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Bilingual, Multilingual, and Multicultural Education
Language Learning Strategies
Stephen J Hall
2012, Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning
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Abstract
AI
The paper discusses language learning strategies within the context of 21st-century education, emphasizing the importance of teaching students to learn how to learn. It highlights the shift from rote learning to developing critical thinking and information interpretation skills, arguing for a constructivist approach where students actively engage in their own learning. The role of teachers is reframed to facilitate significant learning experiences tailored to individual needs, enabling students to integrate new knowledge with their existing understanding and apply it in diverse contexts.
Key takeaways
AI
Education must foster learner autonomy and self-directed learning for lifelong skill development.
Effective language learning strategies enhance learner responsibility and motivation in the classroom.
Diverse cognitive styles significantly influence students' choice of learning strategies.
Teachers should create environments that encourage strategy awareness and personal learning assessments.
Learner training involves developing both cognitive and metacognitive strategies for effective language acquisition.
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Language Learning Strategies v
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Jalo, Marcela Lilian
Language learning strategies
Cuadernos de Lenguas Modernas
2005, vol. 5, nro. 5, p. 155-244
Cita sugerida:
Jalo, M. L. (2005). Language learning strategies. Cuadernos de Lenguas Modernas, 5
(5), 155-244. En Memoria Académica. Disponible en:
Documento disponible para su consulta y descarga en Memoria Académica, repositorio
institucional de la Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación (FaHCE) de la
Universidad Nacional de La Plata. Gestionado por Bibhuma, biblioteca de la FaHCE.
Para más información consulte los sitios:
Esta obra está bajo licencia 2.5 de Creative Commons Argentina.
Atribución-No comercial-Sin obras derivadas 2.5
LA N G U A G E LE A R N IN G STRATEGIES
Prof. Marcela Lilian Jalo
Este trabajo corresponde a la investigación realizada en e i m arco de ia adscripción a ia
Cátedra Planificación Didáctica y Práctica de ia Enseñanza en Inglés
IN T R O D U C T IO N
If a principle guiding the goals and purposes of the school of the 21st Century were
to be chosen, undoubtedly the more accepted one among educators and researchers
would be that education has to be directed to help students to learn how to learn. One
of the functions o f future education should be to prom ote the capacity of students to
manage th eir own learning, to adopt a growing autonomy and to have intellectual and
social tools that allow them continuous learning throughout th eir lives. In an increasingly
open and complex society, there is a growing insistence on the fact that education
should be directed to prom ote capacities and competences, not only closed knowledge
o r programmed techniques. In this sense, Fernando Savater (1997: 49-50) defending the
necessity to develop those competences o r open capacities places the ability to learn at
the center of all educational projects. He said:
«Pues bien, sin duda la propia habilidad de aprender es una m uy distinguida
capacidad abierta, la más necesaria y humana quizá de todas ellas. Y cualquier
plan de enseñanza bien diseñado ha de considerar p rio rita rio este saber que
nunca acaba y que posibilita todos los demás, cerrados o abiertos, sean los
inm ediatam ente útiles a c o rto plazo o sean los buscadores de una excelencia
que nunca se da p o r satisfecha.»
Briefly, this new culture of learning is characterized by three essential features: we
are in the society of information, of multiple knowledge and of continuous learning. In
this society, school is no longer the first source of knowledge fo r the students in many
fields.
O u r students need no more information -though they may certainly need it- but
rather the capacity to organize and to interpret this information, to give it sense. And
mainly what they will need as future citizens is the ability to search, to select and to
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 155
interpret information. In the society o f information and knowledge, the school can no
longer provide all the relevant information, because this is much more flexible than
school itself: what the school can and should do is to prepare students so that they may
access and give sense to that information by providing and developing learning strategies
that allow them to make a critical assimilation o f information.
W ith in the fram ework of a constructivist approach to language teaching, in which
the student -guided by the teacher- is the one w ho builds his own learning, I have
chosen the topic o f learning strategies since the use and the selection o f appropriate
strategies fo r each task is of great importance to achieve a successful and significant
learning. Thus, the student will know what strategies he should use to solve a learning
situation appropriately inside and outside the classroom. O u r role as teachers is to build
a space of significant teaching keeping in mind the learners’ needs and interests to
sustain m otivation and where learners have the opportunity to build th eir knowledge
according to th e ir personal characteristics. To teach is not only to transm it information;
it is to go beyond the given information building a new knowledge starting from all that
is known. In turn, students should learn to integrate correctly what they already know
w ith new situations. In this sense, the teacher should create opportunities to transfer
the new knowledge to different contexts and help students to do it through the use of
strategies.
Each student learns different versions o f what we teach and it is necessary to take
into account these diverse meanings. The learning o f each individual is the result of his
previous knowledge and o f the personal interpretatio n th at he makes o f the new
information. Therefore, the meanings given to what is taught are the individual and
personal construction of each student. Considering the diversity o f the students, the
teacher should teach according to the characteristics o f the group as such, and the
students’ personal characteristics: th eir interests, th eir concerns, th eir necessities and
th eir ways o f approaching knowledge using different languages (verbal, musical, visual,
kinesthetic) and applying different strategies so that the learners have the opportunity
to relate the new problems and the new information to what they already know, and to
transfer it to new contexts.
The focus o f my w o rk is first, to investigate on learning strategies based on the idea
of learner self-direction in the context of a communicative approach to language learning.
I have also turned from examining learning processes to examining individual learners
and in particular how their ways of learning can be different. Factors such as previous
learning experience, cognitive style and motivation, as well as aptitude, age and personality
156 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
may all affect an individual’s learning style and strategies. Different styles of learners
adopt different strategies fo r learning successfully.
Learner strategy research has focused on studying how learners use strategies and
what the differences are between the strategies used by successful and unsuccessful
learners. Vann and Abraham ( 1990) studied the strategies of unsuccessful language learners
on a variety o f different kinds of tasks and found that what distinguished unsuccessful
learners was n o t the lack o f appropriate strategies but the inability to choose the right
strategy fo r the task. Thus, fo r effective learning to take place, what is im portant is the
learners’ ability to respond to the particular learning situation and to manage th eir
learning in an appropriate way. Studies of successful and unsuccessful learners show that
people w ho succeed in learning have developed a range of strategies from which they
are able to select those that are the most appropriate fo r a particular problem.
Teachers can help by making students aware o f such strategies, and encouraging
th eir use. By encouraging students to become self-reliant, teachers will raise the quality
of their classroom learning and make it easier fo r them to carry on learning after th eir
course has finished.
As Wenden and Rubin claim (1987:8) “ one of the leading educational goals o f the
research on learner strategies is an autonomous language learner, one w ho is equipped
w ith the appropriate skills and strategies to learn a language in a self-directed way.” As
teachers we should be involved in teaching learners the techniques o f learning a language
and help them become aware o f how and when to use strategies that will enable them
become self-directed.
Through my research on the topics already stated, I have become aware of learners’
different cognitive styles and o f the different kinds of strategies students may use to
achieve a task.
Learning strategies involve an ability to m onitor the learning situation and respond
accordingly. This means being able to assess the situation, to plan, to select appropriate
skills, to sequence and co-ordinate them, to m onitor o r assess their effectiveness and to
revise the plan when necessary. So, fo r example, guessing the meaning o f a w ord o r
skimming a te x t are skills, but the learner has to be able to use them in a purposeful way
when appropriate.
W e must emphasise in conclusion that the issue of strategy use is complex, and
there are no simple solutions to the questions of how to prom ote efficient employment
of strategies. W h a t is more significant is teachers’ sensitivity to the ways in which their
learners learn, th eir attitudes towards teaching their learners to think and to learn, and
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 157
an awareness of the part th eir learners must play in taking control o f th e ir learning.
The process o f education is one o f the most im portant and complex o f all human
endeavors. A popular notion is that education is something carried o ut by one person,
a teacher, standing in fro n t of a class and transm itting information to a group o f learners
w ho are all willing and able to absorb it. This view, however, simplifies what is a highly
complex process involving an intricate interplay between the learning process itself, the
teacher’s intentions and actions, the individual personalities o f the learners, th eir culture
and background, the learning environment and many o th e r variables. The successful
educator must be one w ho understands the complexities o f the teaching-learning process
and can draw upon this knowledge to act in ways which em power learners both within
and beyond the classroom situation.
Most language teachers have experienced the frustration o f investing endless amounts
of energy in th e ir students and getting very little response. W e all have had groups w ho
never did th e ir hom ework, w ho were reluctant to use the target language in pair o r
group w ork, w ho did not learn from th eir mistakes, w ho did n ot listen to each other,
who did n ot use opportunities to learn outside the classroom, and so on.
Such behavior very often stems from one common cause: the learners’ over-reli
ance on the teacher. Even otherwise motivated learners may assume a passive role if
they feel the teacher is in charge of everything that happens in the classroom.
It is essential to give students practical guidance on how to develop a sense o f
responsibility so that they will understand why and how they learn and be willing to take
an active role in th eir learning. The task is not an easy one, as training learners fo r
responsibility involves changing their attitudes.
This paper is organized into tw o parts:
PART I: gives the theoretical background and deals w ith some o f the trends and
issues emerging from the general educational field that have had an im portant influence
on the topic o f language learning strategies.
PART II: explores the pedagogical applications o f the w o rk on learning strategies to
the classroom.
I have adopted Nunan’s (1999) classification o f learning strategies explaining and
exemplifying each strategy. I have extracted the examples fo r each type o f strategies
from different textbooks I am presently using at Colegio Nacional ‘Rafael Hernandez’
and Escuela de Lenguas UNLP. As a teacher, I feel pleased to w o rk w ith textbooks that
158 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
include examples of strategy training and whose authors build strategy awareness into
th e ir materials.
PARTI
1. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1 Cognitive psychology
1.2 Humanism and experiential psychology
1.3 Implications of the humanistic approach
1.4 Learner-centered education
1.5 Responsibility and autonomy
1.6 W hat can teachers do to prom ote learning?
2. FOCUS O N THE LEARNER
2 .1 Learner strategies
2.2 Learner training
2.3 Learning strategies in second language acquisition
2.4 Language learning strategies
2.5 Cognitive and metacognitive strategies
3. RESEARCH O N LEARNING STRATEGIES
3 .1 The theory o f learner training
I. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
1.1 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
As stated by Hamachek (1977), cognitive psychology is concerned w ith the way in
which the human mind thinks and learns. Cognitive psychologists are interested in the
mental processes that are involved in learning. This includes such aspects as how people
build up and draw upon th eir memories and the ways in which they become involved in
the process o f learning.
In recent years cognitive psychology has had a considerable influence on language
teaching methodology. In a cognitive approach, the learner is seen as an active participant
in the learning process, using various mental strategies in order to sort out the system
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 159
of the language to be learned. Learners are required to use th e ir minds to observe, think,
categorise and hypothesise and in this way, gradually w o rk o u t how the language operates.
Learners are engaged in formulating hypotheses in o rd e r to discover the rules of the
target language. Errors are inevitable and are signs that learners are actively testing th eir
hypotheses. For a while in the early 1970s there was great interest in applying this new
Cognitive Approach to language teaching, and materials were developed w ith deductive
(learners are given the rule and asked to apply it) and inductive (learners discover the
rules from the examples and then practice it) grammar exercises. However, no language
teaching method ever really developed directly from the Cognitive Approach; instead, a
number o f ‘innovative methods’ emerged.
A t one extrem e are inform ation theorists w ho have drawn the analogy of the brain
as a highly complex computer and who seek to explain its workings in terms of rules and
models of how different aspects of learning take place. Examples o f this approach can be
seen in w o rk on artificial intelligence systems and, particularly, in models of memory and
reading processes. Cognitive psychologists w ho take this approach to learning are mainly
concerned w ith the way in which people take in information, process it and act upon it.
Factors such as attention, perception and memory become the focus o f th e ir w ork. The
main emphasis in this approach is placed upon the conception o f intelligent behaviour as
something flexible; that is, people can become more intelligent and schools can play a
part in this. This view has powerful implications fo r language teachers. If we hold such a
view, we then believe that we can help all learners to become better at language learning.
W e free ourselves from the concept of learners possessing a fixed amount o f aptitude
fo r language, and see everyone capable o f succeeding, given appropriate teaching. One
of the challenges fo r the language teacher is to help learners to develop the strategies
needed to learn a language more effectively, a principle which is embodied in the current
w o rk on learner training in English as a foreign language. It also follows that learning how
to think effectively should be an im portant aspect o f education. Learner training also
involves teaching learners how to become more effective thinkers.
A t the o the r extreme is the so-called constructivist movement, growing mainly out
of the w o rk of the developmental psychologist, Jean Piaget. Psychologists taking this
approach have been mainly concerned w ith ways in which individuals come to make
th eir own sense of the world. An im portant advocate of Piaget’s ideas has been Jerome
Bruner, Professor of Psychology and founder of the Centre fo r Cognitive Studies at
Harvard University, particularly im portant fo r the implications of the discovery approach
to language learning (B runer I960). To Bruner, the developm ent o f conceptual
160 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
understanding and of cognitive skills and strategies is a central aim of education, rather
than the acquisition of factual information.
One particularly significant aspect o f Bruner’s ideas is that they take a broad view of
the education o f the whole person. He saw as one of the central elements of this the
need to learn how to learn, which he considered to be the key to transferring what was
learned from one situation to another (1960:4). He argues that the first object of any
act o f learning is that it should serve us in the future. The limitation of such a view is that
it does not represent the value of learning something fo r its own sake and neglects the
relevance of any learning activity to the learner in the here and now.
One o f Bruner’s famous dictums is that the foundations of any subject may be taught
to anybody at any age in some form . This gave rise to the notion of the spiral curriculum.
The point here is that teachers should first introduce the basic ideas that give life and
form to any topic and then revisit and build upon these repeatedly.
For Bruner the most general objective of education is the cultivation of excellence,
which can only be achieved by challenging learners to exercise their full powers to
become completely absorbed in problems and thereby discover the pleasure of full and
effective functioning. Bruner claimed1that by encouraging young learners to discover fo r
themselves the solutions to educational problems that were set fo r them in a way that
was not artificially sectionalised into subjects, they could come to understand even the
most complicated topics and relate their understanding in a meaningful way to a coherent
knowledge o f the w orld. He stresses also the importance of encouraging guesswork and
intuitive thinking in learners. This will only occur if learners feel self-confident and able
to take risks. Bruner’s notion o f purposefulness to help learners reach a coherent
knowledge of the w orld has a message fo r us regarding the design of tasks fo r language
learning. In Bruner’s terms, “ we need to seek a balance between, on the one hand
teaching aspects o f the target language and skills in the language, and on the other hand
developing the learners’ ability to analyse the language, to make guesses as to how rules
operate, to take risks in trying o ut the language, and to learn from th eir errors” .
An im portant stimulus fo r changing the way we teach language came during the
1970s when linguists and language educators began a reappraisal of language itself. Up
to, and including 1960s, language was generally seen as a system of rules, and the task fo r
language learners was to internalize these rules by whatever means were at th eir disposal.
Language was seen as a unified system, and the ultimate aim of the learner was to
approach the target language norms of the “ native speaker” . The priority fo r learners
was to master the structures of the language, and, in this process, considerations of
Cuadernos de /enguas Modernas / 161
meaning were seen almost as peripheral. In fact, some language specialists argued that
instruction should focus almost exclusively on teaching basic syntactic patterns, ignoring,
o r at least minimising, the development of vocabulary and semantic systems.
However, during the 1970s, a much richer conceptualisation of language began to
emerge. Language was seen as a system fo r the expression of meaning, and linguists
began to analize language as a system fo r the expression of meaning, rather than as a
system of abstract syntactic rules.
The realisation that language could be analysed, described, and taught as a system fo r
expressing meanings had a profound effect on language teaching.
The notion that it was not necessary fo r learners to master a particular grammatical
structure o r lexical item simply because it happened to be part o f the system, coupled
w ith the insight that what was learnt should reflect the different needs o f different
learner groups, was in harmony w ith the interpretative view o f knowledge being fashioned
within humanistic psychology and experiential learning.
1.2 HUMANISM A N D EXPERIENTIAL PSYCHOLOGY
O u t o f the notion that learners are at the center o f the learning process, and that
learning is a process of self-discovery, grew experiential learning. In experiential learning,
the learner's immediate personal experiences are taken as the point o f departure fo r
deciding how to organise the learning process.
Experiential learning has diverse origins, being derived by John Dewey's progressive
philosophy o f education, Lewin's social psychology, Piaget's model of developmental
psychology, Kelley’s cognitive theory o f education, and the w o rk o f Abraham Maslow
and Carl Rogers in the field o f humanistic psychology. W h a t draws these diverse
philosophical and academic positions together is the construct o f humanism.
Rogers ( 1969) identified a number of key elements o f the humanistic approach to
education. Beginning w ith the premise that human beings have a natural potential fo r
learning, he suggested that significant learning w ill only take place when the subject
m atter is perceived to be o f personal relevance to the learner and when it involves
active participation by the learner, i.e. experiential learning. Learning which is self-initiated
and which involves feelings as well as cognition is most likely to be lasting and pervasive.
Independence, creativity and self-reliance are most likely to flourish in learning situations
where external criticism is kept to a minimum and where self-evaluation is encouraged.
Humanistic approaches emphasize the importance of the inner w orld of the learner
and place the individual’s thoughts, feelings and emotions at the fo re fron t of all human
162 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
development. These are aspects of the learning process that are often neglected, yet they
are vitally im portant if we are to understand human learning in its totality.
