreover, it was demonstrated that biophotons can conduct along the neural fibers. Latest experiments provided evidence that the glutamate-induced biophotonic activities reflect biophotonic transmission along the axons and in neural circuits, which may be a new mechanism for the processing of neural information. Since regulated electrical signals of neurons can be converted into regulated biophoton signals, external photonic representation can emerge not only as electrical signals but also as regulated biophoton signals in the brain. Tang R, Dai J. Spatiotemporal imaging of glutamate-induced biophotonic activities and transmission in neural circuits. PLoS One. 2014 Jan 15;9(1):e85643. Kobayashi K, Okabe H, Kawano S, Hidaka Y, Hara K. Biophoton emission induced by heat shock. PLoS One. 2014 Aug 25;9(8):e105700. Tang R, Dai J. Biophoton signal transmission and processing in the brain. J Photochem Photobiol B. 2013 Dec 25. pii: S1011-1344(13)00288-1. Y. Sun, Ch. Wang, J Dai. (2010) Biophotons a neural communication signals demonstrated by in situ biophoton autography. Photochem Photobiol Sci 9:315–322. Y. Isojima, T. Isoshima, K. Nagai, K. Kikuchi, H. Nakagawa, Ultraweak biochemiluminescence detected from rat hippocampal slices, NeuroReport 6 (1995) 658-660. M, Kobayashi, M, Takeda, K, Ito, H, Kato, H. Inaba, Two-dimensional photon counting imaging and spatiotemporal characterization of ultraweak photon emission from a rat's brain in vivo, J. Neurosci. Methods 93 (1999) 163-168. Y. Kataoka, Y. Cui, A. Yamagata, M. Niigaki, T. Hirohata, N. Oishi, Y. Watanabe, Activity-Dependent Neural Tissue Oxidation Emits Intrinsic Ultraweak Photons, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 285 (2001) 1007-1011. M. Kobayashi, M. Takeda, T. Sato, Y. Yamazaki, K. Kaneko, K. Ito, H. Kato, H. Inaba, In vivo imaging of spontaneous ultraweak photon emission from a rat’s brain correlated with cerebral energy metabolism and oxidative stress, Neurosci. Res. 34 (1999)103-113. 8 II.Biophysical picture during visual perception Figure 1. During visual perception, the retinotopic V1 neurons (and extrastriate cortex) are activated by conveyed retinotopic electric signals. The conveyed retinal electric signal stimulate V1 cortex and generates synchronized neural discharges along classical axonal-dendritic pathways. Simultaneously with synchronized neural spikes, excess biophotons are also produced within discharged retinotopic V1 neurons. These biophotons that are produced within discharged retinotopic V1 can produce the biophysical picture, i.e. these biophotons can re-represent of object (reality simulation). Of course, produced biophysical picture interpretation performed by the long-term memory and higher association areas. 9 III.Biophysical picture during visual imagery Figure 2. During visual imagery, the retinotopic V1 neurons (and extrastriate cortex) are activated by long-term memory and higher association areas. Now, close your eyes or go into a dark room and imagine something. There is not any external photon absorbed by retina, but there are discharged retinotopic neurons of V1 related to your actual visual imagery. In this case, retinotopic V1 neurons and extrastriate cortex are activated by your long-term memory and higher association areas. While you imagine something it also produce synchronized neural spikes, and simultaneously with synchronized neural spikes, biophotons are also produced within discharged retinotopic V1 neurons, which produce the internal biophysical picture based on your long-term memory. Of course, imagery, per se, does not produce strong internal biophysical pictures compared to normal visual perception. Note: But your eye moving reflects your imagery, the retinal system has not too much role in it. A blind person (for example with removed eyes), can also imagine something via activated long-term memory, but without eye moving. I wrote that every cell, so the retina also, can produce spontaneous biophotons. However, retinal biophoton intensity is much weaker than photons what come from the outside in visual perception, so retinal biophotons are negligible during visual imagery and perception. But when we excite the retina, for example by electric stimulation, the intensity of biophoton emission increases and the brain interprets these retinal excess biophotons similarly to external photons in visual perception. First biophoton experiments may support the biophysical pictures representation. Namely, Dotta et al. (2012) observed cognitive coupling with biophoton emission in the brain during subjective visual imagery. In addition, the biophoton emissions were strongly correlated with EEG activity and the emergence of action potentials in axons. Dotta, B. T., Saroka, K. S., and Persinger, M. A. (2012). Increased photon emission from the head while imagining light in the dark is correlated with changes in electroencephalographic power: Support for Bókkon’s Biophoton Hypothesis. Neurosci. Lett. 513, 151–154 10 IV.Retinal phosphene induction (for example, with closed eyes or in the blind) Figure 3. 