Public domain - Wikipedia

Public domain - Wikipedia
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Works outside the scope of copyright law
For other uses, see
Public domain (disambiguation)
For the content guidelines regarding the use of public domain content on Wikipedia, see
Wikipedia:Public domain
Intellectual property
Authors' rights
Copyleft
Database right
Farmers' rights
Geographical indication
Indigenous intellectual property
Industrial design right
Integrated circuit layout design protection
Intellectual property infringement
Literary property
Moral rights
Patent
Peasants' rights
Plant breeders' rights
Plant genetic resources
Proprietary software
Related rights
Sound recording copyright
Supplementary protection certificate
Trade dress
Trade secret
Trademark
Utility model
Patent infringement
Related topics
Abandonware
Artificial intelligence and copyright
Brand protection
Copyright abolition
Copyright troll
Criticism of copyright
Bioprospecting
Biopiracy
Idea–expression distinction
Limitations and exceptions to copyright
Fair dealing
Fair use
Paraphrasing
Right to quote
Orphan work
Patent troll
Pirate Party
Public domain
Outline of intellectual property
Outline of patents
Higher categories:
Property
and
Property law
The
public domain
PD
) consists of all the
creative work
to which no
exclusive
intellectual property
rights apply. Those rights may have expired, be forfeit,
waived
or may be inapplicable.
Because no one holds the exclusive rights, anyone can legally use or reference those works without permission.
As examples, the works of
William Shakespeare
Ludwig van Beethoven
Miguel de Cervantes
Zoroaster
Lao Zi
Confucius
Aristotle
L. Frank Baum
Leonardo da Vinci
and
Georges Méliès
are in the public domain either by virtue of their having been created before
existed, or by their copyright term having expired.
Some works are not covered by a country's copyright laws, and are therefore in the public domain; for example, in the United States, items excluded from copyright include the formulae of
Newtonian physics
and cooking recipes.
Other works are actively dedicated by their authors to the public domain (see
waiver
); examples include reference implementations of cryptographic algorithms.
The term
public domain
is not normally applied to situations where the creator of a work retains residual rights, in which case use of the work is referred to as "under license" or "with permission".
As rights vary by country and jurisdiction, a work may be subject to rights in one country and be in the public domain in another. Some rights depend on registrations on a country-by-country basis, and the absence of registration in a particular country, if required, gives rise to public-domain status for a work in that country. The term
public domain
may also be interchangeably used with other imprecise or undefined terms such as the
public sphere
or
commons
, including concepts such as the "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons", and the "information commons".
History
Although the term
domain
did not come into use until the mid-18th century, the concept can be traced back to the ancient
Roman law
, "as a preset system included in the property right system".
page needed
The Romans had a large proprietary rights system where they defined "many things that cannot be privately owned"
page needed
as
res nullius
res communes
res publicae
and
res universitatis
The term
res nullius
was defined as things not yet appropriated.
10
The term
res communes
was defined as "things that could be commonly enjoyed by mankind, such as air, sunlight and ocean."
page needed
The term
res publicae
referred to things that were shared by all citizens, and the term
res universitatis
meant things that were owned by the municipalities of Rome.
page needed
When looking at it from a historical perspective, one could say the construction of the idea of "public domain" sprouted from the concepts of
res communes
res publicae
, and
res universitatis
in early Roman law.
page needed
When the first early copyright law was originally established in Britain with the
Statute of Anne
in 1710, public domain did not appear. However, similar concepts were developed by British and French jurists in the 18th century. Instead of "public domain", they used terms such as
publici juris
or
propriété publique
to describe works that were not covered by copyright law.
11
The phrase "fall in the public domain" can be traced to mid-19th-century France to describe the end of
copyright term
. The French poet
Alfred de Vigny
equated the expiration of copyright with a work falling "into the sink hole of public domain"
12
and if the public domain receives any attention from intellectual property lawyers it is still treated as little more than that which is left when intellectual property rights, such as
patents
, and
trademarks
, expire or are abandoned.
In this historical context Paul Torremans describes copyright as a "little coral reef of private right jutting up from the ocean of the public domain".
13
Copyright law differs by country, and the American legal scholar
Pamela Samuelson
has described the public domain as being "different sizes at different times in different countries".
14
Definition
Newton's
own copy of his
Principia
, with hand-written corrections for the second edition
Definitions of the boundaries of the public domain in relation to copyright, or intellectual property more generally, regard the public domain as a negative space; that is, it consists of works that are no longer in copyright term or were never protected by copyright law.