1.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH
Hamachek (1977) provides some useful examples o f the kind o f educational
implications that follow from taking a humanistic approach:
First, every learning experience should be seen within the context o f helping learners
to develop a sense of personal identity and relating that to realistic future goals, i.e.
learning should be personalised as far as possible.
Second, in o rd e r to realise one’s full potential, learners should be helped and
encouraged to make choices fo r themselves in what and how they learn.
Third, it is im portant fo r teachers to empathise w ith th eir learners by getting to
know them as individuals and seeking to understand the ways in which they make sense
o f the w orld, rather than always seeking to impose th eir own viewpoints.
Thus, from a humanistic perspective, a learning experience o f personal consequence
occurs when the learner assumes the responsibility o f evaluating the degree to which he
o r she is personally moving toward knowledge instead o f looking to an external source
fo r such evaluation.
1.4 LEARNER-CENTERED EDUCATION
Curriculum design in recent years has also been influenced by humanistic-affective
currents of thought. C urrent researchers in the area o f curriculum design have devel
oped humanistic learner-centered models (Nunan 1988), which show the necessity of
focusing more on language learners and th eir experience rather than simply on the
narrow er field of non-learner related linguistic corpora.
A learner-centered language curriculum takes affect into account in many ways.
Participation in the decision-making process opens up greater possibilities fo r learners
to develop th eir whole potential. In addition to the language content, they also learn
responsibility, negotiation skills and self-evaluation, all o f which lead to greater self.esteem
and self-awareness. According to David Nunan ( 1988) learner-centered classrooms are
those in which learners are actively involved in th eir own learning processes.
The philosophy o f learner-centeredness has strong links w ith experiential learning,
humanistic psychology and task-based language teaching.
A learner-centered curriculum will contain similar elements to those contained in
traditional curriculum development, that is, planning, implementation and evaluation.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 163
However, the key difference between learner-centered and traditional curriculum devel
opm ent is that, in the form er, the curriculum is a collaborative effo rt between teachers
and learners, since learners are closely involved in the decision-making process regarding
the content o f the curriculum and how it is taught.
“One o f the m ajor assumptions underlying the learner-centered philosophy is
that, given the constraints that exist in m ost learning contexts, i t is impossible
to teach learners everything they need to k n o w in class. W hat little class time
there is m ust therefore be used as effectively as possible to teach those aspects
o f the language which the learners themselves deem to be m ost urgently re
quired, thus increasing surrender value and consequent student m otivation. "
(Nunan, 1998: 3)
In consequence, while one major aim o r set o f aims w ill relate to the teaching of
specific language skills, o the r aims will relate to the development o f learning skills. Such
aims may include the following:
- To provide learners w ith efficient learning strategies.
- To assist learners identify their own preferred ways o f learning.
- To develop skills needed to negotiate the curriculum.
- To encourage learners to set th eir own objectives.
- To encourage learners to adopt realistic goals and tim e frames.
- To develop learners’ skills in self-evaluation.
The term “ learner-centered” often refers to classrooms in which learners are ac
tively involved in the learning process. This kind o f classroom is, in fact, consistent w ith
a particular line o f second language acquisition research that suggests acquisition is
facilitated when opportunities fo r learners to interact are maximized.
1.5 RESPONSIBILITY A N D A U T O N O M Y
This section is a brief overview o f the ideas and problems connected to training
learners fo r responsibility.
1.5.1 W hat makes a responsible learnerf
Responsible learners are those who accept the idea that th eir own efforts are crucial
to progress in learning, and behave accordingly. So, when doing th eir hom ew ork o r
answering a question in class, they are n ot aspiring to please the teacher, o r to get a
good mark. They are simply making an effo rt in o rd e r to learn something.
Responsible learners do not have to be especially keen on team w ork, but they are
164 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
willing to cooperate w ith the teacher and others in the learning group fo r everyone’s
benefit. Cooperation does not mean that they always obediently follow instructions:
they may ask about the purpose o f the activity first, o r they may even come up w ith
suggestions on how to improve an activity.
Finally, responsible students may n o t always do th eir homework, b ut whenever
they fail to do it, they are aware o f missing an opportunity to expand th e ir knowledge
o f the foreign language. This is because they consciously m o n ito r th e ir own progress,
and make an e ffo rt to use available opportunities to th eir benefit, including classroom
activities and homework.
The last point leads to the question of defining autonomy.
1.5.2 W hat makes an autonomous learner?
In theory, we may define autonomy as the freedom and ability to manage one’s own
affairs, which entails the right to make decisions as well. Responsibility may also be
understood as being in charge o f something, but w ith the implication that one has to
deal w ith the consequences of one’s own actions. Autonom y and responsibility both
require active involvement, and they are apparently very much interrelated.
In practice, the tw o concepts are more difficult to distinguish. Consider, fo r ex
ample, these three actions:
• Interrupting the teacher’s explanation to ask about a certain point in the explana
tion.
• Looking up a w ord at home that the teacher used in the lesson but did n ot ‘teach’.
• Paying special attention when the lesson is about something that the learner is
not so good at.
In all these actions, learners behave responsibly as they are consciously making an
effort to contribute to their learning. They are also autonomous in the sense that they
act independently o f the teacher, not waiting to be told what to do.
W e may conclude that in order to foster learner autonomy, we clearly need to
develop a sense o f responsibility and also, encourage learners to take an active part in
making decisions about their learning.
1.5.3 W hy should we develop responsibility and autonomy?
The saying goes: you can bring the horse to water, b ut yo u cannot make him
drink. In language learning, teachers can provide all the necessary circumstances and
input, b ut learning can only happen i f learners are willing to contribute. Their passive
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 1 6 5
presence w ill n o t suffice, ju s t as the horse w ould remain th irsty i f he sto od s till by the
riv e r waiting patiently fo r his th irst to go away. And, in o rd e r fo r learners to be
actively involved in the learning process, they first need to realize and accept that
success in learning depends as much on the student as on the teacher. That is, they
share responsibility fo r the outcome. In o th e r words, success in learning very much
depends on learners having a responsible attitude.
Some degree o f autonomy is also essential to successful language learning. N o m atter
how students learn through lessons, there is always plenty more they will need to learn
by practice, on th e ir own. Also, the changing needs of learners will require them to go
back to learning several times in th e ir lives: then again, they w ill need to be able to study
on th e ir own. The best way to prepare them fo r this task is to help them become more
autonomous.
1.6 W H A T C A N TEACHERS D O TO PROM OTE LEARNING?
To provide learning experiences which are tru ly educational, the teacher can ‘mediate ’
in a num ber o f different ways. From the different features o f mediation Feuerstein (1991)
identifies, / w ill describe the m ost im portant ones in facilitating the learner’s progression
from one level to the next.
• Significance
The teacher should make learners aware o f the significance o f the learning task so
that they can see the value o f it.
• Purpose beyond the here and now
Leaners m ust be aware o f the way in which the learning experience w ill have w ider
relevance to them beyond the immediate tim e and place.
• C on trol o f own behaviour
The ability to co n tro l and regulate th e ir own learning, thinking and actions.
• Goal-setting
The ability to set realistic goals and to plan ways o f achieving them.
• Sharing
Co-operation among learners, together with the recognition that some problems
are b e tte r solved co-operatively.
• Individuality
A recognition o f th eir own individuality and uniqueness.
• Challenge
A n internal need to respond to challenges, and to search fo r new challenges in life.
166 / Cuadernos de tenguas Modernas
In presenting learners with any learning task, teachers should convey to them precisely
what they want them to do by providing a dear set o f instructions. A t the same time it
is essential to ensure that learners understand exactly what is required o f them, and
that they are both able and willing to attem pt it, so that they w ill approach the task in a
self-directed way.
Since the ultimate purpose is to encourage autonomous learning, we should analyse
o th e r features o f mediation that help learners to take c o n tro l o f th eir learning.
1.6.1 A sense of competence
Successful learners tend to be those who feel competent and capable o f learning. In
o rd e r to foster such feelings teachers should encourage a positive self-image, self-esteem,
self-confidence, a feeling o f 7 can ’.
I f learning is to be successful, it is crucial that teachers establish in th e ir classrooms
a climate where confidence is built up, where mistakes can be made w ithout fear, where
learners can use the language w ithout embarrassment, where all contributions are valued,
and where activities lead to feelings o f success, n o t failure.
Feelings o f competence are necessary; however, they are n o t sufficient fo r learning
to be effective; learners need to become competent, that is, they need to learn the
necessary skills and strategies in o rd er to take co n tro l o f th e ir own learning.
1.6.2 C ontrol o f behaviour
It is im portant that teachers teach learners to take a logical and systematic approach
to solving problems. This means learning how to break a problem down, to gather and
assess information, to process the information, and to express results logically. In this
way individuals can learn to take co ntrol o f and responsibility fo r th eir own learning, so
that they n o t only become m ore effective learners, b ut also independent ones.
In learning a foreign language, many learners do n o t feel that they are in c o n tro l o f
th e ir learning, that they can manage the process in a self-directed way. Thus we can see
the importance o f this aspect o f mediation in language classrooms. It also provides us
with theoretical support to the notion o f learner training. Learner training means teaching
learners h o w to learn languages, so that they are equipped with strategies to learn on
th e ir own, o r to learn in class as effectively as possible. Teachers should develop activities
that teach learners the strategies they need to learn a language, fo r example, analysing
new pieces o f language, processing inp ut in o rd e r to w o rk o u t rules, o r ways o f
remembering new items o f vocabulary.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 167
2. FOCUS O N THE LEARNER
Language teaching is often discussed from the point o f view o f the teacher. However,
learners bring to learning th eir own beliefs, goals, attitudes, and decisions, which in turn
influence how they approach th e ir learning.
The language learner is the most im portant factor in the language learning process.
Success o r failure will, in the end, be determined by what learners themselves contrib
ute. Learners draw upon th e ir existing skills and knowledge and use th e ir personal
attributes in the process of learning. W h a t we are concerned w ith here is how learners
go about learning something; that is, the skills and strategies that they use and the
processes that they go through in o rd er to make sense o f th e ir learning.
2.1 LEARNER STRATEGIES
U ntil recently the notion of learner strategies had been relatively neglected. In recent
years, however, there has been great interest in the cognitive strategies people use to
think, to learn and to solve problems. The impetus fo r this arose mainly from inform ation
processing models of learning (cognitive psychology) and has given rise to research on
these topics. W hat is clear from cognitive psychology is that learners are actively involved
in making sense o f the tasks o r problems w ith which they are faced in o rd er to learn.
W hen confronted w ith a learning task, learners have various resources at th e ir disposal
and make use of them in different ways. Cognitive strategies are only one of the resources
people have available to them but, we also make use o f a variety o f other processes to
help us to learn something. W e use o u r minds, but also o u r feelings and our social and
communicative skills in active ways.
O ver the last tw enty years there has been a growing amount o f research into language
learning strategies (Rubin and Wenden 1987; O ’Maley and Chamot 1990; O xford 1990;
Ellis and Sinclair 1999). This w o rk is concerned w ith investigating how individuals go
about the task of learning something and attempting to discover which o f the strategies
that learners use are the most effective fo r the particular type o f learning involved.
2.2 LEARNER TRAINING
Learner training can be defined as a set o f procedures o r activities which raises
learners’ awareness to what is involved in learning a foreign language, which encourages
learners to become more active, involved in and responsible fo r their own learning, and
which helps them to develop and strengthen th eir strategies fo r language learning.
168 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
Emphasis has been placed on training students to take charge of their own learning.
According to Harmer (1991), the three main areas that are involved in this are:
• PERSONAL ASSESSMENT
• LEARNING STRATEGIES
• LANGUAGE AWARENESS
2.2.1 PERSONAL ASSESSMENT
One of the aims of learner training is to make students think about what kind of
learners they are and about what they can do to help themselves. A vital step in this
process is getting students to think about their own learning behaviour, as in this example
which has been taken from Ellis and Sinclair (1989):
Try the following quiz. Tick your answers to the questions.
u s u ally s o m e tim e s A lm o s t n e v e r D o n ’t k n o w
1. D id / do y o u g e t g o o d results in
grammar tests/
2. D o you ha ve a good memory fo r new
words/
3. D o you hate making mistakes/
4. In class, do you get irritated i f mistakes
are n o t corrected/
5. Is y o u r pronunciation better when you
re a d a lo u d than when yo u have a
conversation/
6. Do you wish you had m ore time to
think before speaking/
7. D id / do you enjoy being in class/
8. Do you find it difficult to pick up more
than tw o o r three words o f a new
language when you are on holiday abroad/
9. D o you like to learn new grammar
rules, words, etc. by heart/
Cuadernos de tenguas Modernas / 169
The students are now given a score fo r usually / never, etc, and based on th e ir total
score have th eir answers evaluated, e.g. ‘Your score does not mean that you are n ot a
good language learner. Perhaps this is the first tim e that you have thought about the way
you learn...’ (Ellis and Sinclair. 1989:8)
O th e r activities suggested by Ellis and Sinclair are keeping a personal m otivation
graph, talking about the best way o f tackling reading o r extending vocabulary knowledge.
The point of all these activities is to let students think hard about th eir learning and
to use the insights they gain to help them to become more effective learners.
2.2.2. LEARNING STRATEGIES
If the teacher’s job is to help students learn in a better way, then he o r she will have
to encourage students to develop learning strategies and autonomy. This w ill involve
the students in personal assessment but it w ill also involve actually training students to
behave in certain ways. This will include:
I. Training students to use textbooks.
Teachers can spend some tim e taking students through a new textbook, encouraging
them to preview the book and find th e ir way around it. The task below is intended fo r
use at the beginning o f a course. It could be undertaken in English w ith students from an
intermediate level of language proficiency upwards, o r in the first language w ith students
at low er levels.
A. In your textbook find
- the past tense of the verb ‘fly’
- what we use the past tense for
- how to ask questions about the weather
- how to ask about someone's health
- how to pronounce the word ‘tomato’.
B. Do you expect the textbook to ...
- teach you?
- contain all the language you need?
- be a starting point?
- provide exercises?
- provide grammar?
- be a dictionary?
- be open throughout your lessons?
- be the only material you use?
- give your teacher all he|she needs?
- give you ways of assessing your progress?
- enable you to prepare new lessons in advance?
- summarise everything you learn so that you can revise at home?
Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. O x fo rd U n ive rsity Press page 75
17 0/ C u a d e rn o s d e len g u as M o d e rn a s
The task addresses students’ expectations of a textbook and asks them to reflect on
its possible uses. The questions suggest implicitly that the textbook is only one source
of learning and that it can be used independently by learners.
2. Training students to use communicative activities properly.
This involves the issue of mother tongue use. One of the biggest problems in the use
of pairw ork and groupw ork is the use of the m other tongue by students in monolingual
groups. It sometimes seems that they are unable o r unwilling to take part in activities in
English.
Teachers’ attitude to the students’ use of their own language should change depending
on the activity they and we are involved in. If students are speaking in their own language
rather than English during an oral communicative activity, then clearly the activity is
fa irly pointless. If, how ever, students are com paring th e ir answers to reading
comprehension questions, o r trying to do a vocabulary matching exercise in pairs, then
their occasional use of the mother tongue need not concern us. They are concentrating
exclusively on English, and if a bit of their own language helps them to do this in a
relaxed way, that is all to the good. It is im portant that students realise that our attitude
to their language depends on the activity in question. If they do not know this, they will
not know why and when we are insisting on ‘English only’.
3. Training students to read fo r gist.
W e must give students the ability to cope w ith texts outside the classroom and if we
can help them to approach such texts confidently - then we will have done them a
service.
4. Training students to deal with unfamiliar vocabulary
There are a number of discovery techniques from simple matching tasks to more
complex understandings of connotation and contexts. For example:
• Matching words to pictures.
• Using the ‘mind map’ technique to help students to put a list of words into
different groups.
• Guessing words through context.
5. Training students to use dictionaries.
W hen students look up a w ord in the dictionary, they have to deal w ith a variety of
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 171
different information. W e can get to this point by gradually training students to recognise
symbols and conventions. For example, the teacher can ask the students to find o u t if a
w ord they have encountered can be pluralised o r not and ask them to find the information
in th e ir dictionaries. This is a way o f training them to recognise the symbols fo r countable
and uncountable nouns.
2.2.3 LAN G U AG E AWARENESS
Teachers can design material that makes students more aware of the way in which
language is used. One way of doing this is to make students do an exercise about
language just as they do exercises about o the r topics like hobbies, films, adventure, etc.
Frequently such activities can be done by the students studying on th eir own. The pay
off is that as students complete the exercise they are being made more aware o f how
language works. The idea is simple: we can give students a te x t which is a story and we
can ask them to look at it again to see how many ways they could find in it fo r referring
to the past. By using these techniques, the teacher gets the students to do most o f the
w ork. There are good pedagogical and methodological reasons fo r this since the students
w ill be more involved and since this kind o f activity invites them to use th e ir reasoning
processes.
The following example will illustrate the idea. Here students are involved in studying
the way in which the passive voice operates.
The following phrases/ sentences come from the newspaper articles on p.6l. Look at the verbs in each
sentence and underline the active verb forms and circle the passive verb forms,
a ... a vet shot the tiger full of sedatives,...
b ... the injured man was carried to safety,
c ... Flooding and landslides have killed up to 200 people...
d ...at least 70 people have been killed by floods and landslides ...
e ...a stolen car crashed into 8* child’s) bedroom.
f . .. Two teenagers were injured in the crash,...
g . .., but they are expected to survive.