1. Electric stimulation can generate excess biophotons in the retina Electrode Optic chiasma Optic nerve Optic tract 2. Electrode induced excess biophotons are absorbed by photoreceptors and are converted into retinotopic electrical signals in the right retina, and conveyed to the left V1 Lateral geniculate nucleus Biophotons from mitochondrion Nucleus Mitochondrion Left  retinotopic V1 area  Higher-order associational 3. Phosphene emergence. Electrode induced excess visual and other sensory areas biophoton are absorbed by photoreceptors and are converted into retinotopic electrical and conveyed to the left V1 that Epigenetic generates synchronized neural spikes and excess biophotons encoded long-term in retinotopic V1 neurons. These excess biophotons produce visual information phosphene light sensation, since the brain interprets these excess biophotons similarly to external photon induced retinal signals in visual perception. 11 This figure is copyrighted!! This figure (Wang C, Bókkon I, Dai J, Antal I. (2011) Brain Res) may help understand that how biophotons produced and absorbed within photoreceptor layer. I. It is possible that a given rod or cone emits a bioluminescent photon that changes its direction, and a subsequently can absorb its own bioluminescent photon. II. A rod or cone can absorb bioluminescent photons from the lipid peroxidation of PUFA of adjacent rods or cones. III. Bioluminescent photons, emitted from the mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in the inner segment, can also be absorbed by opsins. This figure also helps understand why weak biophotons can produce strong retinal phosphene perception. In natural vision, external photon intensity is much more stringer compared to biophotons. But, while external photons go across several parts of the eye and several retinal layers, the intensity of external photons are greatly reduced. But retinal biophotons are absorbed where they produced, retinal (namely, biophotons from photoreceptors) biophotons do not need to go across several parts of the eye. Thus, this weak biophotons can produce strong retinal phosphene perception in many cases. 12 V.Seeing of cortical induced phosphene does not need retina (for example, in the blind) Figure 4. Optic tract 1. Electric stimulation generate excess biophotons in the V1 Lateral geniculate Electrode Red biophotons nucleus from mitochondrion Nucleus Mitochondrion Left retinotopic V1  area  Higher-order associational visual and other 2. Local induced electric excitation in V1 sensory areas generates synchronized neural spikes as Epigenetic well as excess biophotons in the V1. The encoded long-term brain interprets these excess cortical visual information biophotons of V1 similarly to external photon induced retinal signals in visual perception. Artem'ey, V.V., Goldobin, A.S., Gus'kov, L.N., 1967. Recording the Optical Emission of a Nerve. Biophysics 12, 1278-1280. Unfortunately, to date, only one experiment proved that a nerve of frog emitted visible biophotons when the nerve was excited by 10-15 V. It was long time ago with more outdated device, but it produced biophotons only via single neuron excitation!!! 13 6.State-dependent phosphenes Phosphenes can originate at different levels in the visual system. Several studies demonstrated that patients could perceive phosphenes only in the presence of an intact V1 visual area (Cowey and Walsh, 2000). Recently, Silvanto et al. (2007) carried out a number of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) researches. After 30 sec visual adaptation to a homogeneous color, TMS stimulation was applied on the occipital cortex. This TMS induction could elicit phosphenes that took on the color qualities of the adapting color. For instance, if voluntaries were adapted to a green color, they perceived a red negative afterimage into which the application of TMS induced green phosphenes (Fig.). The negative afterimages lasted about 69 sec. In these experiments, state-dependent phosphenes persisted for about 91 sec, meaning that the information of perceived visual color (after 30 sec visual adaptation to a color) was not consciously represented for 91 sec in early visual areas. This subliminal temporary representation of a color became explicit/conscious information, for a moment, by TMS stimulation. These experiments may support the idea that V1 able to sustain transient subliminal visual information for several seconds. This sustained, transient subliminal visual information is also necessary for iterative/recursive feedforward and feedback neurocomputation between higher and lower areas. Silvanto, J., Muggleton, N.G., Cowey, A., Walsh, V., 2007. Neural adaptation reveals state-dependent effects of transcranial magnetic stimulation. Eur. J. Neurosci. 