15
According to
James Boyle
, this definition underlines common usage of the term
public domain
and equates the public domain to
public property
and works in copyright to
private property
. However, the usage of the term
public domain
can be more granular, including for example uses of works in copyright permitted by
copyright exceptions
. Such a definition regards work in copyright as private property subject to
fair use
rights and limitation on ownership.
A conceptual definition comes from Lange, who focused on what the public domain should be: "it should be a place of sanctuary for individual creative expression, a sanctuary conferring affirmative protection against the forces of private appropriation that threatened such expression".
15
Patterson and Lindberg described the public domain not as a "territory", but rather as a concept: "[T]here are certain materials – the air we breathe, sunlight, rain, space, life, creations, thoughts, feelings, ideas, words, numbers – not subject to private ownership. The materials that compose our cultural heritage must be free for all living to use no less than matter necessary for biological survival."
16
The term
public domain
may also be interchangeably used with other imprecise or undefined terms such as the
public sphere
or
commons
, including concepts such as the "commons of the mind", the "intellectual commons", and the "information commons".
Public domain by medium
Books
A public-domain book is a book with no copyright, a book that was created without a license, or a book where its copyrights expired
17
or have been forfeited.
clarification needed
18
In most countries the
term of protection
of copyright expires on the first day of January, 70 years after the death of the latest living author. The longest copyright term is in Mexico, which has life plus 100 years for all deaths since July 1928.
19
A notable exception is the United States, where every book and tale published before 1931 is in the public domain; US copyrights last for 95 years for books originally published between 1931 and 1978 if the copyright was properly registered and maintained.
20
For example: the works of
Jane Austen
Lewis Carroll
Machado de Assis
Olavo Bilac
and
Edgar Allan Poe
are in the public domain worldwide as they all died over 100 years ago.
21
Project Gutenberg
, the
Internet Archive
and
Wikisource
make tens of thousands of public domain books available online as
ebooks
22
23
24
Music
People have been creating music for millennia. The first
musical notation
system, the
Music of Mesopotamia
system, was created 4,000 years ago.
Guido of Arezzo
introduced Latin musical notation in the 10th century.
25
This laid the foundation for the preservation of global music in the public domain, a distinction formalized alongside copyright systems in the 17th century. Musicians copyrighted their publications of musical notation as literary writings, but performing copyrighted pieces and creating derivative works were not restricted by early copyright laws. Copying was widespread, in compliance with the law, but expansions of those laws intended to benefit literary works and responding to commercial music recording technology's reproducibility have led to stricter rules. Relatively recently, a normative view that copying in music is not desirable and lazy has become popular among professional musicians.
original research?
US copyright laws distinguish between musical compositions and sound recordings, the former of which refers to melody, notation or lyrics created by a composer or lyricist, including sheet music, and the latter referring to a recording performed by an artist, including a CD, LP, or digital sound file.
26
Musical compositions fall under the same general rule of 95 years after publication, so anything published before 1930 is considered public domain (as of 2025).
27
Sound recordings, on the other hand, are subject to different rules and are not eligible for public domain status until 2021–2067, depending on the date and location of publishing, unless explicitly released beforehand.
20
The
Musopen
project records music in the public domain for the purposes of making the music available to the general public in a high-quality audio format. Online musical archives preserve collections of classical music recorded by Musopen and offer them for download/distribution as a public service.
Films
Main article:
Public domain film
The 1968 horror film
Night of the Living Dead
is in the public domain in the United States because its theatrical distributor failed to place a copyright indication on the prints, as would have been required to obtain a copyright at that time.
A public-domain film is a film that was never under copyright, was released to public domain by its author, or whose
has expired. All films released in the United States before 1
January 1931 have entered the public domain in that country.
Value
Pamela Samuelson has identified eight "values" that can arise from information and works in the public domain.
28
Possible values include:
Building blocks for the creation of new knowledge, examples include data, facts, ideas, theories, and scientific principle.
Access to cultural heritage through information resources such as ancient Greek texts and Mozart's symphonies.
Promoting education, through the spread of information, ideas, and scientific principles.
Enabling follow-on innovation, through for example expired patents and copyright.
Enabling low cost access to information without the need to locate the owner or negotiate rights clearance and pay royalties, through for example expired copyrighted works or patents, and non-original data compilation.