ANALYSIS
1. Look at sentence a) and b) above. In sentence a) the subject is ‘a vet’; in sentence b) it is ‘the injured man’?
Is the subject the person who does the verb (the doer) in both sentences?
2. Below are tw o reasons why the passive is often used. Find another example of each use in the sentences
above.
a. W e use the passive when what happened to the person o r thing is more important than ‘the doer’?
Examples are sentence d) and sentence ...........
b. W e use the passive when the ‘doer’ of the verb is not known o r not important.
Examples are sentence b) and sentence .........
C utting Edge Intermediate, Longman page 62
1 7 2 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
Learner training is vital if students are to achieve th eir full potential as learners. In its
different forms it encourages them to think about their experiences, discuss them with
the teacher and take action to make the whole process more effective.
2.3 LEARNING STRATEGIES IN SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
Second language teaching in recent years has moved away from the quest fo r the
perfect teaching method, focusing instead on how successful teachers and learners actually
achieve th eir goals. In the case of teachers, this has led to classroom-centered research
on the linguistic, discoursal, and interactional structure of teaching events. In the case of
learners, it has led to the study of ( I) how learners approach learning, both in and out of
classrooms, and (2) the kinds of strategies and cognitive processing they use in second
language acquisition.
2.4 LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
Following Wenden (1987) language learning strategies are the various operations
that learners use in order to make sense of th eir learning. They refer to specific actions
that a learner uses in response to a particular problem, rather than describing a learner’s
general approach to learning. They may be concerned with obtaining information, storage,
retrieval o r use of the information. Some strategies are observable and some are not.
They may be used consciously o r unconsciously and they can be learned. Strategies can
be cognitive (i.e. they can involve mental processing), o r they can be more social in
nature, and th eir effective use is enhanced by metacognitive awareness.
2.5 COGNITIVE A N D METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
O ’Maley and Chamot ( 1990), O xford ( 1990), Wenden (1991) have classified strategies
into cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Cognitive strategies are seen as mental
processes directly concerned w ith the processing of information in order to learn, that
is fo r obtaining, storage, retrieval o r use of information. However, there is another set
of strategies operating at a different level to these, which involve learners stepping
outside their learning and looking at it from outside. Such strategies include an awareness
of what one is doing and the strategies one is employing, as well as knowledge about the
actual process of learning. They also include an ability to manage and regulate consciously
the use of appropriate learning strategies fo r different situations. They involve an
awareness o f one’s own mental processes and an ability to reflect on how one learns.
This different level is called metacognition. Metacognitive awareness is im portant fo r
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 173
effective learning.
3. RESEARCH O N LEARNING STRATEGIES
Research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. Much of this has been
influenced by developments in cognitive psychology.
The literature on learning strategies in second language acquisition emerged from a
concern fo r identifying the characteristics o f effective learners. In 1975 Rubin investigated
what ‘good language learners' did to facilitate th e ir learning. According to Rubin, good
language learners are w illing and accurate guessers w ho have a strong desire to
communicate, and will attem pt to do so even at the risk of appearing foolish. They
attend to both the meaning and the form o f th e ir message. They also practice and
m onitor th eir own speech as well as the speech o f others.
Learner strategy research has focused on studying how learners use strategies and
what the differences are between the strategies used by successful and unsuccessful
learners. Through observing learners as they complete different language learning tasks
and through having them introspect about strategies o r w riting about how they solve
particular language learning problems, differences between effective and ineffective
strategies can be identified.
Nunan (1999) found that one o f the characteristics o f the “ good” language learner
was an ability to reflect on and articulate the processes underlying their own learning.
Similarly, in an overview o f research into strategy training, O 'M alley and Chamot (1990)
found indications that more effective learners use strategies more frequently and use a
greater variety of strategies than students who were designated as less effective.
In th e ir well-known study o f ‘the good language learner’, Rubin and Thompson ( 1994)
suggest that good o r efficient learners tend to exhibit specific characteristics as they go
about learning a second language. These characteristics are the following:
• CHARACTERISTICS O F THE G O O D LAN G U A G E LEARNER
According to Rubin and Thompson (1994)
G O O D LEARNERS:
• find th e ir own way.
• organize information about language.
• are creative and experiment w ith language.
174 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
• make th eir own opportunities, and find strategies fo r getting practice in using the
language inside and outside the classroom.
• learn to live uncertainty and develop strategies fo r making sense of the target
language w ith o u t wanting to understand every word.
• use mnemonics (rhymes, w ord associations, and so forth) to recall what has been
learned.
• make errors work.
• use linguistic knowledge, including knowledge of th eir first language in mastering a
second language.
• let the context (extralinguistic knowledge and knowledge of the w orld) help them
in comprehension.
• learn to make intelligent guesses.
• learn chunks of language as wholes and formalized routines to help them perform
‘beyond th eir competence'.
• learn production techniques (e.g. techniques fo r keeping conversation going).
• learn different styles of speech and writing and learn to vary their language according
to the form ality of the situation.
Research efforts concentrating on the good language learner had identified strategies
reported by students o r observed in language learning situations that appear to contribute
to learning. These efforts demonstrated that students do apply learning strategies while
learning a second language and that these strategies can be described and classified.
However, the diverse range of learners and the different learning settings (naturalistic
o r classroom) used by the researchers in their studies have resulted in the use of varied
and sometimes overlapping terminology.
Rubin (1975) defines strategies as: ‘techniques o r devices which a learner may use to
acquire knowledge’ (p.43) and proposed a classification scheme that subsumes learning
strategies under tw o primary groupings and a number o f subgroups, as illustrated in
Table l. l below.
Rubin suggests that there are three major types of strategies used by learners which
can contribute directly o r indirectly to language learning. The first primary group she
calls learning strategies. These contribute directly to the development of the language
system which the learner constructs. They include both cognitive and metacognitive
strategies. She identifies six main strategies contributing directly to language learning.
They include clarification/verification, m onitoring, m emorisation, guessing/inductive
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 175
reasoning, deductive reasoning, and practice. M etacognitive strategies, in Rubin’s
categorization, are used to oversee, regulate o r self-direct language learning. They involve
such processes as planning, prioritising, setting goals and self-management.
The second primary category, consisting o f strategies that contribute indirectly to
learning, includes creating practice opportunities and using production tricks such as
co m m u n ica tio n strategies. They are strategies used by learners to p ro m o te
communication w ith others, o r when they come across a difficulty in th eir communication
because of a lack of adequate knowledge o f the language. These processes are particularly
im portant to language learners, as by finding ways to continue the communication rather
than abandon it, the speaker indirectly obtains more exposure to the language and an
opportunity to practise it.
Primary strategy Representative Representative examples
classification secondary strategies The learner...
Strategies that directly Clarification/ verification asks fo r an example of how to use a word o r
affect learning expression, repeats words to confirm
understanding
Monitoring corrects errors in own/ other’s pronunciation,
vocabulary, spelling, grammar, style
Memorization takes note o f new items, pronounces out loud,
finds a mnemonic, writes items repeatedly
Guessing/inductive guesses meaning from keywords, structures,
inferencing pictures, context, etc.
Deductive reasoning compares native/ other language to target language
Groups words
Looks fo r rules o f co-occurence
Processes that contribute Practice experiments with new sounds
indirectly to learning Repeats sentences until pronounced easily
Listens carefully and tries to imitate
Creates opportunities for creates situation with native speaker
practice Initiates conversation with fellow students
Spends time in language lab, listening to TV, etc
Production tricks uses circumlocutions, synonyms, o r cognates
Uses formulaic interaction
Contextualizes to clarify meaning
Table l. l Rubin’s (1975) classification of learning strategies
176 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
In cognitive psychology, studies of learning strategies with first language learners have
concentrated on determining the effects of strategy training on different kinds of tasks
and learners. Findings from these studies generally indicated that strategy training is
effective in im proving the perform ance o f students on a w ide range o f reading
comprehension and problem solving tasks.
Following O ’Maley and Chamot’s (1990) classification and definition of strategies,
metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the learning process, planning fo r learning,
monitoring of comprehension o r production while it is taking place, and self-evaluation
after the learning activity has been completed, while cognitive strategies are more directly
related to individual learning tasks and entail direct manipulation o r transformation of
the learning materials. A third type of learning strategy identified in the literature on
cognitive psychology concerns the influence of social and affective processes on learning.
Examples of social/ affective strategies are cooperative learning, which involves peer
interaction to achieve a common goal in learning, and asking questions fo r clarification.
Affective strategies are represented in the exercise of “ self-talk” , the redirecting of
negative thoughts about one’s capability to perform a task w ith assurances that the task
performance is within reach.
Research in metacognitive and cognitive learning strategies suggests that transfer of
strategy training to new tasks can be maximized by pairing metacognitive strategies with
appropriate cognitive strategies. Students w ith o u t metacognitive approaches are
essentially learners w ithout direction o r opportunity to plan their learning, m onitor
th eir progress, o r review their accomplishments and future learning direction.
More recent w ork on learning strategies in second language acquisition has been
more focused. Wenden ( 1987) concentrated on self-directed learning among adult foreign
language learners. Wenden explored self-directed language learning activities in a variety
of social settings and concluded that the self-directed activities could be characterised
by eight questions learners might pose to themselves that lead to decisions about language
learning practices. The chart below lists the questions and the corresponding decisions
within three designators - knowing about learning, planning and self-evaluation.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 177
Knowing about learning
Question: How does this language work? Decision: Learners make judgements about the linguistic
and sociolinguistic codes.
Question: W hat’s it like to learn a language? Decision: Learners make judgements about how to learn a
language and about what language learning is like.
P lanning
Question: W hat should 1learn and how? Decision: Learners decide on linguistic objectives,
resources, and use of resources.
Question: W hat should 1emphasize? Decision: Learners decide to give priority to special
linguistic items.
Question: How should 1change? Decision: Learners decide to change their approach to
language learning.
S elf-evaluation
Question: How am 1doing? Decision: Learners determine how well they use the
language and diagnose th eir needs.
Question: W hat am 1getting? Decision: Learners determine if an activity o r strategy is
useful.
Question: How am 1responsible fo r learning? Decision: Learners make judgements about how to learn a
H ow is language learning affecting me? language and about what language learning is like.
Table L 2 Wenden’s characterisation o f self-directed activities
The definition and categorisation of language learning strategies was further developed
by Rebecca O xford ( 1990) in her book Language Learning Strategies: W hat every teacher
should know. O xford sees the aim o f language learning strategies as being oriented
towards the development o f communicative competence, and that they must, therefore,
involve interaction among learners. Learning strategies must both help learners to
participate in communication and to build up th e ir language system. O xford provides a
list o f twelve features o f language learning strategies.
I. They contribute to the main goal, communicative competence. They can foster
particular aspects o f that competence: grammatical competence, sociolinguistic com
petence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
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2. They allow learners to become more self-directed. The aim of teaching learning
strategies is to help learners to take control of their own learning.
3. They expand the role of teachers. New teaching capacities also include identifying
students’ learning strategies, conducting training on learning strategies and helping
learners to become more independent.
4. They are problem-oriented. They are used in response to a particular problem.
5. They are specific actions taken by the learner. They are specific behaviour in
response to a problem.
6. They involve many actions taken by the learner, n o t just the cognitive. They
involve affective and social aspects as well.
7. They support learning both directly and indirectly. I shall discuss this point further
below.
8. They are not always observable. Many aspects of cooperating, a strategy in which
the learner works w ith someone else to achieve a learning goal, can be observed,
but the act o f making mental associations, an im portant memory strategy, cannot be
seen.
9. They are often conscious. Strategy training helps learners to become more aware
of the strategies they use, and to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate
ones. However, the aim must be to enable learners to use appropriate strategies
automatically and unconsciously.
10. They can be taught. People can improve th eir learning through strategy training.
I I . They are flexible. Learner exert choice over the way they use, combine and
sequence strategies.
12. They are influenced by a variety of factors. For example, stage of learning, task
requirements, age, sex, nationality, general learning style, motivation and purpose
fo r learning the language.
O xford ( 1990) has also developed a system o f categorisation which, while containing
most o f the features o f previous classifications, is more detailed. She divides strategies
into tw o main classes, direct and indirect, which are fu rthe r subdivided into six groups.
In O xfo rd ’s system, direct strategies include: (a) memory strategies, which are those
used fo r storage of information, (b) cognitive strategies, which are the mental strategies
learners use to make sense o f their learning and (c) compensation strategies, which help
learners to overcome knowledge gaps and to continue the communication.
Indirect strategies are classified into: (a) metacognitive strategies, which help learn
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 179
ers to regulate their learning, (b) affective strategies, which are concerned with the learner’s
emotional requirements and (c) social strategies, which lead to increased interaction w ith
the target language.
DIRECT STRATAGIES
Memory Creating mental • Grouping
W h ic h help students linkages • Associating/elaborating
• Placing new words into a context
to s to re and retrie v e
inform ation
• Using imagery
Applying images and • Semantic mapping
sounds • Using keywords
• Representing sounds in memory
Reviewing well • Structured reviewing
Employing action • Using physical response or sensation
• Using mechanical techniques
• Repeating
Cognitive Practicing
• Formally practicing with sounds and writing systems
W h ic h enable • Recognizing and using formulas and patterns
learners to • Recombining
understand and • Practicing naturalistically
produce new
language Receiving and sending • Getting the idea quickly
messages • Using resources for receiving and sending mes
sages
• Reasoning deductively
Analyzing and reasoning • Analysing expressions
• Analysing contrastively
• Translating
• Transferring
Creating structure for • Taking notes
input and output • Summarizing
• Highlighting
Compensation Guessing intelligently
• Using linguistic clues to guess meaning
W h ic h allow
• Using other clues
learners to
com unicate despite Overcoming limitations • Switching to the mother tongue
deficiencies in in speaking and writing • Getting help
language knowledge • Using mime or gesture
• Avoiding communication partially or totally
• Selecting the topic
• Adjusting or approximating the message
• Coining words
• Using a circumlocution or synonym
Table 1.3 O xfo rd ’s (1990) classification of direct learning strategies.
1 8 0 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
INDIRECT STRATAGIES
Metacognitive Centering your • Overviewing and linking new information
Which allow learners co learning with already known material
control their own learning • Paying attention
through organizing, planning • Delaying speech production to focus on
and evaluating listening
Arranging and planning • Finding out about language learning
your learning • Organizing
• Setting goals and objectives
• Identifying the purpose of a language task
• Planning fo r a language task
• Seeking practice opportunities
Evaluating your learn • Self-monitoring
ing • Self-evaluating
Affective Lowering your anxiety • Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing,
Which help students gain o r meditation
control over their emotions, • Using music
attitudes, motivations and • Using laughter
values
Encouraging yourself • Making positive statements
• Taking risks wisely
• Rewarding yourself
• Listening to your body
Taking your emotional • Using a checklist
temperature • W riting a language learning diary
• Discussing your feelings with someone else
Social Asking questions • Asking fo r clarification o r verification
W hich help learners interact • Asking fo r correction
w ith other people
Cooperating with oth • Cooperating with peers
ers • Cooperating with proficient users of the new
language
Empathising with oth • Developing cultural understanding
ers • Becoming aware of others’thoughts and
feelings
Table 1.4 Oxford's (1990) classification o f indirect learning strategies.
W hat O xford did was to subsume w ithin her classification every strategy that had
previously been cited in the literature on learning strategies. The problem w ith this
approach is that this extended listing fails to prioritise which strategies are most important
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 181
to learning, and generates subcategories that appear to overlap.
It can be seen that much of the recent w o rk in this area has been underpinned by a
broader concept of language learning strategies that goes beyond cognitive processes to
include social and communicative strategies. A point w o rth emphasising here is the link
between the emotions and cognition. O u r feelings will affect our use of cognitive processes
and viceversa.
3.1 THE THEORY OF LEARNER TR AIN IN G
3.1.1 THE AIMS O F LEARNER TR AIN IN G
Learner training aims to help learners consider the factors that affect th e ir learning
and discover the learning strategies that suit them best so that they may:
• become more effective learners.
• take on more responsibility fo r th e ir own learning.
It focuses students’ attention on the process o f learning so that the emphasis is on
how to learn rather than on what to learn.
Learner training is based on the following assumptions:
• that individuals learn in different ways and may use a variety of learning strategies
at different times depending on a range o f variables, such as the nature o f the learning
task, mood, motivation levels;
• that the more informed learners are about language and language learning the
more effective they will be at managing th e ir own learning.
Helping learners take on more responsibility fo r th e ir own learning can be beneficial
fo r the following reasons:
• learning can be more effective when learners take control of th e ir own learning
because they learn what they are ready to learn;
• those learners who are responsible fo r th e ir own learning can carry on learning
outside the classroom;
• learners w ho know about learning can transfer learning strategies to other
subjects.
Learner training, therefore, aims to provide learners w ith the alternatives from which
to make informed choices about what, how, why, when and where they learn. In order
182 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
to be able to make such choices about their learning, it follows that the learners need to
be informed about the language itself (through language awareness activities), about
language learning techniques and processes (through experimentation and reflection)
and about themselves as language learners (through regular self-assessment and
introspection).
As learners become more informed, they are more likely to be more effective and
better motivated as learners.
Learner training is, then, related to the concept of learner autonomy in that it aims
to provide learners w ith the ability to take on more responsibility fo r their own learning.