25, 18741681. Fig. A schematic drawing of TMS-induced phosphene within the afterimage. Figure source: Bókkon I, Vimal RLP. (2010). Implications on visual apperception: energy, duration, structure and synchronization. BioSystems 101, 1-9. 14 Early visual areas can preserve specific information about visual features for many seconds According to Harrison and Tong (2009), early visual areas can maintain specific information about visual features held in working memory for many seconds when no physical stimulus is present. Harrison and Tong found that early visual areas are not only important for processing information about the immediate sensory environment, but can also maintain information in the absence of direct input to support higher-order cognitive functions. During their orientation-selective tasks, fMRI was used to determine whether activity in early visual areas could reflect the contents of working memory. Although decoding of low amplitude signals led to reliable prediction of the orientation held in memory, Harrison and Tong found that the overall activity in the visual cortex fell to near- baseline levels after prolonged delays. Harrison, S.A., Tong, F., 2009. Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature 458, 632635. Long-lasting subliminal visual representation in early visual areas after visual perception The experiments by Harrison and Tong (2009) and Silvanto et al. (2007) suggest that residual brain states are not fully reflected in active neural patterns after visual perception. Namely, subliminal residual states are not being reflected in passive neural recording techniques, but require active stimulation to be revealed. This required active stimulation can be realized by artificial (external) stimulations, like TMS, or by natural (internal) stimulations, like active visualization processes. However, it should be considered at the perceptional experiments to be made in the future that in many cases this retained, subliminal visual representation processes cannot see inevitably by the most modern neural recording procedures, but require active stimulation to be emerged. TMS induces detail-rich ‘‘instant replays’’ of natural images Wu performed several experiments on the interaction of phosphenes and visual stimuli. He found that the TMS effect is dependent on ongoing neural activity. When a flashed visual disk was timed with TMS so that the phosphene and disk were perceived at the same time, the area of overlap between the disk and phosphene was seen as a more intense color disk version of the disk’s color. When TMS was timed so that the subject would see the colored disk and phosphene separately, one after the other, the percept induced by TMS was not an average phosphene. Instead, in the area where the phosphene and disk would have overlapped, the subject saw a repetition of that portion of the colored disk. Under optimal conditions, the instant replay had a certain photographic-like quality. When stimulation intensity was lowered, or the delay between the disk and TMS was lengthened, the replay effect became weaker. Recently, Halelamien et al. and Wu et al. confirmed the neurobiological state-dependency of transcranial magnetic stimulation during visual perception. In Halelamien et al.’s experiments, the coil position was optimized over the occipital cortex to elicit vivid phosphenes in a darkened room and subjects were screened to find those that perceived large, bright phosphenes near fixation. Then, researchers presented pictures of natural scenes and animals for 100 msec, followed by TMS. They found that TMS delivered shortly after image presentation led to the re-perception of clearly 15 defined forms that varied according to the content of the flashed image. In the most notable cases, subjects perceived nearly photographic repetitions in portions of the display. In other cases, subjects perceived uniformly-filled, phosphene-like figures whose outlines matched, in detail, contours drawn from the preceding image. Halelamien et al. concluded that rich, detailed visual information remains encoded well after visual perception has ended and that TMS can allow conscious access to these nascent low-level representations. In 2013 Liao et al. validated that TMS reactivates visual experience (i.e. induces instant replays). Neil, H., Wu, D. A. & Shimojo, S. TMS induces detail-rich ‘‘instant replays’’ of natural images. J. Vis. 7(9), 276 (2007). Wu, D. A., Neil, H., Hoeft, F. & Shimojo, S. TMS ‘‘instant replay’’ validated using novel double-blind stimulation technique. J. Vis. 7(9), 275 (2007). Wu, D. A., Neil, H., Hoeft, F. & Shimojo, S. TMS ‘‘instant replay’’ validated using novel double-blind stimulation technique. J. Vis. 7(9), 275 (2007). Jolij, J. & Lamme, V. A. F. Transcranial magnetic stimulation-induced ‘visual echoes’ are generated in early visual cortex. Neurosci. Lett. 484, 178–181 (2010). Hsin-I