29
Promoting public health and safety, through information and scientific principles.
Promoting the democratic process and values, through news, laws, regulation, and judicial opinion.
Enabling competitive imitation, through for example expired patents and copyright, or publicly disclosed technologies that do not qualify for patent protection.
28
: 22
Relationship with derivative works
Main article:
Derivative work
Derivative works include
translations
musical arrangements
, and
dramatizations
of a work, as well as other forms of transformation or adaptation.
30
Copyrighted works may not be used for derivative works without permission from the copyright owner,
31
while public domain works can be freely used for derivative works without permission.
32
33
Artworks that are public domain may also be reproduced photographically or artistically or used as the basis of new, interpretive works.
34
Works derived from public domain works can be copyrighted.
35
Once works enter into the public domain, derivative works such as adaptations in book and film may increase noticeably, as happened with
Frances Hodgson Burnett
's novel
The Secret Garden
, which became public domain in the US in 1977 and most of the rest of the world in 1995.
36
By 1999, the plays of Shakespeare, all public domain, had been used in more than 420 feature-length films.
37
38
In addition to straightforward adaptation, they have been used as the launching point for transformative retellings such as
Tom Stoppard
's
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead
and
Troma Entertainment
's
Tromeo and Juliet
39
40
41
Marcel Duchamp's
L.H.O.O.Q.
is a derivative of Leonardo da Vinci's
Mona Lisa
, one of thousands of derivative works based on the public domain painting.
32
The 2018 film
A Star is Born
is a remake of the
1937 film of the same name
, which is in the public domain due to an unrenewed copyright.
42
Rights in public domain reproduction
Courts in different jurisdictions have come to different conclusions as to whether the reproduction of a public domain work gains its own rights protection, or whether it too is in the public domain. In a German 2016 case, the
Reiss-Engelhorn-Museen
, an art museum, sued
Wikimedia Commons
over photographs uploaded to the database depicting pieces of art in the museum. The museum claimed that the photos were taken by their staff, and that photography within the museum by visitors was prohibited. Therefore, photos taken by the museum, even of material that itself had fallen into the public domain, were protected by copyright law and would need to be removed from the Wikimedia image repository. The court ruled that the photographs taken by the museum would be protected under the
German Copyright Act
, stating that since the photographer needed to make practical decisions about the photograph that it was protected material.
43
In contrast, in the 1999 US case
Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.
, the court ruled that exact photographic copies of public domain images could not be protected by copyright in the United States because the copies lack
originality
44
Perpetual copyright
Main article:
Perpetual copyright
In some countries, certain works may never fully lapse into the public domain. In the
United Kingdom
, for example, there is a perpetual
crown copyright
for the
Authorized King James Version
of the
Bible
45
While the copyright has expired for the Peter Pan works by
J. M. Barrie
(the play
Peter Pan, or the Boy Who Wouldn't Grow Up
and the novel
Peter and Wendy
) in the United Kingdom, it was granted a special exception under the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
(Schedule 6)
46
that requires royalties to be paid for commercial performances, publications and broadcasts of the story of Peter Pan within the UK, as long as
Great Ormond Street Hospital
(to whom Barrie gave the copyright) continues to exist.
In a
paying public domain
regime, works that have entered the public domain after their copyright has expired, or
traditional knowledge
and
traditional cultural expressions
that have never been subject to copyright, are still subject to royalties payable to the state or to an authors' association. The user does not have to seek permission to copy, present or perform the work, but does have to pay the fee. Typically the royalties are directed to support of living artists.
47
Public domain mark
Main article:
Public Domain Mark
Creative Commons'
Public Domain Mark
In 2010,
Creative Commons
proposed the
Public Domain Mark
(PDM) as
symbol
to indicate that a work is free of known
restrictions and therefore in the public domain.
48
49
The public domain mark is a combination of the
copyright symbol
, which acts as
copyright notice
, with the international
'no' symbol
. The
Europeana
databases use it, and for instance on the
Wikimedia Commons
in February 2016 2.9 million works (~10% of all works) are listed with the mark.
50
Application to copyrightable works
Works not covered by copyright law
The underlying idea that is expressed or manifested in the creation of a work generally cannot be the subject of copyright law (see
idea–expression divide
). Mathematical formulae will therefore generally form part of the public domain, to the extent that their expression in the form of software is not covered by copyright.