Its aim is to prepare learners fo r independence.
Learner training espouses the belief that everybody has the right to develop the
capacity fo r taking charge of his o r her own affairs and that this development is a basic
function o f education.
Many teachers have felt the need to expand th eir role by including, fo r example,
language awareness activities, study skills, opportunities fo r learner choice and by helping
learners learn how to learn. The procedures and techniques fo r doing this have become
known as learner training.
PART II
I. W H A T ARE LEARNING STRATEGIES?
1. I Defining strategies
1.2 The importance of strategies to the learning process
1.3 D irect and indirect strategies
2. LEARNING STRATEGIES A N D TASKS
2 .1 A typology o f learning strategies
3. IN TR O D U C IN G STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM
3 .1 Sample classroom tasks
4. ENCOURAGING LEARNER INDEPENDENCE
4.1 Goal setting
4.2 Self-assessment and evaluation
4.3 Learner choice
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 183
4.4 Causes of learner failure
4.5 A sample lesson
5. STRATEGIES GROUPED AC C O R D IN G T O THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
5 .1 Learner training and study skills
5.2 Towards improving the students’ reading comprehension
5.3 Reading strategies
5.4 W ritin g strategies
5.5 Listening strategies
5.6 Strategies in speaking English
6. STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING VOCABULARY
7. C O N C LU SIO N
I. W A T H ARE LEARNING STRATEGIES?
It is im portant to clarify w hat we mean by a learning strategy. Most o f us have
probably used some o r all o f the following in learning a foreign language:
• repeating words over and over again
• listening attentively to try to distinguish words
• trying to w o rk o ut the rules o f the language by forming hypothesis about how it
w orks
• trying o u t these hypothesis to see if they w o rk
• testing yourself to see if you remember words
• guessing the meanings of unknown words
• using your knowledge of language rules to try to make new sentences
• rehearsing in your head what you are about to say
• practising the sounds of the language
• asking a speaker to repeat something
• pretending that you understand in o rd er to keep the communication going
These are some of the many strategies that people use to try to succeed in the
complex task o f learning a language.
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1.1 DEFINING STRATEGIES
Strategies are the mental and communicative procedures learners use in order to
learn and use language. Underlying every learning task is at least one strategy. H ow
ever, in most classrooms, learners are unaware of the strategies underlying the learn
ing tasks in which they are engaged. W hen confronted with a classroom learning task,
such as reading a chapter of a book o r preparing a w ritten summary of a passage, the
learner can choose several different ways of completing the task. Each of these choices
o r strategies offers particular advantages o r disadvantages, and the use of an appropri
ate learning strategy can enhance success in the learning task. An im portant aspect of
teaching is to prom ote learners’ awareness and control of effective learning strategies
and discourage the use of ineffective ones.
1.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF STRATEGIES T O THE LEARNING PROCESS
Rebecca O xford ( 1990) argues that strategies are im portant fo r tw o reasons. In
the first place, strategies “ are tools fo r active, self-directed involvement, which is
essential fo r developing communicative competence” (1990: I). Secondly, learners
who have developed appropriate learning strategies have greater self-confidence and
learn more effectively.
1.3 DIRECT A N D INDIRECT STRATEGIES
O xford draws a distinction between direct and indirect strategies.
Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called
direct strategies. All direct strategies require mental processing of the language. Indi
rect strategies, on the other hand, support and manage language learning w itho ut
directly involving the target language. D irect and indirect strategies are equally im por
tant and serve to support each other in many ways.
2. LEARNING STRATEGIES A N D TASKS
2 .1 A TYPOLOGY OF LEARNING STRATEGIES
Underlying every task that the teacher introduces into the classroom is a learning
strategy o f one kind o r another.
Nunan (1999) developed the following typology of strategies. Some of these strat
egies will be used more often than others depending on the age and proficiency of the
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 185
students, the skills being focused on, and the individual learner needs. In the rest of this
section, I mention some of the more commonly used learning strategies and I illustrate
each strategy by means of one o r more activities extracted from recently published
textbooks. It is w o rth mentioning that an increasing number of authors have become
aware of the importance o f learning strategy training and have started to build this into
th eir materials.
C O G N ITIVE
Classifying Putting things that are similar together in groups.
Example. Study a list o f names and classify them into male and female.
P red ictin g Predicting what is to come in the learning process.
Example. Look at unit title and objectives and predict what will be learnt.
inducing Looking fo r patterns and regularities.
Example Study a conversation and discover the rule fo r forming the
simple past tense.
Taking n otes W riting down the im portant information in a te xt in you own words.
C o n cep t M apping Showing the main ideas in a te x t in the form of a map.
in feren cin g Using what you know to learn something new.
D iscrim in atin g Distinguishing between the main idea and supporting information.
D iag ram m in g Using information from a te xt to label a diagram.
INTERPERSONAL
Cooperating Sharing ideas and learning with other students.
Example W o rk in small groups to read a te xt and complete a table.
Role-playing Pretending to be somebody else and using the language fo r the situation
you are in.
Example. You are a reporter. Use the information from the reading to
interview the w riter.
186 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
L IN G U IS T IC
C o n v e rs a tio n a l P a tte rn s Using expressions to start conversations and keep them going.
Example: Match formulaic expressions to situations.
P ra c tis in g Doing controlled exercises to improve knowledge and skills.
Exercise: Listen to a conversation and practice it with a partner.
U sin g c o n te x t Using the surrounding context to guess the meaning of unknown
words, phrases, and concepts.
S u m m a riz in g Picking out and presenting the major points in a te xt in summary form.
S e le c tiv e L is te n in g Listening fo r key information w ithout trying to understand every
word.
Example: Listen to a conversation and identify the number of speak
ers.
S k im m in g Reading quickly to get a general idea of a te x t
Example: Decide if a te xt is a newspaper article, a letter, o r an adver
tisement
S can nin g Reading quickly to find specific information.
Example: For one minute scan the article looking specifically fo r the
reasons why the w rite r quit the company.
CREATIVE
B ra in s to rm in g Thinking of as many new words and ideas as you can.
Example: W o rk in a group and think of as many occupations as you
can
AFFECTIVE
P erso n alis in g Learners share their own opinions, feelings, and ideas about a subject
Example: Read a letter from a friend in need and give advice.
R e fle c tin g Thinking about ways you learn best
S e ttin g G o als A n d O b je c Setting aims for language learning, including long-term goals o r short
tiv es term objectives.
S e lf-E v a lu a tin g Thinking about how well you did on a learning task, and rating yourself
on a scale.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 187
3. IN T R O D U C IN G STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM
3.1 SAMPLE CLASSROOM TASKS
3.1.1 COGNITIVE STRATAGIES
• CLASSIFYING
Tasks such as the following that require learners to put vocabulary items into th e ir
semantic groups are classification tasks. Classifying helps learners because it is easier to
memorise items that are grouped together in meaningful ways than trying to remember
isolated items.
Put these adjectives in the correct category
attractive big black cloth cotton curved English fashionable glass
gold hard heavy Italian large leather light metal oval
round red small soft square wood woolen rectangular white
Opinion Size/weightT exture Shape Colour Origin Material
Flying Colours 2. W orkbook, Heinemann (page 40)
• PREDICTING
Predicting, o r looking ahead, helps learners to anticipate what is to come. This re
sults in more effective learning, because the learners are adequately prepared fo r the
new material.
188 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
I .Look at this photo of a boy and girl meeting fo r the first time on a beach in Portugal.
W hat do you think they might talk to one another about? Talk to the rest of the class.
Agree on at least six points and w rite them below.
a) ........................
b)
c)
d)
e) .............................
2. N ow listen to the tape. Do the boy and girl talk about the points you listed above? W rite yes
(V) o r no (N) against each point
Tuning In, Longman (page 10)
• IN D U C TIV E REASONING
In an inductive approach to learning, students are given access to data, and are
provided w ith structured opportunities to w o rk out rules, principles, and so on fo r
themselves. The idea here is that information will be more deeply processed and stored
if learners are given an opportunity to w o rk things o ut fo r themselves, rather than
simply being told.
ANALYSIS
1. W hich sentence below refers to:
a) a real possibility in the future?
b) an imaginary situation?
• I ’d never lend a friend a lo t o f money.
• I ’l l never lend her any money again.
W hich verb form is used in each case?
Find tw o more examples with would in Exercise 2 above.
2. W e often talk about hypothetical situations using if. Find three examples o f this in Exercise 2 above. Which
tense is used after if. Does it refer to a past time?
I . Sometimes (but not always) the hypothetical forms in questions I and 2 are used together. W hich one of the
sentences below is incorrect?
• ! f he o r she really needed it, I'd lend a large amount o f money to a friend.
• If my friend would need it, I would lend a large amount o f money to him or her.
• / might lend a targe amount o f money to a friend i f he o r she really needed i t
W hat is the difference between the two correct sentences?. N o w read Language summary B on pages 147-148.
Cutting Edge Intermediate, Longman (page 94)
Cuadernos de lenguas M odernas / 189
• TAK IN G NOTES
This is a very im portant strategy fo r listening and reading. The focus of taking notes
should be on understanding, not w riting. Taking notes as you read o r listen helps you
organize and remember im portant information. Note-taking is often thought o f as an
advanced tool, to be used at high levels o f proficiency- such as when listening to lec
tures. However, developing note-taking strategies can begin at very early stages o f learning.
Use your margin notes and the ideas that you underlined in the article to complete the chart below. Be sure
to use your own words.
PARAGRAPH TOPIC SUMMARY OF INFORMATION
1 author’s occupation The author teaches people about body
2 language in her university classes and in
3 training seminars.
Compare charts with your classmates
M u lticu ltu ra l W orkshop-B ook 3 ,Heinle& Heinle (page 64)
• C O N C EPT M APPING
Making an arrangement of words into a picture, which has groups of words linked
w ith the key concept by means of lines o r arrows. This strategy involves meaningful
imagery, grouping, and associations; it visually shows how certain groups of words re
late to each other.
Add words to the w ord map.
English File 2, O U P . (P age 5 0 )
190 / C u a d e rn o s d e len gu as M o d e rn a s
• INFERENCING
Inferencing involves using what you know to learn something new. Because learning
is basically making links between what is new and what is already known, inferencing is
an extremely im portant strategy.
PAIR W ORK. W hat inferences can you make about the characters in the story based on the lines below?
a. “ Unlike my other math teachers..., he (Mr. Antonelli) didn’t seem to find it bizarre that a girl should do well in
his class. As fo r my being Chinese, I doubt if he even noticed.”
W hat can you infer about Mr. Antonelli?
b. “ I have only the vaguest memories of my other classes that afternoon. I barely realized when the final bell rang.
Leaving school, I almost hugged my books to my chest. It was like waking up on my birthday and finding a pile of
presents outside my door.’’
W hat can you infer about the narrator? How does she feel?
Compare ideas with your classmates.
M ulticultural W orkshop-Book 3 , Heinle& Heinle. (Page 81)
• DISCRIMINATING
Discriminating means distinguishing between the main idea and supporting informa
tion in both aural and w ritten texts. Learners who are skilled at identifying the most
im portant information in a te xt are more effective listeners and readers. They can pro
cess language more quickly, and are able to identify and remember the speaker o r
reader’s central message more effectively.
The topic o r subject of the reading on pages 98-99 is advertising. The author of this reading has information
and ideas about advertising to share with her readers. The most im portant idea that the author wants to
communicate about the topic is called the main idea.
W hat is the main idea of this reading? Is the main idea stated in the reading? If so, where?
B. On y o u r own. How does the w riter organize her ideas. Reread pages 98-99 and take notes in this chart
PARAGRAPH
1 TOPIC (w h a t is th e p arag raph about?)
2 Three levels of emotion that adds appeal to...
Compare charts with your classmates
M ulticultural Workshop-Book /, Heinle& Heinle. ( p. 100)
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 191
• D IAG R A M M IN G
Using information from a te x t to label a diagram.
Use a sunshine outline like the one below to summarize the story of the Navajo Code
talkers.
W h o were the Navajo Code talkers?
W h a t did they do?
W hen did they use the code?
W here were they when they used the code?
W h y were they needed?
H ow do you think the code worked?
H ow long did they keep the secret o f the code?
Voices in lite ra tu re , Heinle & Heinle. ( p. 105)
3.1.2 INTERPERSONAL STRATEGIES
• COOPERATING
W hen we cooperate, we share ideas w ith other students. It is particularly effective
in language learning, because students are required to communicate w ith each o th e r in
order to cooperate.
O xford (1990) says cooperation comes in many forms. The learner does well to
learn to cooperate w ith the teacher, w ith fellow students, and w ith native speakers of
the language w ho are not connected w ith the classroom situation.
Cooperating w ith peers in the classroom is a special instance of cooperation. It
192/ C u a d e rn o s d e len gu as M o d e rn a s
involves either a cooperative task structure, in which group o r team participants w ork
together on aspects of the same task, o r sometimes a cooperative reward structure, in
which participants receive a common reward support (Slavin 1983, Kagan 1986, kohn
1987)
Many studies outside the language field have demonstrated the benefits of coopera
tion in the classroom: higher self-esteem, increased confidence and enjoyment; more
respect fo r the teacher, the school, and the subject; greater and more rapid achieve
ment; use of higher level cognitive strategies; decreased prejudice; and increased altru
ism and mutual concern (O xford 1990).
In the language area, classroom cooperation has the following additional advantages;
stronger motivation, increased satisfaction fo r teachers and students, more language
practice, more feedback about language errors, and greater use of varied language func
tions. Cooperation is the principle which underlies many recent language teaching methods
and approaches, such as Community Language Learning, the Natural Approach and
Task-based Approach.
TASK
1. W o rk in groups. You are going to plan a dream holiday (money is no problem).
Decide together which holiday you would like to go on, and why.
2. a) Read the fact file about your holiday (Safari page 140, European cities page 146,
Florida page 146) and complete the tables,
b) Discuss the different possibilities.
3. W o rk w ith a new partner who has planned a different holiday from you. Ask/ tell
each other about the holiday you have planned.
C utting Egde Pre-Interm ediate. Longman. (Page 53)
• ROLE-PLAYING
Pretending to be somebody else and using the language fo r the situation you are in.
Example: You are a reporter. Use the information from the reading to interview the
w riter.
Cuadernos de ienguas Modernas / 193
SOAP OPERA SCRIPT
Imagine that you are the w rite rs o f a television soap opera similar to those described
on page 128. Look back at the problems on pages 126-127. W rite a scene from a soap
opera based on one of them in which the characters discuss th eir problems, like the one
below. Remember to include:
A the characters in the scene and a short description o f each one.
B where / when the scene happens (location).
C stage directions telling the actors what to do and how to say th eir lines.
W hen you have finished, act o ut your scene to the rest o f the class.
C utting Egde Interm ediate. Longman. (Page 129)
3.1.3 LINGUISTIC STRATEGIES
• CONVERSATIONAL PATTERNS
Using expressions to start conversations and keep them going.
Example: Match formulaic expressions to situations.
Recognising and using formulas and patterns in the target language greatly enhance
the learner’s comprehension and production. Formulas are unanalysed expressions,
while patterns have at least one slot that can be filled w ith an alternative w ord. It is very
useful to teach students such expressions early in th e ir language learning process. These
routines w ill help build self-confidence, increase undestanding, and enhance fluency.
Some formulas are most often used fo r the express purpose of managing conversations.
Teaching learners to recognize these formulas as used by native speakers, and to use
these formulas to continue in a conversation o r show interest can be very beneficial.
194 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
Conversations Oh, no!
Rose and W ill are talking about Rose’ s weekend. Match the pictures
(a-f) fro m her story to the sentences ( I -6).
Example: I = d
1 I finally passed my driving test.
2 I drove the family to the beach on Sunday.
3 The traffic was te rrib le !
1. It was very, very hot.
2. It to o k us six hours to get there!
3. A nd then it started to rain.
Match W ill’s reactions to Rosie’s sentences.
a) O h, no!
b) That souds nice.
c) Y ou’re joking.
d) Congratulations!
e) O h, I know.
f) O h, no!
Listen and check.
N o w listen and re a c t Use the reactions above.
Example:
A: I missed the bus this m orning and I was late fo r w o rk again.
B: O h, no!
Wavelength Elementary, L o n g m a n . (P a g e 6 2 )
• P R A C T IS IN G
A n e s s e n tia l s tr a te g y f o r d e v e lo p in g skills is p ra c tis in g . P ra c tis in g m e a n s d o in g c o n
t r o lle d e x e rc is e s t o im p r o v e k n o w le d g e an d skills.
L e a r n e r s d o n o t alw a ys re a liz e h o w e s s e n tia l p ra c tic e is. D u r in g class, p o te n tia l p ra c
tic e o p p o r tu n it ie s a re o fte n m issed . E ven w h e n sm all g r o u p a c tiv itie s in c re a s e t h e a m o u n t
o f c la s s r o o m p ra c tic e , still m o r e p ra c tic e is u su ally n e e d e d t o re a c h a c c e p ta b le p r o fi
c ie n c y . G iv e n th e s e facts, th e p ra c tic in g s tra te g ie s - in c lu d in g re p e a tin g , p ra c tic in g w it h
s o u n d s an d w r it in g sys te m s, re c o m b in in g and p ra c tic in g n a tu ra lis tic a lly - t a k e o n special
v a lu e .