Liao, Daw-An Wu, Neil Halelamien, Shinsuke Shimojo.Cortical stimulation consolidates and reactivates visual experience: neural plasticity from magnetic entrainment of visual activity. Sci Rep. 2013; 3: 2228. TMS cortical stimulation consolidates and reactivates visual experience Liao HI, Wu DA, Halelamien N, Shimojo S. Cortical stimulation consolidates and reactivates visual experience: neural plasticity from magnetic entrainment of visual activity. Sci Rep. 2013 18;3:2228. Experiments support the hypothesis that replayed and entrained visual percepts are processed by mechanisms similar to those of regular visual processing (Liao, Wu et al. 2013). A previous study (Jolij and Lamme, 2010) of the perceptual replay or ‘visual echo’ examined the effect of the visual surround on replayed images, measuring the amount of tilt repulsion between the two. Results showed that the replayed image interacted with the visual surround presented at the time of replay, not at the time of the original visual stimulus presentation. This suggests that the replay effect involved a recapitulation of normal low-level visual processing (Liao, Wu et al. 2013). Jolij J, Lamme VA. Transcranial magnetic stimulation-induced 'visual echoes' are generated in early visual cortex. Neurosci Lett. 2010 Nov 5;484(3):178-81. Abstract Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the early visual areas can trigger perception of a flash of light, a so- called phosphene. Here we show that a very brief presentation of a stimulus can modulate features of a subsequent TMS-induced phosphene, to a level that participants mistake phosphenes for real stimuli, inducing 'visual echoes' of a previously seen stimulus. These 'echoes' are modulated by visual context at the moment of magnetic stimulation, showing that they are generated in early visual areas, and that the brain processes these 'echoes' as if they are factually presented stimuli. This shows that TMS can re-activate weak visual representations in early visual areas. Based on the pattern of contextual modulation of visual echoes, we theorize that perception of these echoes is not a passive reactivation of residual activity in early visual cortex, but an active interpretation of the combined activity of TMS-induced neural noise and cortical state. 16 Our results from the TMS-replay learning trials provide further support for this hypothesis,as masking interactions are also mediated in early visual cortex. Further, the results from the TMS-test trials extend the same implications to the entrained percepts (Liao, Wu et al. 2013). One may alternatively consider the entrained percepts as visual imagery extracted by TMS (Kosslyn, S.M. et al 1999; Silvanto, ads Cattaneo, 2010); however, the temporal and spatial specificity found in our results suggest a representation more closely locked to the original ‘real’ retinally-driven percept (Liao, Wu et al. 2013). Our data, particularly the spatial selectivity, should be interpreted in the context of the continuum from percept to iconic storage to visual memory (Liao, Wu et al. 2013).. Kosslyn, S.M. et al. The Role of Area 17 in Visual Imagery: Convergent Evidence from PET and rTMS. Science 284, 167–170 (1999). Silvanto, J. & Cattaneo, Z. Transcranial magnetic stimulation reveals the content of visual short-term memory in the visual cortex. NeuroImage 50, 1683–1689 (2010). We know that phosphenes can be easiest induced by TMS in the V1. In all above experiments, subjects were selected if researches could easily induce phosphenes in subjects. We should see, that the same process, i.e. TMS, that produced phosphenes, also could produce TMS induced re-perception of clearly defined forms that varied according to the content of the flashed image and in the most notable cases, subjects perceived nearly photographic repetitions in portions of the display.!!!! Thus, when TMS is applied in right time after visual perception it does not produce phosphenes but produces re-representation that is closely locked to the original ‘real’ retinally-driven percept. It also evident that conscious re-representation was essentially performed by V1 in these experiments. However, if V1 induced TMS phosphenes can be bioluminescent photons, TMS induced nearly photographic re-representation may also due to the bioluminescent photons. We should think about it!!!! 17 7.The phosphene is phosphene As was mentioned, the hypothesis that retinal phosphene lights are due to biophotons is supported by several sets of experiments. Catalá (2006) has shown that radicals from lipid peroxidation of the photoreceptors can create (bio)chemiluminescent photons (bioluminescence is a type of chemiluminescence, which naturally occurs in living organisms) in the visual spectrum. (there are different name of ultra weak biophotons, such as ultra weak chemiluminescence, eutoluminsecence, ultra weak bioluminescence, etc.) Catalá A. An overview of lipid peroxidation with emphasis in outer segments of photoreceptors and the chemiluminescence assay. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2006;38(9):1482-95 My prediction regarding one specific kind of phosphenes (i.e. retinal phosphenes during space travel) was essential supported by two papers of Narici et al. (2012, 2013). According to this work, ionizing radiation induced free radicals which produce bio/chemiluminescent photons through processes including by lipid peroxidation. Chemiluminescent photons are then absorbed by the photoreceptors and initiate a photo-transduction cascade, which results in the perception of phosphenes. Narici et al. (2013) also revealed that the lipid peroxidation of the photoreceptors can produce (bio)chemiluminescent photons that generate anomalous visual effects, such as those associated with retinal phosphenes. Narici cited my several papers in his 2013 paper. Narici L, Paci M, Brunetti V, Rinaldi A, Sannita WG, Carozzo S, Demartino A. Bovine rod rhodopsin: 2. Bleaching in vitro upon (12)C ions irradiation as source of effects as light flash for patients and for humans in space. Int J Radiat Biol. 2013 Oct;89(10):765-9 Narici L, Paci M, Brunetti V, Rinaldi A, Sannita WG, De Martino A. Bovine rod rhodopsin. 1. Bleaching by luminescence in vitro by recombination of radicals from polyunsaturated fatty acids. Free Radic Biol Med. 2012 Aug 1;53(3):482-7. Bókkon I, Vimal RLP. (2009) Retinal phosphenes and discrete dark noises in rods: a new biophysical framework. J. Photochem. Photobiol. B Biology. 96, 255-259. In addition, recently, we presented the first experimental in vitro evidence (Wang, Bókkon et al., 2011) for the existence of spontaneous and visible light induced biophoton emission from freshly isolated whole eye, lens, vitreous humor and retina samples from rats. It also supports the hypothesis that retinal phosphene lights are produced by biophotons. Wang C, Bókkon I, Dai J, Antal I. (2011) First experimental demonstration of spontaneous and visible light- induced photon emission from rat eyes. Brain Res. 1369. 1-9. As we can see, there is strong experimental evidence that retinal phosphene lights are due to biophotons. 18 This figure is copyrighted!! This figure (Wang C, Bókkon I, Dai J, Antal I. (2011) Brain Res) may help understand that how biophotons produced and absorbed within photoreceptor layer. I. It is possible that a given rod or cone emits a bioluminescent photon that changes its direction, and a subsequently can absorb its own bioluminescent photon. II. A rod or cone can absorb bioluminescent photons from the lipid peroxidation of PUFA of adjacent rods or cones. III. Bioluminescent photons, emitted from the mitochondrial oxidative metabolism in the inner segment, can also be absorbed by opsins. This figure also helps understand why weak biophotons can produce strong retinal phosphene perception. In natural vision, external photon intensity is much more stringer compared to biophotons. But, while external photons go across several parts of the eye and several retinal layers, the intensity of external photons are greatly reduced. But retinal biophotons are absorbed where they produced, retinal (namely, biophotons from photoreceptors) biophotons do not need to go across several parts of the eye. Thus, this weak biophotons can produce strong retinal phosphene perception in many cases. Now, you may agree with me that The phosphene is phosphene, namely, spontaneous retinal phosphenes of Leber Congenital Amaurosis petients (Ashtari et al 2013) (spontaneous retinal phosphenes activated occipital lobes covering all retinotopic visual centers, and you could see that free radicals takes part in LCA ) are phosphenes like ionizing radiation induced phosphenes Narici et al. (2012, 2013), which due to the free radicals and ultra weak biophotons. Manzar Ashtari, Laura Cyckowski, Alborz Yazdi, Kathleen Marshal, Amanda Viands, István Bókkon, Albert Maguire and Jean Bennett. (2013). fMRI of Retinal Originated Phosphenes Experienced by Patients with Leber Congenital Amaurosis. PlOS One. Under review. But it is has not proved yet that cortical phosphenes lights are due to biophotons, however, the next logical step can be: that retinal and visual cortical phosphenes are generated by similar mechanisms, and both may be due to the transiently and locally increased ultraweak biophotons. However, cortical phosphenes can be produced by direct electric stimulation of the visual cortex without retinal photo-transduction cascade. If we can prove that cortical V1 phosphenes can be biophotons, it essential supports biophysical picture hypothesis. 