51
Works created before the existence of copyright and patent laws also form part of the public domain. For example,
the Bible
and the inventions of
Archimedes
are in the public domain. However, translations or new formulations of these works may be copyrighted in themselves.
52
Expiration of copyright
Determination of whether a copyright has expired depends on an examination of the copyright in its source country.
In most countries that are signatories to the
Berne Convention
, copyright term is based on the life of the author, and extends to 50 or 70 years beyond the death of the author. (See
List of copyright terms of countries
.)
In the United States, determining whether a work has entered the public domain or is still under copyright depends upon what the law or regulation was at creation, and whether new regulations have grandfathered in certain older works. Because
copyright terms
shifted over the course of the 20th century from a fixed-term based on first publication, with
a possible renewal term
, to a term extending to 50, then 70, years after the death of the author. The claim that "pre-1931 works are in the public domain" is correct only for published works; unpublished works are under federal copyright for at least the life of the author plus 70 years.
citation needed
Legal traditions differ on whether a work in the public domain can have its copyright restored. In the European Union, the
Copyright Duration Directive
was applied retroactively, restoring and extending the terms of copyright on material previously in the public domain. Term extensions by the US and Australia generally have not removed works from the public domain, but rather delayed the addition of works to it. However, the United States moved away from that tradition with the
Uruguay Round Agreements Act
, which removed from the public domain many foreign-sourced works that had previously not been in copyright in the US for failure to comply with US-based
formalities requirements
. Consequently, in the US, foreign-sourced works and US-sourced works are now treated differently, with foreign-sourced works remaining under copyright regardless of compliance with formalities, while domestically sourced works may be in the public domain if they failed to comply with then-existing formalities requirements—a situation described as odd by some scholars, and unfair by some US-based rightsholders.
53
Government works
Portraits of
United States Presidents
, in this case
Abraham Lincoln
, are in the public domain.
Works of various governments around the world may be excluded from copyright law and may therefore be considered to be in the public domain in their respective countries.
54
They may also be in the public domain in other countries as well. Material in the public domain is still considered so when included as part of larger copyrighted creations.
55
In the United States, work created by the federal government is not subject to copyright law, placing it within the public domain. However, the government may own and use copyrighted materials that were not initially created by them.
56
Alternatively, materials created by the United Kingdom's government are not automatically in public domain but instead placed under the
Open Government Licence
57
The status of government creations vary depending on the country they are in.
Dedicating works to the public domain
Release without copyright notice
Before 1 March 1989, in the US, works could be easily given into the public domain by just releasing it without an explicit
copyright notice
. With the
Berne Convention
Implementation Act of 1988 (and the earlier
Copyright Act of 1976
, which went into effect in 1978), all works were by default copyright-protected and needed to be actively given into public domain by a
waiver
statement/
anti-copyright can call notice
58
59
Not all legal systems have processes for reliably donating works to the public domain, e.g.
civil law
of
continental Europe
citation needed
This may even "effectively prohibit any attempt by copyright owners to surrender rights automatically conferred by law, particularly
moral rights
".
60
Public-domain-like licenses
Main article:
Public-domain-equivalent license
An alternative is for copyright holders to issue a license which irrevocably grants as many rights as possible to the general public. Real public domain makes
licenses
unnecessary, as no owner/author is required to grant permission ("
Permission culture
"). There are multiple licenses which aim to release works into the public domain. In 2000 the
WTFPL
was released as a public domain like
software license
61
Creative Commons (created in 2002 by
Lawrence Lessig
Hal Abelson
, and
Eric Eldred
) has introduced several public-domain-like licenses, called
Creative Commons licenses
. These give authors of works (that would qualify for copyright) the ability to decide which protections they would like to place on their material. As copyright is the default license for new material, Creative Commons licenses offer authors a variety of options to designate their work under whichever license they wish, as long as this does not violate standing copyright law.
62
For example, a CC BY license allows for re-users to distribute, remix, adapt, and build upon material, while also agreeing to provide attribution to the author in any of these cases.
63
In 2009 the
Creative Commons
released the
CC0
, which was created for
compatibility
with law domains which have no concept of
dedicating into public domain
. This is achieved by a public domain waiver statement and a fallback all-permissive license, in case the waiver is not possible.