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 195
Rebecca O xford (1990) subdivides practising strategies into the following categories:
1. REPEATING
Saying o r doing something over and o v e r listening to something several times; rehearsing; imitating a native
speaker.
2. FORMALLY PRACTICING W IT H SOUNDS A N D W RITING SYSTEMS
Practicing sounds (pronunciation, intonation, register, etc.) in a variety o f ways, but not yet in naturalistic
communicative practice; o r practicing the writing system o f the target language.
3. RECOMBINING
Combining known elements in new ways to produce a longer sequence, as in linking one phrase w ith an
other in a whole sentence.
4. PRACTICING NATURALISTICALLY
Practicing the new language in natural, realistic settings, as in participating in a conversation, reading a book
o r article, listening to a lecture, o r w riting a letter in the new language.
Example:
2. FORMALLY PRACTICING W IT H SOUNDS
P R O N U N C IA T IO N
W hen you use the Present Perfect tenses in speech, you use contractions and weak
forms fo r has / have and been. However, you should not om it these auxiliary verbs
altogether.
Practice saying the sentences above pronouncing the weak forms and contractions
correctly.
/its bin snduin/
It’s been snowing.
C utting Egde U pper- Interm ediate. Longman. (Page 59)
1 9 6 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
• USING CONTEXT
It means sing the surrounding context to guess the meaning of unknown words, phrases,
and concepts.
These sentences are from An Wang’s biography. Use context-the other words in the sentences- to help you
guess the meaning of each b o ld fa ce d word. Then compare guesses with your classmates.
3.On his way home from school one day. An Wang found a b ird ’s n e s t that had fallen from the tree. Inside the
nest was a baby sparrow.
My guess:
b. It was at this time that he invented the m a g n e tic core. This device was a basic p a rt o f computer memory
until the use o f microchips in the late 1960s.
My guess:
c. In 1951 Wang decided that he was tired o f working fo r o ther people. W ith his savings o f $600 he started
his own company, Wang Laboratories.
My guess:
M u lticu ltu ra l W orkshop-Book /, Heinle& Heinle. (page 28)
• SUMMARISING
It involves picking out and presenting the major points in a te x t in summary form.
This strategy helps learners structure new input and show they understand. W riting a
summary can be challenging, because it often requires greater condensation of thought.
A t the early stages of language learning, summarising can be a-s simple as just giving
a title to what has been heard o r read; the title functions as a kind of summary of the
story o r passage. Another easy way to summarise is to place pictures which depict a
series of events in the order in which they occur in the story. This is a very useful
exercise, especially fo r beginners, because it links the verbal w ith the visual.
As students advance in their knowledge of the target language, their summaries can
be made in the target language, thus allowing more writing practice. The summaries they
construct can also become more complex; fo r example, learners can w rite complete
sentences o r paragraphs (called an ‘abstract’) summarizing what they have heard or
read.
C u a d e rn o s de lenguas M o d e rn a s / 19 7
In the diagram below, summarize the story. Tell only the most important things that happened.
STÖR Y P LO T(W H A T HAPPENED?)
Compare diagrams with your classmates.___________________________________________________________
M u lticu ltu ra l W orkshop-B ook / , Heinle& Heinle.( page 20)
• SELECTIVE LISTENING
A key strategy fo r learners is listening fo r key information w ith o u t trying to under
stand every w ord. This strategy is essential if learners are to cope effectively in genuine
communicative situations outside the classroom. It is im portant fo r learners to realize
that native speakers use this strategy quite naturally when communicating w ith one
another, that it is, in fact, impossible as well as unnecessary to process every single w ord
in most listening situations.
Example:
Buying clothes
Pieter’s at the Levi store. Listen. W hat does he buy?
CLOTHES............................................ C O LO U R ...............................................—
SIZE...................................................... PRICE..........................................................
English File 2 O xford University Press. 1997. (Page 86)
• SKIMMING
Reading quickly to get a general idea o f a text.
Example: Decide if the te x t is a newspaper article, a letter, o r an advertisement.
198 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
• SCANNING
Reading quickly to find specific information.
Example:
Quickly read the newspaper article. W here exactly is Pascale?
FRENCH TOURIST MISSING IN SN O W D O N IA
A young French woman, Pasde Hartman, aged 24, is missing in
north-west Wales after tw o days of strong winds and heavy
snow. She was last seen at I 1:45 on Friday morning when she
left the Youth Hostel to go climbing. A mountain rescue terns is
looking for her.
English File 2 O xford University Press. 1997. (Page 43)
3.1.4 CREATIVE STRATEGIES
• BRAINSTORMING
It means thinking of new words and developing ideas quickly.
Example: W o rk in a group and think o f as many occupations as you can.
Brainstorming is a good way to collect ideas fo r writing. It is an especially useful strategy
to use w ith a partner o r with a group o f people.
The following steps can be used to brainstorm a set of ideas.
1. Put your w riting idea on a piece of paper. This might be a w ord, a phrase, o r a
question.
2. W rite down every w ord that comes to mind. Don’t evaluate your ideas. Just think
and w rite quickly.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 1 9 9
Example:
Group work. Brainstorm answers to the question below. Choose one person to report your group’s answers to
the class.
In your opinion when is a person “ old” ?
G RO W ING OLD
gray hair
hard of hearing
tired
fun
slow down
less w ork
meet friends
A fter brainstorming, reread your list and circle the ideas you might want to use in your writing.
M ulticultural W orkshop-Book /, Heinle& Heinle (page 169)
3.1.5 AFFECTIVE STRATEGIES
They include tasks which have no specific language learning goal but are intended to
improve the motivational climate o f the classroom and to develop the students’ inter
est, confidence, and positive attitudes tow ard learning. For example, students may keep
a journal in which they w rite about th e ir feelings, fears, and satisfactions in relation to
the experiences they have in the class. They may share these both w ith th e ir classmates
and the teacher, and attem pt to resolve concerns as they arise.
• PERSONALIZING
Learners share th eir own opinions, feelings, and ideas about a subject.
Example:
Group work. List the advantages and disadvantages of old age. Then add your ideas to a class list on the
board.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
+ -
M ulticultural W orkshop-Book /, Heinle& Heinle (page 169)
200 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
• REFLECTING
It involves encouraging learners to think about ways they can learn best. Learners
should experiment to see if some tasks are better accomplished by using the eye, while
others are better accomplished w ith the ear. For example, they may find that listening
to tapes helps them improve their oral comprehension. Others may retain vocabulary
better if they use flash cards. W e should remind students that applying the same strat
egy to all tasks will not work.
4. EN C O U R AG ING LEARNER INDEPENDENCE
4.1 GO AL SETTING
Making goals explicit has a number of pedagogical advantages. First, it helps to focus
the attention of the learner on the tasks to come and this enhances motivation.
Teachers should aid th eir students in determining goals and objectives. The learners’
chances fo r successfully learning a foreign language are further enhanced if they take
charge of the situation: that is, if they determine th eir own goals and objectives. It is
im portant fo r students to set realistic goals. Very often people do not have a clear idea
o f how complex learning a language is, they often expect to understand, speak, read, and
w rite a foreign language after a relatively short period o f study. W hen they find them
selves unable to communicate w ith native speakers, unable to w rite a business letter,
unable to read a newspaper article o r to follow a TV o r radio programme, they often
become disillusioned and blame themselves, the teachers o r the textbook fo r their lack
o f success. Consequently, they may acquire a negative attitude tow ard foreign language
study in general. Such negative outcomes can be avoided if learners realise that language
learning entails a series of stages of achievement from the simple to the more complex,
and that success at each stage requires a certain amount of practice in the skills they
want to acquire. Learners should structure th eir approach and measure their success
accordingly. By setting realistic objectives they can more easily sustain th eir motivation
and interest.
4.2 SELF-EVALUATING
Many language teaching programmes are based on learners performing certain tasks
which the teacher sets and then evaluates. Teachers normally give learners information
about their progress in various ways, fo r example, through the use of grades o r test
results. However, we would see it as equally im portant to foster the ability to self-
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 201
evaluate if we are to produce autonomous learners. In order to mediate in this way, the
teacher needs to identify ways in which learners can be helped to become m ore aware
of th eir own progress.
Self-evaluating involves thinking about how well you have done on a learning task,
and rating yourself on a scale. By having learners rate themselves against th e ir learning
goals, the teacher not only develops the learners’ self-critical faculties, but also serves to
remind them o f the goals of the instructional process. A major reason fo r carrying o ut
self-evaluation is to determine w hether learners are progressing satisfactorily o r not,
and, if they are not, to diagnose the cause o r causes and suggest remedies. Self-assess
ment strategies also help learners identify preferred materials and ways o f learning.
They can be involved in evaluating th e ir own progress, the learning activities used, the
learning modes and so on.
The students’ self awareness can also be developed by using self-evaluation scales as
the ones shown below.
SELF-EVALUATION OF PROFICIENCY
1 I can ask fo r factual information YES NO
2 I can provide personal details. YES NO
3 I can understand weather forecasts on the radio. YES NO
4 I can read public notices. YES NO
Self-evaluation o f learning activities
Tick the box
ACTIVITY I LIKE IT’S O K I D O N ’T LIKE
Listening to authentic conversations
Watching the TV news
Singing songs
Doing grammar
Doing pronunciation
Doing group w ork
Doing role-plays
Playing games
W riting letters
Reading the newspaper
202 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
Self-evaluation of learning modes
T a k e n f r o m R ic h a rd s and L o c k h a r t. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms.
C U P , ¡9 9 4 .
C u a d e rn o s de lenguas M o d e rn a s / 20 3
FnifrWrtiw»
There an $ question! for each learning «tyle category in this queetiooeire. Th* questions are
grouped below according to each learning styls. Each question you u n v h u a numerical value •
SA A U D SD
6 4 3 2 1
SU in tb« blank« betow with th# numerical value of each answer. For example, If you answered
Sinafljr Apt* ( S A ) for question 8 ( a visual queation ), writ* a nunbar 8 < SA > on the U n it
next to question 9 below.
When you have completed all the numerical values for Visual, add the number*. Multiply the answer
by 2, and put the total la the apporpriate blank.
Follow this procesa for each of the learning stylo categories, When you are finished. look at the scale
at th« bottom of tha page • It will help you determine your major learning stylo preference ( a ),
your minor learning atyla preference <« ), end tboasUaming style ( a } that are negligible.
If you need help, pUata ask your teacher.
Taken from Richards and Lockhart. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms.
CUP, 1994.
20 4 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
An important consequence of learning how to m onitor one’s own progress in learn
ing is that one comes to recognise personal change as continuous, lifelong and within
one’s own power. The issue then becomes not w hether o r not to change, but what
degree of personal influence we choose to exert on that change. Several educators have
argued that in preparing young people to cope w ith a w orld of rapid and unpredictable
change, the recognition of the importance of change as a process in itself becomes one
of the central tasks in education. Toffler (1970) and Handy (1989) are just tw o of the
growing number of commentators who argue that our whole education system must
change in the direction of teaching people to learn how to learn and become flexible
thinkers in order to prepare them to cope with this w orld of continuous change.
4.3 LEARNER CHOICE
The difference between an effective and an ineffective language learner is that effec
tive language users make the appropriate choices when it comes to the linguistic op
tions available to them. (This applies to native speakers as well as to second language
learners.) Encouraging learners to make choices is an im portant aspect o f learner inde
pendence. W e can help learners develop skills in making appropriate choices by giving
them practice in doing so in the security of our classrooms. Examples of choices learn
ers can make may include the following: w hether to w o rk in groups o r in pairs fo r a
particular task, whether a particular w riting task should be done in o r out of class,
w hether a particular task would be completed individually and then shared in groups, o r
w hether it should be done as a group task from scratch, whether a series of reflection
sheets should be completed every week o r every tw o weeks, etc. By encouraging
learners to make choices in our classrooms and in the teaching materials we provide fo r
them, we convey to our students the im portant message that they have responsibility
fo r making decisions and taking control of their learning. Moreover, by highlighting these
points fo r discussion, and by looking fo r opportunities to weave them into the fabric of
one’s teaching, the whole climate of the classroom can be gradually transformed.
4.4 CAUSES OF LEARNER FAILURE
It is expected that learners who could be described as ‘advanced’ (First Certificate
level) are already aware of which learning strategies w o rk well fo r them. However, we
often find students at these levels who have difficulties in achieving a task successfully.
Studies of successful and unsuccessful learners (Chamot, O ’Malley. 1987) have shown
that people who succeed in learning have developed a range of strategies from which
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 205
they are able to select those that are the most appropriate fo r a particular problem. Thus,
fo r effective learning to take place, what is im portant is the learners’ ability to respond to
the particular learning situation and to manage th eir learning in an appropriate way.
4.4.1 CASE STUDY
The following study carried o u t by David Nunan (1988) was designed to investigate
teacher attitudes tow ard the failure of learners to achieve programme goals. The study
gives as the first cause o f learner failure the use of inefficient learning strategies.
Background
Assessing learner achievement (or lack thereof) is only the first step in the evalua
tion process. It is highly unlikely that all learners will make satisfactory progress all o f the
time (if they do, it is likely that the course is to o easy fo r the group). In cases o f failure
to achieve objectives, the next step is to diagnose the likely cause o r causes, and to
suggest remedies.
There are many different possible causes of learner failure. Some o f the more com
mon of these, which have been reported by teachers, are the following:
1 Inefficient learning strategies.
2 Poor attention in class.
3 Irregular attendance
4 Particular macroskill problems.
5 Difficulty w ith discrete language points.
6 Failure to use the language o ut of class.
7 Faulty teaching techniques.
8 Objectives inappropriate fo r learners.
9 Materials / learning activities inappropriate fo r learners.
10 Learner attitude.
I I Personal (non-language) problems of learners (including physical disability).
The study
In o rd e r to obtain m ore detailed inform ation about the causes o f lea rn e r failure, the
questionnaire shown below was circulated to a group o f teachers taking p a rt in a w o rk
shop.
206 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
Results
Survey results o f causes o f learner failure
Cause Num ber o f teachers rating %
this as a cause o f failure
Causes attributable to the learner
Inefficient learning strategies 26 77
Failure to use the language out of class 26 77
Irregular attendance 15 45
Particular macroskill problems 11 32
Poor attention in class 3 9
Personal (non-language) problems 3 9
Learner attitude 1 4
Causes attributable to the teacher
Inappropriate learning activities 11 32
Inappropriate objectives 9 27
Faulty teaching 8 23
Taken from Nunan, David (1988) The Learner-centred Curriculum, page 145.
From the data it can be seen that the teachers surveyed placed responsibility fo r
failure firm ly w ith the learners. However, it is w orth noting that, in relation to causes
attributable to the teacher, one third o f those surveyed identified inappropriate learning
activities as a possible cause, and approximately a quarter identified inappropriate objec
tives and faulty teaching as having a significant effect on learning outcomes.
Systematic observation is one way in which teachers can diagnose which o f the
above reasons are implicated in learner failure. Non-observable problems, such as fail
ure to use the language outside class, can be diagnosed through learner diaries and
reports. Interviewing learners from time to time can also help build up a picture of the
learner’s preferences, strengths and weaknesses. Such interviews can canVass the fol
lowing issues:
Which lessons / parts of lessons have been most useful?
Which things have you learned so far?
W hat helped you learn?
H ow do you learn best?
Have your ideas about how you learn changed? How?
C u a d e rn o s d e lenguas M o d e rn a s / 2 0 7
Do you enjoy having different teachers?
Do you come to class as often as you can?
W hy have you missed some classes?
Having diagnosed problems, the teacher can develop strategies to overcome them.
These need not always entail changing the learner. It may well be that objectives, meth
ods, materials and learning arrangements should be changed to accommodate learners.
There are of course some causes, such as personal problems learners are having o u t
side class, which teachers may be incapable o f changing.
IN T R O D U C IN G STRATEGIES IN THE CLASSROOM
In this section I shall look at some o f the ways in which strategies can be introduced
into the classroom. It is im portant to keep in mind that, as far as possible, strategies
should be integrated into the ongoing process of the language lesson.
4.5 A SAMPLE LESSON
Here is an example o f a class I gave at Colegio Nacional “ Rafael Hernandez” , La
Plata. The aim of the lesson was to illustrate examples of learning strategies fo r develop
ing the four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing).
The activities selected fo r this class were topic-centered (connected to the topic of
the story: Message in a b o ttle ). Considering that one of the factors that may influence
the choice of strategies is “ the requirements o f a task” 1 planned the strategies I wanted
students to develop and according to them I chose the activities (not all o f them were
included in the textbook).
Skills:
Listening, a guided fantasy and a song.
Speaking: retelling of sensations, feelings and emotions, students had experienced
while listening to the guided fantasy. I asked students to retell the story once they
had finished doing the jigsaw reading activity.
Reading: a story called “ Message in a b o ttle " through a jigsaw reading activity.
W riting: a w ritten assignment to be done as homework. W rite a message to be p u t in
a bottle.
1st AC TIV ITY : a guided fantasy called “ A deserted beach” accompanied w ith music. I
208 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
elicited from students the type of strategies to be developed and the purpose:
Type o f strategy:
I - Lowering anxiety. (Affective strategy)
2- Preview already known material fo r an upcoming language activity. (Metacognitive
strategy), since the topic of the guided fantasy is related to the story students will
read.
Purpose:
To create a relaxed atmosphere in the classroom.
To make students forget about worries; to relieve stress.