19 However, as mentioned, unfortunately, to date, only one experiment proved that a nerve of frog emitted visible biophotons when the nerve was excited by 10-15 V. It was long time ago with more outdated device, but it produced biophotons only via single neuron excitation!!! Artem'ey, V.V., Goldobin, A.S., Gus'kov, L.N., 1967. Recording the Optical Emission of a Nerve. Biophysics 12, 1278-1280. Figure. Biophysical picture representation. (A) Kosslyn’s original but simple Cathode Ray Tube metaphor concept about V1 retinotopic structure related to computer monitor. (B) Biophysical picture model by Bókkon (2009), and Bókkon and D'Angiulli (2009). The B is based on the Hubel and Wiesel ice-cube model to describe the biophysical picture idea. In reality (C), V1 structure has not strict geometric like an ice-cube or a monitor pixel. In V1 cytochrome oxidase patches (mitochondrial-rich blobs as local neuron clusters) may constitute the basic modules of striate cortex and may act as ”pixels”. Since living cells and system use non linear processes, it is not a matter to utilize quasi-irregular geometric organization for visual representation in retinotopic areas. 20 The human memory (unconscious) can operate through intrinsic dynamic pictures and we link these picture-representations to each other during language learning processes. Recently, Bókkon and Malick 2012, we have suggested that characteristics of homeothermic state make the development of explicit memory possible in evolution. Our idea may be related to Hobson’s protoconscious notion, i.e. protoconscious state may be emerged form implicit memory in homeotherms during evolution of REMS. We also suggested that REM protoconscious state may be essentially visual-based process. István Bókkon & Birendra Nath Mallick. ACTIVATION OF RETINOTOPIC VISUAL AREAS IS CENTRAL TO REM SLEEP ASSOCIATED DREAMS: VISUAL DREAMS AND VISUAL IMAGERY POSSIBLY CO-EMERGED IN EVOLUTION Activitas Nervosa Superior 2012, 54, No. 1-2 Recently, we have proposed a theoretical model involving a biophysical picture-representation without homunculus during visual imagery (BÓKKON, SALARI, TUSZYNSKI.2011). We have shown that the somewhat mysterious homunculus phenomenon may be elucidated with the help of retinotopic representation, rapid feedforward and feedback connections (between V1 and V2), and non-linear iterative processes during visual imagery. We also proposed that emergence of an iterative biophysical picture-representation in retinotopic V1/V2 and the semantic interpretation of an emerged biophysical picture are two different things, although they may be tightly connected. The first is a biophysical picture-representation generating process (picture-like) while the second is a language-like semantic interpretation process. However, they can induce each other’s representations. The human memory can operate through intrinsic dynamic pictures and we link these picture- representations to each other during language learning processes. During language learning processes, development of picture-like and language-like systems becomes a quasi-independent neural process. An important implication of this hypothesis is that long-term information storage of the language-like and picture-like representations can be encoded by non-linear epigenetic redox processes. The evolutionary advantage of the biophysical picture representation is that it makes possible, for example, for us to imagine events, compose and design objects, etc. However, if it can be proved that perception of cortical induced phosphene lights is due to biophotons; intrinsic regulated biophotons in the brain may serve as a natural biophysical (redox molecular) substrate of visual perception and imagery. In other words, intrinsic biophysical visual virtual reality may emerge from feedback and feedforward iterative operation processes and biophotons in early retinotopic V1 and V2 areas. Kosslyn's reality simulation principle [40] states that mental imagery mimics the corresponding events in the world. However, our concept of intrinsic biophysical visual virtual reality (by iterative processes) in retinotopic areas may be nothing else than a possible biophysical basis of the reality simulation principle in the case of visual imagery. BÓKKON, SALARI, TUSZYNSKI. EMERGENCE OF INTRINSIC REPRESENTATIONS OF IMAGES BY FEEDFORWARD AND FEEDBACK PROCESSES AND BIOLUMINESCENT PHOTONS IN EARLY RETINOTOPIC AREAS Journal of Integrative Neuroscience, Vol. 10, No. 1 (2011) 47–64 21 BELOW SEVERAL LATEST PAPERS’ ABSTRACTS RELATED TO V1 AND PHOSPHENES Feedback to Early Visual Cortex Contributes to Perceptual Completion 1. Martijn E. Wokke1,2, 2. Annelinde R. E. Vandenbroucke1, 3. H. Steven Scholte1 and 4. Victor A. F. Lamme1,2 + Author Affiliations 1. 1 Cognitive Neuroscience Group, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam 2. 2 Cognitive Science Center, University of Amsterdam 1. Martijn E. Wokke, University of Amsterdam, Department of Psychology, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA, Amsterdam, The Netherlands E-mail:

(PDF) Increased photon emission from the head while imagining light in the dark is correlated with changes in electroencephalogr