64
65
Unlike in the US, where author's moral rights are generally not specifically regulated, in some countries where moral rights are protected separately in law it is not possible to waive those rights, but only the rights related to the exploitation of the work. A solution to this issue (as found in the Creative Commons Zero dedication) is to interpret the license by setting "three different layers of action. First, the right holder waives any copyright and related rights that can be waived in accordance with the applicable law. Secondly, if there are rights that the right holder cannot waive under applicable law, they are licensed in a way that mirrors as closely as possible the legal effect of a waiver. And finally, if there are any rights that the right holders cannot waive or license, they affirm that they will not exercise them and they will not assert any claim with respect to the use of the work, once again within the limits of applicable law. (...) In countries where moral rights exist but where they can be waived or not asserted, they are waived if asserted (e.g. the UK). In countries where they cannot be waived they will remain into full effect in accordance to the applicable law (think of France, Spain or Italy where moral rights cannot be waived)."
66
The same occurs in Switzerland.
The
Unlicense
, published around 2010, has a focus on an
anti-copyright
message. The Unlicense offers a public domain waiver text with a fallback public domain-like license inspired by permissive licenses but without attribution.
67
68
Another option is the
Zero Clause BSD license
, released in 2006 and aimed at software.
69
In October 2014, the
Open Knowledge Foundation
recommends the Creative Commons
CC0
license to dedicate content to the public domain,
70
71
and the Open Data Commons Public Domain Dedication and License (PDDL) for data.
72
Patents
Main article:
Term of patent
In most countries, the term of rights for patents is 20 years, after which the invention becomes part of the public domain. In the United States, the contents of patents are considered valid and enforceable for 20 years from the date of filing within the United States or 20 years from the earliest date of filing if under 35 USC 120, 121, or 365(c).
73
However, the
text
and any
illustration
within a patent, provided the illustrations are essentially line drawings and do not in any substantive way reflect the "personality" of the person drawing them, are not subject to copyright protection.
74
This is separate from the
patent
rights just mentioned.
Trademarks
A trademark registration may remain in force indefinitely, or expire without specific regard to its age. For a trademark registration to remain valid, the owner must continue to use it. In some circumstances, such as disuse, failure to assert trademark rights, or common usage by the public without regard for its intended use, it could become
generic
, and therefore part of the public domain.
Because trademarks are registered with governments, some countries or trademark registries may recognize a mark, while others may have determined that it is generic and not allowable as a trademark in that registry. For example, the drug acetylsalicylic acid (2-acetoxybenzoic acid) is better known as
aspirin
in the United States—a generic term. In Canada, however,
Aspirin
, with an uppercase A, is still a trademark of the German company
Bayer
, while aspirin, with a lowercase "a", is not. Bayer lost the trademark in the United States, the UK and France after World War I, as part of the
Treaty of Versailles
. So many copycat products entered the marketplace during the war that it was deemed generic just three years later.
citation needed
Informal uses of trademarks are not covered by trademark protection. For example,
Hormel
, producer of the canned meat product
Spam
, does not object to informal use of the word "spam" in reference to unsolicited commercial email.
75
However, it has fought attempts by other companies to register names including the word 'spam' as a
trademark
in relation to computer products, despite that Hormel's trademark is only registered in reference to food products (a trademark claim is made within a particular field). Such defences have failed in the United Kingdom.
76
Public Domain Day
Main article:
Public Domain Day
An English logo of the 2025/2026 Public Domain Day
Public Domain Day is an observance of when
copyrights
expire and works enter into the public domain.
77
This legal transition of copyright works into the public domain usually happens every year on 1 January based on the individual
copyright laws of each country
77
Visual created for Public Domain Day. Features
Leonardo da Vinci
's
Mona Lisa
, as it is famously part of the public domain
The observance of a "Public Domain Day" was initially informal; the earliest known mention was in 2004 by Wallace McLean (a Canadian public domain activist),
78
with support for the idea echoed by
Lawrence Lessig
79
As of 1 January 2010,
[update]
80
there is as Public Domain Day website lists the authors whose works are entering the public domain. There are activities in countries around the world by various organizations all under the banner Public Domain Day.
citation needed
See also
Public Domain Mark
Public records
Center for the Study of the Public Domain
Copyfraud
Copyleft
Copyright status of works by the federal government of the United States
Copyright Term Extension Act
Eldred v. Ashcroft
Fair dealing
Free-culture movement
Free software
Freedom of panorama
Limitations and exceptions to copyright
List of copyright terms of countries
List of films in the public domain in the United States
List of public domain projects
Millar v Taylor
Orphan works
Paying public domain
Protection of Classics
Public Domain Enhancement Act
Public domain image resources
Public domain in the United States
Public domain software
Rule of the shorter term
References
Boyle, James (2008).