To help students to relax; to get rid of negative feelings such as tension by listening to a
soothing melody and by making them imagine the ideal place to feel at ease with them
selves
Follow -u p activity: A fter listening, I extended the activity by asking about feelings and
sensations while doing it (colours, sounds, smells, tastes, activities, feelings)
Type o f strategy: Affective
Purpose: give students an opportunity to talk about feelings and sensations.
2 d AC TIV ITY : a lead-in activity w ith books closed.
Purpose: Link and preview already known material fo r an upcoming task.
Strategy: Use a mind map to overview ideas and to help students to elicit and to get
the main idea.
The procedure I used was the following:
I drew the central circle of this w ord map on the b/b; eliciting from students as many
ways to communicate as possible.
A fter this, I introduced the situation: Imagine you are on a desert island. H ow could
Cuadernos de lenguas M odernas / 209
you communicate?
Eliciting: by sending a message in a bottle.
? d A C TIV ITY : W ith books open. Students covered the te x t and looked only at the map
and the photo.
Strategy: Guessing intelligently using non-linguistic clues (te x t structure, pictures and
title)
dP A C T IV IT Y : Reading. I elicited different possibilities of dealing w ith the text:
Conclusion: students can either read the article and number the paragraphs in order
from I to 6 o r do a jigsaw reading activity where students w orking in pairs o r small
groups put together five pieces o f a w ritten te x t that have been separated, thus requir
ing that learners guess by using te x t stru ctu re and_content dues. In doing this, students
have to use other strategies as well, such as, cognitive strategies (Analysing and reason
ing and g e ttin g the idea quickly). A fte r the task is done, the pairs/ groups compare
results w ith other pairs. Thus developing social strategies (collaborating w ith peers).
Teachers can make th eir students use certain strategies if they:
a) Set a time limit, thus encouraging students to g e t the idea quickly.
b) If students ask fo r the meaning of new words, remind them to use efficient w o rd
attack strategies such as:
• Pay attention to cognates and borrowings.
• Look fo r familiar elements in new words.
• D on’t demand an exact meaning fo r every w ord, guess through context. Read
the whole sentence. Look at the larger context.
• Some grammatical categories are particularly important:
Learn rules of w ord order.
Learn prepositions.
Look fo r discourse markers.
Look fo r words that refer to other words.
Use resources e.g.: a dictionary.
2 1 0 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
c) Make students w ork with each paragraph, eliciting different techniques fo r doing so
(comprehension questions, true o r false, multiple choice) to:
• get the main idea.
• Summarise.
The following are different kinds of follow-up activities suggested fo r this lesson:
• a project work, sending balloons containing messages inside
• w ritten assignments fo r homework
• a pop song by The Police called “ Message in a bottle” .
5P AC TIVITY: W rite a message in a bottle to the outside world.
Students were given the following situation to w rite their messages:
Imagine you are shipw recked on a desert island and you want to send a message in a
b o ttle to the outside w o rld asking to be rescued.
W e discussed strategies fo r developing w ritin g skills, especially those students can use
to g e t ideas fo r w ritin g th e ir messages:
Some suggestions:
M ind map. W rite island in the middle of a piece o f paper and w rite down all other words
that island suggests at suitable places on the mind map.
Brainstorm ing. Make quick notes about anything that comes into your head about the
situation on the island e.g.: can’t swim, don’t like fish, tell mother, wonderful suntan,
miss favourite TV program.
Asking questions. W rite down the questions that the reader of your message might
want to ask e.g.: How long have you been on the island? Are you alone? Is it dangerous
there? W hat do you eat? How do you spend your time?
A fter showing different techniques to get ideas, students should decide which ones they
will use and which order they will w rite them in. Plan before w riting: consider the
function of each sentence in light of its relation to the main topic in order to provide
readers with a clear sense of purpose.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 211
6th A C T IV IT Y : Listen to a song
Listening activity to make students develop the following strategies:
Practice naturalistically
Listening w ith a purpose using the following techniques:
To focus on vocabulary through a fill in the gaps activity.
To get the main idea.
Focus question: W h a t’s the song about?
Multiple choice exercise.
5. STRATEGIES GROUPED A C C O R D IN G T O THE FOUR LANGUAGE SKILLS
Although the primary aim o f this paper, as its title suggests, is on Language Learning
strategies, i.e. teaching learners how to learn the form al/ grammatical system, I will also
refer in this section to the development of strategies grouped according to the four
language skills.
5 .1 Learner training and study skills
In recent years there has also been a growing interest in the area o f study skills.
Study skills fo r EFL and ESL, o r English fo r Academic Purposes (EAP) equip learners w ith
the skills required in o rd er to succeed in a particular study environment. For example,
a course which prepares foreign students fo r study at a British university requires stu
dents to be proficient in such skills as taking notes as they read a book o r listen to a
lecture, preparing fo r seminars, organizing and presenting essays (Wallace 1980), where
training students to develop the fo ur skills o f the language (reading, listening, speaking
and writing) is essential.
It is often claimed that the aims of study skills are very similar to those o f learner
training (Ellis and Sinclair 1989). However, the most significant differences between
them are:
a. In study skills, objectives are usually imposed from some external source, such as
a set syllabus. Learner training provides learners w ith more opportunity to select
th eir own learning objectives.
2 1 2 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
b. Study skills tend to focus on the particular products required by a specific study
context, such as passing examinations o r w riting a good essay. Learner training
focuses on the process of learning in order to provide learners with wider insights
into their own learning.
c. Study skills tend to involve learners in specific tasks o r activities directly related
to the requirements of their course of study, such as developing reading strategies
that will enable learners to read a test in the foreign language. Learner training
tends to provide more opportunities fo r learners to reflect on their attitudes to
wards themselves as learners and their personal learning preferences, as well as to
experiment with different learning and practice activities in general.
d. Study skills usually prepare learners fo r an external system of assessment. Learner
training trains in self-assessment.
In order to help learners to be skillful users of the language, it is im portant to
develop the so-called ‘four skills’ -listening, speaking, reading and writing-. The interest
of this section is in the development of the learners’ facility in receiving and conveying
messages by means of strategy training.
5.2 TOW ARDS IMPROVING THE STUDENTS’ READING COMPREHENSION
Just giving students large quantities of reading materials does not guarantee that they
will improve their reading skills. To improve their reading abilities, students must de
velop their comprehension skills. Most beginning learners have difficulty understanding
their texts because they pay attention to the literal meaning of the words rather than
try to understand the overall meaning. A variety of teaching strategies can be used to
improve the learners’ reading comprehension. Teachers need to help students guess at
meanings first by using context. They can also assure students that they do not have to
understand every w ord to understand the main idea. Beginning learners also need con
textual supports to understand the authentic texts they read. For instance, pictures and
diagrams can illustrate key vocabulary effectively. W hen selecting authentic texts fo r
beginning students, efforts must be made to find topics that are at least partly familiar to
the students. Sometimes students do not have enough knowledge o f the w orld to
understand certain kinds of te xt and teachers must fill them in on what they need to
know to comprehend the reading. Teachers need to focus on those concepts that are
central to understanding the upcoming reading, concepts that learners either do not
possess or may not think of w ithout prompting. To this end, pre-reading activities are
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 213
beneficial. Stoller (1986) suggests that reading be preceded by pre-reading activities in
which the teacher:
1. asks students to focus on the title and any illustrations that may accompany the text;
2. asks students to skim the entire passage quickly fo r the main idea;
3. asks students to scan the passage fo r specific details considered crucial fo r overall
comprehension;
4. introduces loaded cultural presuppositions which would otherwise mislead o r con
fuse students, o r perhaps go unnoticed.
Students can read in depth to increase th eir comprehension o f the reading passage.
This is called intensive o r narrow reading. W hen students read narrow ly (reading, fo r
example, books by the same author o r several texts about the same topic), grammatical
and discoursal structures repeat themselves so that students get many chances to un
derstand the meanings o f the texts they read (Krashen and Terrell 1983).
In extensive reading, students do not need to understand all the details of the text.
Instead speed and skill in getting the overall gist o f the te x t are important. Good readers
in both a first and second language use a wide variety o f strategies to adjust to the
material they read. Teachers need to design activities that develop all o f the strategies
needed to read a variety o f texts effectively. W hile some adult learners are capable of
developing effective reading strategies just by increasing the amount they read, others
are not. For this reason, we should help our students in the use of effective reading
strategies.
5.3 READING STRATEGIES
It is now standard practice in the design o f reading tasks to use a three-phase proce
dure involving pre-, while-, and post reading stages (Williams 1984). The intention is to
ensure that reading is ‘taught’ in the sense of helping readers develop increasing ability
to tackle texts.
2 1 4 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
PRE-READING STRATEGIES
/. A N T IC IP A T IO N
Motivation is of great importance when reading. Partly because most of what we
read is what we want to read, but also because being motivated means that we start
reading the te xt prepared to find a number of things in it, expecting to find answers to
a number of questions and specific information o r ideas we are interested in. This
expectation is inherent in the process of reading which is a permanent interrelationship
between the reader and the text. W hat we already know about the subject and what we
are looking fo r are probably just as important as what we actually draw from the text.
W hen reading, we keep making predictions which, in their turn, will be confirmed o r
corrected.
This underlines the artificiality of the classroom situation in which students are often
confronted with passages they know nothing about, o r have no particular desire to
read. It is very difficult, in such conditions, to expect the students to learn to read
better. The practice of letting the students choose the topics they wish to read about
should therefore be encouraged.
Before the students start reading a text, they can always be asked to look fo r the
answers to specific questions. This will give an incentive to th eir reading activity.
For example:
- Psychological sensitising aimed at making the students think about the subject of the
te x t and ask themselves questions.
- Using the title and pictures to talk about the various ways the te x t may develop.
- Using the key- words of the te x t to predict content.
2. PREVIEWING
Previewing involves using the table o f contents, the appendix, preface, the chapter
and paragraph headings in order to find out where the required information is likely to
be.
To preview an article o r story, you look over the whole reading before you start to
read.
Examples:
- Look at the title and ask questions about it.
- Look at the pictures and predict what the article o r story is about.
- Set a purpose fo r reading. Decide what you hope to find out as you read.
- Recall what you already know about the topic.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 215
- Read the first paragraph and the last paragraph and try to figure o ut the main idea of
the reading.
WHILE-READING STRATEGIES
/. PREDICTING
Predicting is the faculty of guessing what is to come next, making use o f grammatical,
logical and cultural clues. W e can train students to make predictions by giving students
unfinished passages to complete o r by going through a te x t little by little, stopping after
each sentence in o rd er to predict what is likely to come next.
You make predictions when you answer questions such as these: W h a t is the next
paragraph in this reading going to be about? O r what is going to happen to the main
character in this story?
W hen you make a prediction, you use what you already know about a topic, person,
o r event. Using what you already know helps you to make a logical prediction.
2. F IN D IN G M A IN IDEAS
Main ideas are the central o r most im portant ideas that a w rite r wants to communi
cate. A te x t may have many related ideas, but one o r tw o ideas are usually the most
important.
Sometimes the main idea is stated directly in a paragraph. The sentence that states
the main idea is called the topic sentence.
3. M A K IN G A STORY O U TLIN E
Making a story outline helps you to focus on im portant information in a story. W hen
you make a story outline, look fo r these main parts of a story:
Characters-. W h o are the people in the story?
Setting. W here and when does the story take place?
The problem o r conflict: W hat is the central issue? W hat are the characters trying to
do?
Im portant events. W hat happens in the story?
2 1 6 / Cuadernos de ienguas Modernas
4. SEMANTIC MAPPING
Sometimes called word-webbing o r clustering, is a different way students can im
prove their reading comprehension. When students map, they w rite down anything and
everything they think of when they read a given passage. During this time, they make
web diagrams, connecting their ideas in such a way that they display interrelationships
within and across subtopics of the reading. Students can w rite the core concept in the
centre and then connect details to the main concept.
5. M A K IN G INFERENCES
Inferring means making use of syntactic, logical and cultural clues to discover the
meaning of unknown elements.
W hen dealing with a new text, it is better not to explain the difficult words to the
learners beforehand. They would only get used to being given ‘pre-processed’ texts and
would never make the effort to cope with a difficult passage on th eir own. On the
contrary, students should be encouraged to make a guess at the meaning o f the words
they do not know rather than look them up in the dictionary. If they need to look at the
dictionary to get a precise meaning -which is an im portant and necessary activity too-
they should only do so after having tried to w ork out a solution on th eir own. This is
why, from the very beginning, it is vital to develop the skill of inference.
6. PARAPHRASING
W hen you paraphrase, you put information and ideas into your own words. Para
phrasing is a good way to check your understanding of w ritten material. It can also help
you remember ideas and information.
7. SKIM M ING A N D S C A N N IN G
Both skimming and scanning are specific reading strategies necessary fo r quick and
efficient reading.
W hen skimming, we go through the reading material quickly in order to get the gist
of it, to know how it is organised, o r to get an idea of the tone o r the intention of the
w rite r.
W hen scanning, we only try to locate specific information and often do not even
follow the linearity of the passage to do so. W e simply let our eyes wander over the
te x t until we find what we are looking for, a name, a date, o r a less specific piece of
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 217
information.
Skimming is therefore a more thorough activity which requires an overall view of the
te x t and implies a definite reading competence. Scanning, on the contrary, is far more
limited since it only means retrieving what information is relevant to o u r purpose. Yet it
is usual to make use of these tw o strategies together when reading a given text. For
instance, we may well skim through an article first just to know w hether it is w orth
reading, then read it through more carefully because we have decided that it is of
interest. It is also possible afterwards to scan the same article in o rd er to note down a
figure o r a name which we particularly want to remember.
8. SUMMAR/SNG
W hen you summarize, you restate ideas and information briefly in your own words.
A summary gives only the most im portant ideas and information.
9. TA K IN G NOTES IN A CHAR T
Taking notes as you read helps you to organize and remember im portant informa
tion. W hen students take notes, they should w rite down the m ost im portant informa
tion only.
Here is one type o f chart students might use:
M AIN IDEAS DETAILS
He had a difficult childhood. His parents died.
He lived through a civil war.
He didn’t go to school.
5.4 W R ITIN G STRATEGIES
Since w riting is primarily about organising information and communicating meaning,
generating ideas is clearly a crucial part o f the w riting process. Because getting started is
one of the most difficult steps in writing, idea-generating is particularly im portant as an
initiating process. For this reason, the activities that follow can be regarded as belonging
to the initial stages, when the w rite r is still attempting to discover a topic and identify a
purpose. To assist in generating ideas at this initial stage, there are different kinds of
discovery strategies.
2 1 8 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
/. BRAINSTORM ING
Brainstorming is a good way to collect ideas fo r writing. It is an especially useful
strategy to use w ith a partner o r w ith a group of people. Brainstorming involves thinking
quickly and w ith o u t inhibition so as to produce as many ideas as possible on a given
topic o r problem.
Procedure
• Before providing the topic, we should tell the students that they will spend about a
minute o r so silently w riting down ideas by themselves before working in pairs and
groups.
• Each student then starts off by w riting their ideas. A fte r a minute o r so, they join w ith
a partner and ‘bounce’ ideas off one another. Then get the pairs to join to make fours,
and repeat the exchange of ideas and generation of new ones.
2 Q U IC K W R IT IN G
Q uickwriting is a useful way to collect ideas fo r writing.
Follow these steps to quickwrite:
• Choose a topic, something you want to w rite about.
• For five o r ten minutes, w rite quickly. D on’t w o rry about grammar o r spelling. If you
can’t think of a w ord in English, w rite it in your native language. The im portant thing is
to w rite w ith o u t stopping.
• If you can’t think of anything to w rite, put that down o r w rite the same w ord over
and over again.
• W hen you have finished writing, read over your ideas. Circle the ideas that you like.
3. AS KIN G QUESTIONS
Questions are an im portant prom pt fo r w riters. One o f the skills of a good w rite r is
to think of interesting questions to ask because these yield interesting answers.
As w ith brainstorming, a topic can be given to students, who then use a series of
questions to stimulate thinking, to draw on their experience and to develop and shape
their ideas. It is important to realise that, as with any generating procedure, the aim is
not to stifle creativity and individualism, but to prom ote both. Indeed, given the same
set of questions, each individual in the class should come up w ith different answers.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 219
Furthermore, given the interactive nature of questions and answers, using questions as
part of the w riting process can stimulate a lo t of valuable discussion and genuine com
munication among students.
Procedure
• Introduce the topic and ask students to suggest questions people might have about it.
• Having established an idea o f what is wanted, ask students individually to w rite down
at least three questions. A llow a couple o f minutes fo r this.
• They join w ith a partner to compare questions and then, after a few minutes, form
small groups to exchange ideas.
• Finally, have each student read o ut one question. Collect the questions on the board
as they do this. They now have a pool o f questions to answer and use as the basis fo r a
w ritten text.
Questions can also be used to stimulate the imagination by tapping the episodic and
unconscious memory, particularly by drawing on the senses o f hearing, sight, smell and
touch. Using the senses helps to establish actuality, which is im portant in developing a
sense o f place and a credible story.
As an illustration o f this strategy, I describe an activity I carried o ut w ith a group of
advanced students to w rite a short story about travelling on the Buenos Aires subway.
These are the questions I used to get ideas going:
You are on the street in Buenos Aires:
W hat time of day is it?
W h a t’s the weather like?
W hat noises can you hear?
You go down into the subway:
W hat is your first reaction?
W hat smells are there?
W hat is the atmosphere?
220 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
You see a crowd of people?
How are they moving?
W here are they going?