The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind
. CSPD. p. 38.
ISBN
978-0-300-13740-8
Archived
from the original on 14 February 2015.
Graber, Christoph B.; Nenova, Mira B. (2008).
Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a Digital Environment
. Edward Elgar Publishing. p. 173.
ISBN
978-1-84720-921-4
. Archived from
the original
on 20 December 2014
. Retrieved
27 October
2016
Tysver, Daniel A.
"Works Unprotected by Copyright Law"
BitLaw
. Archived from
the original
on 2 March 2016.
"What Is the Public Domain?"
Copyrightlaws.com
. 7 March 2023
. Retrieved
9 October
2024
"Copyright Protection Not Available for Names, Titles, or Short Phrases"
(PDF)
copyright.gov
. October 2015. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 5 April 2016.
Listings of ingredients, as in recipes, labels, or formulas. When a recipe or formula is accompanied by an explanation or directions, the text directions may be copyrightable, but the recipe or formula itself remains uncopyrightable.
"SERPENT - A Candidate Block Cipher for the Advanced Encryption Standard"
. 1999. Archived from
the original
on 13 January 2013.
Serpent is now completely in the public domain, and we impose no restrictions on its use. This was announced on the 21st August at the First AES Candidate Conference.
Ronan 2006
, p.
103
Huang 2009
Foures-Diop, Anne-Sophie (2011).
"Revue juridique de l'Ouest, 2011-1: Les choses communes (Première partie)"
[Common things (Part I)].
Revue Juridique de l'Ouest
(in French).
24
(1). Ecole de Avocats du Grand Quest de Rennes:
59–
112.
doi
10.3406/juro.2011.4336
Archived
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. Retrieved
8 December
2021
Rose, Carol M. (2003).
"Romans, Roads, and Romantic Creators: Traditions of Public Property in the Information Age"
Law and Contemporary Problems
66
(1/2). Duke University School of Law:
89–
110.
ISSN
0023-9186
JSTOR
20059173
Archived
from the original on 25 July 2024
. Retrieved
25 July
2024
Torremans 2007
, pp.
134–135
Torremans 2007
, p.
154
Torremans 2007
, p.
137
Ronan 2006
, p.
102
Ronan 2006
, p.
104
Ronan 2006
, p.
105
Boyle, James (1 January 2008).
The Public Domain: Enclosing the Commons of the Mind
. Yale University Press.
ISBN
978-0-300-13740-8
. Retrieved
30 December
2016
– via Internet Archive.
public domain.
Graber, Christoph Beat; Nenova, Mira Burri (1 January 2008).
Intellectual Property and Traditional Cultural Expressions in a Digital Environment
. Edward Elgar Publishing.
ISBN
978-1-84844-391-4
. Retrieved
30 December
2016
– via Google Books.
Kopel, Matthew.
"LibGuides: Copyright Services: Copyright Term and the Public Domain"
guides.library.cornell.edu
Archived
from the original on 28 August 2023
. Retrieved
9 October
2024
"Copyright Term and the Public Domain in the United States"
. Cornell University.
Archived
from the original on 11 September 2017
. Retrieved
15 October
2018
"Public domain | Definition, Meaning, Examples, Years, & Copyright | Britannica"
www.britannica.com
. Retrieved
9 October
2024
Preston, Sherry (9 October 2023).
"Cover to Cover: Access thousands of books on Project Gutenberg"
Star-Herald
Archived
from the original on 28 August 2024
. Retrieved
5 July
2024
Robertson, Adi (31 March 2020).
"The National Emergency Library is offering free ebooks — but is it lending or piracy?"
The Verge
Archived
from the original on 2 September 2021
. Retrieved
5 July
2024
"What is Wikisource?"
The University of Edinburgh
. 26 August 2021.
Archived
from the original on 5 July 2024
. Retrieved
5 July
2024
Otten, J.
"The Catholic Encyclopedia"
New Advent
. Robert Appleton Company.
Archived
from the original on 7 January 2022
. Retrieved
6 January
2022
"Copyright Registration of Musical Compositions and Sound Recordings"
(PDF)
. United States Copyright Office.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 April 2003
. Retrieved
15 October
2018
"Duration of Copyright"
(PDF)
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 May 2021
. Retrieved
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