W hat does the crowd look like?
How do you react to being in the crowd?
You go into the platform:
W hat are the other travelers doing?
Someone looks at you. W ith what so rt of
expression?
He/she speaks to you. W h a t does he/she
say?
W hat is your reaction?
Your train arrives:
W hat do you hear?
W hat do you smell?
How do you feel?
Continue the journey to your destination...
4. M A K IN G NOTES
Some schemes fo r note-taking such as the so-called ‘spidergram’ really result in a
good display of information which can then be easily converted into a draft. Having a
scheme o r form of organization right at the start may help students to produce ideas.
As note-taking is primarily concerned with generating ideas and secondly with organiz
ing them, correctness and precision of language are not yet im portant considerations at
this stage.
Making diagrams can also help students see the connection between big ideas and
details.
In the following example, a student, writing a description o f a person he admired,
decided to arrange his notes in the form of a ‘spidergram’.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 22 !
5. M A K IN G A TREE D IAG R AM
Making a tree diagram is a useful way to organize your ideas before you start writing.
Before you make a tree diagram, you might want to first list ideas about your topic.
Then reread your list o f ideas looking fo r categories of information. W rite these catego
ries on your tree diagram. Then list ideas in each category.
Example:
6. M A K IN G A VENN D IAG RAM
To compare and contrast tw o things, a Venn diagram can be used to collect ideas. In
the centre of the diagram (where the circles overlap) the ways the tw o things are alike
are listed. In the outer circles, the things that make them different are included.
On the Venn diagram below, one w rite r compares and contrasts tw o cities- New
York and Los Angeles.
222 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
The M ulticultu ral W orkshop book 2
7. USING VISUALS
Pictures have had a role in language teaching and a wide range o f visually-based
material can be used in the teaching of writing. This again is a useful way to generate
ideas fo r writing.
Procedure
• Ask students to w rite down as many words as they can based on th eir response to
the picture. W hen you think they are ready, get each student in turn to supply one o r
more of their words, and w rite them on the board, until all the ideas are exhausted.
• Discuss the words on the board. Compare and contrast them.
• Ask students to suggest what kind of writing they could now develop o ut o f th eir
ideas, what effect they would try to have on the reader and what, as readers, they would
want to find in a piece of writing based on the picture concerned. Guide the discussion
towards preparing students to start drafting a te x t based on th eir interpretation o f and
reaction to the picture.
8. O RGANISING IDEAS
Some w riters prefer to organise their ideas before they start writing. Others prefer
to get started by quickwriting and organise their ideas later.
Cuadernos de lenguas M odernas / 223
To organize ideas before writing, the learner can use the following strategies:
• Taking notes in a chart.
• Making an outline.
• Choosing a good title. Sometimes a title can help organise and focus ideas. Keeping a
title in mind can help stay on track. A title also helps narrow down the topic.
9. DEVELOPING A P O IN T O F VIEW
Before w riting, it is necessary to decide through whose eyes the topic is going to be
viewed. For example, is the w rite r going to look at the topic through his own eyes? The
eyes of a friend? A parent? Someone else? The point of view shapes the writing.
10. U N D ER STAN D IN G THE AU D IE N C E
The audience is the reader - the classmates, a friend, the teacher, o r someone the
w rite r does not even know. Before w riting, it is im portant to have a clear idea o f who
the reader is. W hat is said in the w riting and how the ideas are expressed will depend in
part on the reader.
Before writing, answering these questions and keeping them in mind while w riting can
be a useful strategy:
• W ho is going to read this piece o f writing?
• W hat does my reader already know about the topic?
• Is the reader’s background different from mine?
5.5 LISTENING STRATEGIES
5.5.1 H O W D O LEARNERS FEEL A B O U T LISTENING TO ENGLISH?
W hen we ask our students to think about th eir own attitudes towards listening to
English, very often they say things such as:
224 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
PROBLEM /
I GET IRRITA TED BECAUSE / C A N ’T AL WA YS UNDERSTAND EVER YTH/NG.
Many language learners fail to realize that when they listen to th eir first language they
do not actually hear every word. They also fail to appreciate that we integrate linguistic
knowledge w ith our existing experience and knowledge o f such things as topic and
culture, and do not need to hear every w ord. This means that learners often have
unrealistic expectations and try to understand every w ord o f a listening text.
Learner’s anxiety can be exacerbated by a classroom procedure which does not
contextualize the te x t o r prepare the topic by activating p rio r knowledge; in other
words, a procedure which asks students to ‘Listen to the te x t and then answer the
questions.’ This tests listening ability rather than aiming to teach it. Adults returning to
English language learning whose earlier experiences have been of this nature may well
have developed negative perceptions of their ability as listeners and a major task fo r the
teacher will be to build confidence.
POSSIBLE SO LU TIO N :
The teacher should recognise this anxiety and provide positive classroom experi
ences.
For example, the teacher needs to make sure that the pace and length of a listening
activity is not to o taxing as the concentration required in trying to comprehend unfamil
iar sounds can be tiring.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 225
PRO BLEM 2
PEOPLE TALK TO O FAST
If your students feel that they cannot follow th e ir conversational partner, ask them
to try some o f the following techniques, which will allow them to take charge of the
situation.
POSSIBLE SO LUTIO NS:
LET THE SPEAKER K N O W T H A T YO U ARE N O T FO LLO W IN G . If you don’t under
stand a w ord o r phrase, ask the speaker what it means. Learn how to say such phrases
as ‘ W h a t does ... mean?’ o r ‘I don’t know w h a t... means’.
ASK FOR REPETITION. Ask your partner to repeat what he o r she just said. Learn
phrases such as ‘Please repeat’ and ‘W hat did you say?’
ASK YOUR CONVERSATIONAL PARTNER TO S LO W D O W N . Ask your partner
to speak more slowly. Learn how to say ‘Please speak more slowly’.
SEEK CLARIFIC ATIO N . If you did not get part of the message, ask additional ques
tions. For instance, ‘Sorry, I didn’t catch that’ o r ‘Could you repeat that, please?’
REPHRASE. If you are not sure that you have correctly understood what someone said,
rephrase the speaker’s message as best you can. For instance, ‘Do you mean ...?’ o r ‘Are
you saying ...?’
PAY A T T E N T IO N TO IN T O N A T IO N A N D TO NE O F VOICE. Intonation may give
you clues as to w hether the utterance you heard was a statement o r a question. On the
other hand, tone of voice can tell you whether the speaker is pleased, angry o r happy.
ASSUME TH A T THE HERE A N D N O W ARE RELEVANT. Assume that what a person
says is directly related to something he o r she is experiencing at that very minute. Most
conversations relate to the present. People commonly talk about the weather, the
social setting, th eir feelings (which are often obvious from th eir facial expressions), o r
some action that is under way. So it is very easy to establish the topic even if you do not
226 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
PR O B LE M 3
I A M N O T G ETTING A N Y T H IN G O U T O F THE FOREIGN LAN G U AG E TV A N D
MOVIES.
If your students feel identified with this comment, they should try to take control of
th eir listening by trying to actively anticipate what they are likely to hear. The key w ord
is prediction. Ask your students to try some of the following prediction strategies, and
decide which most help them understand.
STRATEGIES:
USE YOUR BAC KG R O U N D KNOW LEDGE. Anticipate information in a segment by
relying on your knowledge of what such a segment is likely to contain. For instance, if
you are watching an interview with a violinist, you may predict that the questions will
have to do with the artist’s training, favourite composers, future plans, etc. If it is a
commercial, then it will probably contain information about the product and its quali
ties. A fte r deciding what information the segment might address, watch it the second
time to find answers to these questions. This will also help you anticipate specific w ords/
phrases that might be used.
USE VISUAL CLUES. Try watching with the sound off. This will allow you to concen
trate on the visuals, noticing such clues as the setting, the action, the interaction, facial
expressions, and gestures. These, in turn, will help you get a general idea of what is going
on. W atch the segment again with the sound on to verify if your guess was correct.
USE IN FO R M A TIO N FROM THE SEGMENT ITSELF. W hat you already know about
the characters, the setting, and/or the story line of an episode may help you predict
what is likely to logically happen next. In turn, this will help you anticipate what is likely
to be said.
DETERMINE THE GENRE O F THE SEGMENT. Knowing the genre of a segment will
help you determine how best to approach it. For instance, if it is an interview, then
concentrate on the questions. If it is a news report, a who, when, where strategy will
w o rk best. If it is a drama, look fo r the story line.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 227
LISTEN TO FAMILIAR ELEMENTS. In listening to individual words, it may help if you first
watch to determine the subject. Then your ability to hear individual words will grow. For
example, if you know that the programme includes a travel segment, you may find yo ur
self recognising the names o f countries.
LISTEN TO FAM ILIAR- S O U N D IN G WORDS. Many o f these are ‘international’ words
that occur in a number of languages o r cognates.
LISTEN TO A N D J O T D O W N REPEATED W O R D S/ PHRASES Unfamiliar w ords o r
phrases may be repeated several times. Sometimes, repeated use will help you infer a
w o rd ’s meaning from context. A t other times, repetition will allow you to remember
the w ord o r phrase long enough to ask someone what it means o r to jo t it down so that
you can look it up in a dictionary.
LEARN TO RECOGNISE NUMBERS A N D PROPER NAMES. Most news reports con
tain references to people and places. It helps to know some typical names o f people and
what some geographical names sound like in the foreign language.
Recognising numbers will help you understand a telephone number, an address over the
phone, a price in the store o r the temperature on the weather report.
KEEP LISTENING. Understanding something is better than nothing at all. If you con
tinue listening, chances are that you will comprehend at least some parts o f the mes
sage. If that is not the case, you are probably listening to something that is to o difficult
fo r you.
5.5.2 STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP LISTENING COMPREHENSION
In terms of listening fo r comprehension, how can classroom practice rehearse the
kinds of listening purposes and situations that learners will experience outside the class
room? H ow can we help learners build confidence in dealing w ith authentic spoken
English? W hat kinds of classroom procedures will develop listening ability?
In order to answer these questions, we need information about what happens dur
ing the process o f listening. It is clear fo r most of us that both participatory listening (as
in face-to-face conversations and meetings) and non-participatory listening (as in listen-
228 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
But recent research suggests ways in which teachers can help learners to become good
listeners through the design of classroom procedures.
It has now become standard practice to use the following procedure when dealing
with a listening te x t in class:
• The teacher and the students prepare fo r the listening in a number of ways. Various
activities are used to help students to become familiar w ith the topic, to be exposed to
some language features of the te x t and to activate any relevant p rio r knowledge they
have. The teacher’s role is to create interest, reasons fo r listening, and the confidence
to listen.
• Before setting the students to do a while-listening task, the teacher makes sure that
they have all understood what it involves, e.g. filling in a chart.
• The students carry out the task independently w ithout intervention from the teacher.
Although the listening itself is done individually, students can be encouraged to check
their responses in pairs o r groups as soon as they are ready.
• In a feedback session, the teacher and students check and discuss the responses to
the while-listening task. The teacher’s role is to help students see how successful they
have been in doing the task.
• Follow-up activities can be of various kinds, but at this stage the teacher may well
wish to focus on features of the te x t o r on bottom -up processes which w ill assist
further development of effective listening.
A brief review of current course material will show that a repertoire of strategies exists
fo r the pre-listening phase.
5.5.3 STRATEGIES W H IC H C AN BE USED IN THE PRE-LISTENING PHASE
• Predicting content from the title of a talk.
• Discussing the topic.
• Agreeing o r disagreeing w ith opinions about the topic.
Some topics lend themselves to pre-listening activities which require learners to form
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 229
Some topics lend themselves to pre-listening activities which require learners to form
an opinion. In this case a useful task is to invite students to make explicit th eir opinions
to each other in class discussion and then listen in order to see w hether o r not these are
similar to those in the listening material. This kind o f activity reflects the natural ways in
which we react to what we hear and also introduces relevant vocabulary and structures.
5.5.4 STRATEGIES W H IC H C AN BE USED IN THE WHILE-LISTENING PHASE
W hile learners listen, they need to be involved in an authentic purpose fo r listening
and encouraged to attend to the te x t more intensively o r more extensively, fo r gist o r
fo r specific information. Learner activity can involve following the information, respond
ing to attitudes expressed, reflecting on what is said, taking general notes, o r w riting
down specific points.
The following table shows a list o f some o f the most im portant listening strategies, along
w ith examples.
STRATEGY EXAM PLES
Listening fo r gist Is the speaker describing a holiday o r a day in the office?
Is the radio report about news o r weather?
Listening fo r purpose Are the speakers making a reservation o r ordering food?
Is the speaker agreeing o r disagreeing with the suggestion?
Listening fo r main idea Did the speaker like o r dislike the movie?
Listening fo r inference W hat are the speakers implying by what they said?
Listening fo r specific informa How much did they say the tickets cost?
tion
Listening fo r phonemic distinc Did the speaker say first o r fourth?
tions Did the speaker say they could o r can’t come to the party?
Listening fo r tone/pitch to Did the speaker enjoy the wedding o r not?
identify speaker’s attitude Is the speaker surprised o r not?
Listening fo r stress W hat is more important, where he bought the watch o r when?
230 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
POST- LISTENING ACTIVITIES
Post- listening activities can take students into a more intensive phase of study in
which aspects of bottom -up listening, such as discriminating between phonemes, finding
the stressed syllable, recognizing fast speech forms, etc. are practised.
Post- listening w ork can also involve integration with other skill development o f the
topic into reading, speaking, o r w riting activities.
5.6 STRATEGIES IN SPEAKING ENGLISH
Perhaps the first question to ask is what reasons we have fo r asking our students to
practise speaking in the classroom. There could be several answers. One is that, fo r
many students, learning to speak competently in English is a priority. They may need this
skill fo r a variety of reasons. But learning to speak competently is a complex task.
As communicative approaches have developed, teachers have been concerned to
ensure that students not only practise speaking in a controlled way in order to produce
features o f pronunciation, vocabulary, and structure accurately, but also practise using
these features more freely in purposeful communication. It has therefore become usual
to include both accuracy- and fluency-based activities from the beginning of the course.
However, there are many more aspects to conversation than these. Studies o f na
tive speaker conversation have provided with insights into what is involved in terms of
managing interaction. For example, there are skills relating to opening and closing con
versations, to the sharing of time, to taking turns and contributing both longer and
shorter turns as appropriate, to attending to and responding to one’s interlocutor, and
to interrupting. If any of these are lacking o r poorly performed, then communication can
break down. And the reasons fo r the breakdown may be lack o f language to undertake
these skills effectively o r differences in the cultural conventions associated w ith them.
The challenge fo r the communicative classroom is to find activities that develop
strategies fo r speaking in order to prepare students fo r spontaneous interaction.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 231
H O W D O LEARNERS FEEL A B O U T SPEAKING ENGLISH?
Comments:
These are the typical comments o f learners w ho try to express what they want to
say but lack the vocabulary and structures they need. Their solution is to use com m u
nication strategies. There is a field o f research which has tried to categorise these.
Faerch and Kasper (1983) have made the distinction between avoidance behaviour, in
which learners try to eliminate a problem by changing the topic o r not participating in a
conversation, and achievem ent behaviour, in which ways are found to cope w ith the
problem, fo r example: switching to the first language; w ord coinage, -often influenced by
the first language-; restructuring (‘I have tw o ... I have one bro the r and one sister’); a
direct appeal fo r help from the listener (It’s ... what is this colour?’); and gesture (for
example, pointing in the previous example).
Perhaps the most im portant implication fo r the teacher is simply to appreciate and
understand what is happening when students use communication strategies, as they are
likely to do in fluency activities which push them to the limits of th eir language re
sources. Communication strategies can be indicators of gaps and uncertainties in lan
guage knowledge, and can play a role in the teacher’s decisions about what to focus on
in feedback.
Clearly the advantages o f using achievement strategies o r taking risks w ith the lan
guage is that they keep the conversation going and may encourage the listener to pro-
232 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
vide the necessary language.
The question arising is whether communication strategies can be trained. Certainly
teachers can help students early in a language programme by teaching them appropriate
questions fo r requesting help, fo r example ‘W hat does this mean?’ and ‘H ow do you
say...?’ and the language to ask fo r vocabulary items, fo r example ‘W hat do you call a
person who...?’. W hether o r not a teacher believes that communication strategies can
be taught, it is certainly w orth exhibiting positive attitudes towards achievement behaviour
and encouraging it.
The other way in which learners w o rk to make themselves understood is through
negotiation of meaning. For example the speaker may produce an indistinct o r inaccu
rate message, as in:
A: You mustn’t come except you bring the children.
B: I’m sorry, shall I bring my children?
Speakers need an ability to negotiate, until the meaning is clear. Part of this will
involve using achievement strategies, such as paraphrase o r gesture, to explain things
more clearly. It is therefore useful fo r teachers to teach the language that w ill help w ith
negotiation of meaning and to do this early in a course. Most importantly, o f course,
learners need opportunities fo r practice. Certain kinds o f fluency activities may be bet
te r than others in providing these opportunities.
6. STRATEGIES FOR LEARNING VOCABULARY
Nunan’s typology of learning strategies includes some o f the strategies used fo r
learning vocabulary (classifying, fo r instance). However, I would like to present in this
section other options that teachers have to assist students in developing th eir vocabu
lary strategies. The activities chosen have been extracted from recently published te x t
books.
W O R D CLUSTERING. This strategy will allow students to make connections between
new and known items as well as semantically related words. Examples of creative group
ings include:
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 233
• c lu s te rs o f to p ic a lly r e la te d le x ica l ite m s . E x a m p le :
Complete the following networks.
Make tw o other networks to help you to learn the words on the opposite page.
English Vocabulary in Use. (Page 33)
• pairs o f logically linked adjectives and nouns o r verbs and nouns. Example:
Looker, the complete word forks below. Finish the others.
original shoot magnificent kick
brilliant edit breathtaking hit
unusual idea direct a film superb view bounce a ball
great star in
excellent review
English Vocabulary in Use. (Page 5)
• pairs of synonyms and antonyms. Example:
Urban ≠ rural stop = cease (more forma!)
English Vocabulary in Use. (Page 6)
234 / Cuadernos de lenguas M odernas
• semantic groupings. Example: w ord tree
English Vocabulary in Use. (Page 5)
• pictures and diagrams. Example.
English Vocabulary in Use. (Page 4)
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 235
• w ord classes. Making tables fo r word-classes is a good idea , since learners can fill in
the gaps over time.
noun verb adjective person
productio n produce produce r
industry industrial
e x p o rt
English Vocabulary in Use. (Page 7)
• Using imagery. To form a mental image o f a w ord by associating it w ith its colour,
size, smell o r any o the r physical characteristic. For instance when trying to remember
names o f vegetables and fruits, you can associate some w ith being re d and rou nd and
others w ith being long and green.
GUESSING THE M EANING OF W ORDS FROM CO N TEXT.
In any passage, there are a few words whose meaning could be inferred from con
text, provided that the learner is willing to consider the available clues.
For instance, a learner might deduce from the syntactic structure that a w ord is an
adjective because it is located before a noun, he might divide the w ord into its parts,
realizing that ‘-able’ is a common suffix fo r an adjective, he might read on fo r evidence in
the context o f the te x t that the meaning is positive, o r he might look fo r a similar w ord
in his own language. In this way contextual clues which relate to the reader’s knowledge
are used fo r inferencing meaning.
Some of these strategies are called metacognitive. They are not direct mental opera
tions, but indirect strategies which facilitate learning by actively involving the learner in
conscious efforts to remember new words.
Among metacognitive strategies we may include the following: consciously collecting
words from authentic contexts; making w ord cards; categorising words into lists; and
reactivating vocabulary in internal dialogue.
• M AKING W O R D CARDS. This strategy requires the student to find out a fair
amount of information about each w ord and to w rite it on an index card in the following
manner:
236 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
W rite the word. Copy the definitions of the word.
W rite its pronunciation. If a verb, note the grammar structures that
can follow it.
Copy any related family words. Copy any synonyms.
Copy the sentence containing the word from the text. W rite your own sentences using the word.
Taken from Aebersold and Field (1997), From Reader to Reading Teacher, CUP.
(page 152)
W hen used regularly, this is an effective way of learning vocabulary. It is fluid and
individualised, allowing students to be in charge o f th eir own learning.
N o m atter how much direction teachers provide to help students learn vocabulary
in class, the final responsibility fo r learning new words rests w ith the students. It is useful
fo r the teacher to be aware of the variety of strategies used by learners to cope w ith
words, to encourage learners in effective strategies, and to introduce some o f these
through teaching.
C O N C LU SIO N
Education is a lifelong process, one purpose of which is to equip learners to cope in
a changing w orld. As Knowles (1976:23) similarly reminds us, one o f o ur main aims in
education is ‘helping individuals to develop the attitudes that learning is a lifelong p ro
cess and to acquire the skills of self-directed learning’.
For teachers, learning more about the complexities of learning, both cognitive and
affective, can also help our professional growth and personal satisfaction. A teacher who
truly understands the importance of affect in the classroom, and w ho believes that all
students can learn, can offer opportunities fo r success to all students (Guild 1994).
Teachers also have the responsibility to ask students about th eir learning strengths and
then to listen.
Language teaching is a complex endeavour, requiring a professional approach which
Cuadernos de lenguas M odernas / 2 3 7
involves decision-making at a number of levels. Teachers are not merely agents in an
educational hierarchy, but have the creative responsibility o f building links between
externally imposed curriculum objectives and th eir own course planning, activity design,
materials development, and management o f learning procedures. W e are involved in a
process of continuing professional self-development. Teachers play an im portant part in
fostering the right climate fo r effective learning to take place, fo r building learner’s
confidence, fo r people’s individuality to be respected, fo r developing appropriate learn
ing strategies and fo r moving towards learner autonomy.
Some learners come to the task o f learning a foreign language w ith the expectation
of being active learners, but others come ill-equipped. For the latter group, perhaps the
most useful service the teacher can perform is to encourage them in positive attitudes
and prepare them in effective strategies. This preparation implies a change in perception
about what language learning involves and a change in the expectation that language can
only be learned through the careful control of a specialist teacher. It also involves ac
quiring a range o f techniques w ith which learners can enhance th e ir learning.
Raising student awareness in the language learning process can provide the scaffold
ing fo r more effective and efficient learning. A broad understanding o f learning environ
ments, learning styles and learning strategies can allow students to take control o f th eir
learning and maximise th e ir potential fo r learning. Asking students to evaluate th eir
language learning experiences and to be accountable fo r th eir own learning increases
their sense o f both freedom and responsibility. Students need tim e to investigate and
experience resources that enable them to experiment and discuss, and they need the
opportunity to evaluate what they are learning about learning. M oreover, students can
comprehend how learning processes occur, what choices they have in these processes,
and how they can identify th eir learning strengths and weaknesses. The result can be
educated students w ho are able to participate fully in society, both freely and responsi
bly; students ready fo r change.
238 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
APPENDIX
Taken from Revell, Jane and Norman, Susan (1997), In Your Hands N LP in ELT, London,
Saffire Press.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 239
Message in a bottle
1 [a_ Rrad the miclcv dumber the
nfrarjrspbs l to 6
© □
Then, almost l'<' years liter, Karen gel the
reply n f war waiting foi. Her mother phoned lo say
tb.v there v m a Setter for ha from Holland The letter
including;» copy of her original letter, came from
Emtlje Birebach in the Dutch city of f iarhngsn.
O Qj
Or. a quiet afternoon in April 197C, Keren ]ary went
with lice school friends twG«e*l Varroouth. When they
gotie. the beach they each put a circfjjiy.wriuen letter
into a both« and threw it Ln:o ‘he Korth St3.
© LJ
lr her letter Ecvilic said that she found the bottle in
1970, wlieu »lie was walking cr the. beach in Viirkstd,
northern Holland, with her husband Frans. They u-ere
on their honeymoon.
© c
The 'little gir:' is now 36 ami married with two
children .'Igo w:iyc.uilrd whim tmi.ir’sletter
arrived. I'm going tn reply tf her soon sew my
daughter says she's gome lo write to ErmUe's youngest
sor.’ Errilie ilio said, Tut hoping to go o England lo
meet Karen ard her family. L’nr. jure I'll jet on with
her very we];.'
© □
‘ JVn the letter got lost in the house. I looked lor it
everywhere, but 1dxiu't Andtt until dus Christmas, 2*
ye*« latsr. when 1wts cleaning the attic. 1decided to
write to Karen"because i wasc.iriors about rh; little
gill that »rote '.hr Idler.’
or
Eleven-year-o.d Karen was sure ¡hit somebody was
going to find her menage in a bottle. Hct letter,
addressed to Dear trader'. w » In ?. Herr ketchup
bottle. But days passed, then weeks, then months, and
Karen didn’t geean answer. Finally she forgot about
her letter, until lari week ...
Taken from Oxenden, Clive; Seiigson, Paul and Lathan-Koenig, C hristina (1997), English
File 2, O xford, O x fo rd U niversity Press.
240 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
a File 7 !■k>- L j Ik-I the picture with five of □ Listen and complete with the words.
the words
-oastewtw note island
despair!») sea lonely
Message in a bottle 1977
mend (v.) shore rescue !-.'.)
Just a 1castoway
i A n 1________ lost a t 3_________
A n o th e r 4_________day
i N o one here bu t me
M o re loneliness
s Than any man could bear
5_________me before I fall in to *_________
Chorus
a I’ll send an SO S ; to the w o rld
I'll send 3n SOSt to the w o rld
Q Match the other words to the definitions.
10 I hope th a t someone gets my
1 the feeling when you have no hope I hope tha t someone gets my
u I hope th a t someone gets my
2 alone and sad................ Message in a b o ttle
3 another v/ny of saying rcpaii________ i* A year has passed since I w ro te my 7_____
B ut I should have known this righ t from
4 help somebody who is in danger
the sta rt
is O nly hope can keep me cogether
Love can *________ your life
¡3 But love can break y o u r heart
Chorus
W alked ou t this m orning
D o n ’t believe w hat I saw
A hundred billion bottles
u W ashed up on the ’ ________
Seems l‘m n o t alone in being alone
T he Po l ic e
;-i A hundred billion 10______ ___s
- formed in 1977 were Sting (real name
Looking fo r a home
Gordon Sumner), Andy Summers
‘ (gultar).and Stewart Copeland (drums). Chorus
; BBC radio didn’t play their first singles
Vi Sending o u t an SOS'
■ because they were about prostitution,
\ Roxanne and teenage suicide, Can’t stand Sending o u t an S O S <, etc.
(• Losing You.Message in a Bottle was No. I
all around Europe in 1979. The group Glossary
separated In 1985. As a solo artist Sting loneliness = the noun from lonely
bear =■ accept without complaining
: has sold more than 50 million records.
SOS = (Save Our Souls) a message asking for help
T a k e n f r o m O x e n d e n , C liv e ; Selig so n, Paul an d L a th a n -K o e n ig , C h r is tin a ( 1 9 9 7 ) , En
glish File 2, O x f o r d , O x f o r d U n iv e r s ity Press.
C u a d e rn o s de lenguas M o d e rn a s / 241
B IB L IO G R A F IA
- Aebersold, Jo Ann and Field, M ary Lee (1997), From Reader to Reading Teacher,
Cambridge, Cambridge U niversity Press.
- Arnold, Jane. (1999), A ffe c t in Language Learning. Cambridge. Cambridge University
Press..
- Bruner, J. S. (I9 6 0 ), The Process of Education. Cambridge, Mass: H arvard U niversity
Press.
- Chamot, O ’Malley (1987) In Learning Strategies in Second language A cquisition, Cam
bridge, Cambridge University Press. 1990.
- Ellis, Gail and Sinclair, Barbara (1999), Learning to Learn English, Scotland, Cambridge
University Press.
- Faerch, C. and Kasper, G. (1983), Strategies in Interlanguage Com m unication. London,
Longman.
- Feuerstein, R. (1991), In Psychology fo r Language Teachers. Op.cit.
- Guild, P. (1994), In A ffe c t in Language Learning. Op cit
- Hamachek, D. (1977), In Psychology fo r Language Teachers. Op.cit
- Harmer, Jeremy (1991), The Practice o f English Language Teaching. London. Longman.
- Handy, C. (1989), The Age o f Unreason. Penguin.
- Knowles, M. (1976). The M odern Practice o f A d u lt Education. N ew York, Association
Press.
- Nunan, David (1988), The Learner-C entred C urriculum , Great Britain, Cambridge
University Press.
- Nunan, David (1999), Second Language Teaching and Learning, USA, Heinle & Heinle
Publishers.
- O ’Malley, J. Michael and Chamot Anna Uhl (1990), Learning Strategies in Second lan
guage A cquisition, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
- O xford, Rebecca (1990), Language Learning Strategies: W hat every Teacher Should
know, Boston, Mass. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
- Rogers, C.R. (1969), Freedom to Learn. Columbus, Ohio, Charles Merill.
- Rubin, Joan (1975), ‘W hat the “ good language learner” can teach us.’ TESOL Q uarterly
9: 41-51.
- Rubin, Joan and Thompson, Irene ( 1994), H o w to be a m ore successful language learner,
USA, Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
- Savater, Fernando (1997), E! valor de educar, Barcelona, Ariel.
242 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
- Stoller, F. (1986). Teaching Second Language Reading fo r Academic Purposes. Reading
M A.
- Toffler, A. (1970), Future Shock. London. Bodley Head.
- Vann, R. and Abraham, R. (1990), Strategies o f unsuccessful language learners. TESO L
Q u a r te r ly 2 4 , 2: 1 7 7 -9 8 .
- W enden A. and J. Rubin (1987), Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Hemel
Hempstead. Prentice Hall.
- W illiams, E (1984), Reading in the Language Classroom. London and Basingstoke.
Macmillan.
- Williams, M. and R. Burden. (1997) Psychology fo r Language Teachers. Cambridge.
Cambridge University Press-
Bibliography fo r th e exam ples o f learning strategies:
- Burke, Kathy ; Brooks, Julia and Rushton, Lynne (2000), W avelength Elementary,
London, Pearson Education Limited.
- Burke, Kathy ; Brooks, Julia and Rushton, Lynne (2000), Wavelength Pre-Interm ediate,
London, Pearson Education Limited.
- Cunningham, Sarah and M oor, Peter (1998), C utting Egde Interm ediate, Madrid,
Longman.
- Cunningham, Sarah and Moor, Peter ( 1998), C utting Egde U pper-Interm ediate, Madrid,
Longman.
- Garton-Sprenger, Judy and Greenall Simon (1991), Flying Colours, Students’ b oo k 2,
Scotland. Heinemann.
- Lonon Blanton, L. and Linda Lee (1995), The M u lticultu ral W orkshop.Book /, USA,
Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
- Lonon Blanton, L. and Linda Lee (1995), The M ulticultu ral W orkshop.Book 2, USA,
Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
- Lonon Blanton, L. and Linda Lee (1995), The M u lticu ltu ra l W orkshop.Book 3, USA.
Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
- Oxenden, Clive; Se/igson, Paul and Lathan-Koenig, C hristina (1997), English File 2.
O xford, O xfo rd U niversity Press.
- Spratt, Mary (1989). Tuning in, England, Longman.
Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas / 243
Bibliography fo r th e sample class:
- Oxenden, C live; Seligson, Paul and Lathan-Koenig, C hristina (1997), English File 2,
O xford, O x fo rd U niversity Press.
- Revell, Jane and Norman, Susan (1997), In Your Hands N LP in ELT. London. Saffire
Press.
- Sting, Message in a b o ttle
244 / Cuadernos de lenguas Modernas
FAQs
AI
What distinguishes successful language learners from unsuccessful ones?
add
The research shows that successful language learners exhibit a greater ability to choose appropriate strategies for specific tasks, unlike unsuccessful learners who may have similar strategies but lack the ability to select them correctly for each task.
How do cognitive styles influence language learning strategies?
add
Different cognitive styles affect the strategies learners adopt; for instance, visual learners may use imagery techniques more effectively than auditory learners, who might prefer repetition and oral practice.
What role does metacognitive awareness play in language learning?
add
Metacognitive awareness enables learners to plan, monitor, and evaluate their strategies, significantly enhancing their ability to adapt to various learning situations and achieve better outcomes.
How can teachers effectively promote learner autonomy in language education?
add
Teachers can foster learner autonomy by encouraging students to set personal goals, make strategic choices, and reflect on their learning process, thus empowering them to take control of their education.
What are the implications of the humanistic approach for language learning strategies?
add
The humanistic approach emphasizes personalized learning experiences and emotional involvement, suggesting that strategies should be designed to connect personally with learners, enhancing motivation and engagement in the process.
August 18, 2025
Stephen J Hall
University of Life, Adjunct
Now an independent writer and qualified wine enthusiast, Professor (Rtd.) Stephen J Hall was Head, Centre for English Language Studies, Sunway University, Malaysia for 16 years. Stephen was an INSETT nation-wide Project Manager for four years working with the Mmalaysian Ministry of Education. Previously, he was a Singapore based corporate trainer with clients including Changi airport, SIA counter staff, VISA Asia Pacific and HBO Asia. He managed Language and Communication, Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore for four years and developed the international student programme and a multi-media language learning environment.
Stephen trained teachers regionally for ASEAN based RELC and has consulted for English for Banking in an Indonesia wide project. He has published over 50 articles and authored several books, including two English for Tourism books co-published in China. He has presented in over eighteen countries, and taught at tertiary, secondary and primary levels. His Doctorate examines the early phases of in-service teacher education in rural Malaysia. More at www.stephenjhall.com
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Joan Rubin
The Modern Language Journal, 1990
In recent years, many second language researchers have devoted much time and effort in identifying types of mental process and behaviour that characterize successful and unsuccessful language learners. These processes and behaviours are referred to as learner strategies. The concept of a strategy, however, is not unique to second language learning. It is prevalent in cognitive psychology, especially in the literature on cognitive strategies in memory, reading comprehension, and problem-solving research. I 2. Oxford's (1990) system consists of six groups of strategy. These are subsumed under two main classes of direct and indirect strategies which work in tandem with each other. Direct strategies involve mental processing of the language and include memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies. (Compensation strategies enable learners to use the new language despite limitations in grammar and, especially, in vocabulary.) strategies support and manage language learning, and consist of metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING A closer examination of classifications of learner strategies shows a considerable degree of overlap between systems, and even within some subgroups in each system. This indicates, nevertheless, that researchers share a number of principles about the concept of learner strategies: Ministry of Education (1991). English language syllabus (Secondary). Curriculum Planning Division. Naiman, N., M. Frohlich, A. Todesco, and H. H. Stern. (1978). The good language learner. Toronto, Ontario: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.
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