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A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Capitals. Carolingian Aachen and Mongol Period Karakorum
M. Gierszewska-Noszczyńska · L. Grunwald · O. Grimm (eds), Frankish Seats of Power and the North – Centres between Diplomacy and Confrontation, Transfer of Knowledge and Economy. LEIZA Publications 7, 2025
This paper discusses the two case studies of the Carolingian and Mongol Empires with respect to t... more This paper discusses the two case studies of the Carolingian and Mongol Empires with respect to the roles and functions their possible capitals, Aachen and Karakorum, performed during specific time periods (Carolingian Aachen from 770 to 840; Mongol Karakorum from 1220 to 1260). As an explicit cross-cultural comparison, this study provides a rationale for this endeavour and a methodological approach. Six functions of imperial capitals are identified through a literary survey of empire studies: residence, assembly and administration in the political field; the capital as a stage in the ideological field; and thesaurus/storage and mint in the economic field. These functions feed a novel, systemizing scheme, based on the observation that they are governed by the dimensions of geographic distribution and degrees of permanence. This approach elucidates similarities and differences in types of ruling method and is therefore suitable for cross-cultural comparisons.
The cosmopolitanism of Karakorum, capital of the Mongol empire in Mongolia
Modern Asian Studies, 2024
Karakorum, in present-day Mongolia, was the first capital of Mongol empire and has often been por... more Karakorum, in present-day Mongolia, was the first capital of Mongol empire and has often been portrayed as the cosmopolitan city par excellence of its era. This portrayal is primarily based on the description of the city as a multicultural community in a travelogue written by the Franciscan monk William of Rubruck, who spent some time there in 1254. This understanding of cosmopolitanism stems from a colloquial sense of the term and does not take into account its history and layered meanings. Based on a discussion of the term, this article presents an approach to cosmopolitanism suitable for archaeology, namely by examining the practices of ‘lived cosmopolitanism’. Taking the archaeological evidence from Karakorum as a case study, the author explores the cultural fields of city layout and architecture, cuisine, religion, and funerary rites to answer the question of whether and how the people of Karakorum were cosmopolitan. The discussion shows that it is of the utmost importance to distinguish between social groups and their status. While the Great Khans can be viewed as cosmopolitans of their time, the commoner population of Karakorum appears rather to have been segregated into different groups. The material evidence so far points to low degrees of engagement among different groups within the city. Yet, the discussion of cosmopolitanism reveals deeper insights into the social realities of the city’s inhabitants and unresolved questions in the study of this important city.
Archaeological Prospection, 2025
This study investigates the effectiveness of drone-based remote sensing and Google Earth satellit... more This study investigates the effectiveness of drone-based remote sensing and Google Earth satellite imagery for archaeological prospection in the Bayan Gol Valley, Central Mongolia. Utilizing a fixed-wing unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with RGB and multispectral sensors, we surveyed 655 ha to document Mongol-period settlement structures dating to the 13th and 14th centuries ce. The resulting high-resolution datasets, including digital surface models, RGB orthomosaics and vegetation index rasters, were compared with five image sets from 2007 to 2021 provided by Google Earth to assess their respective capabilities. The UAV-derived data proved significantly more effective, identifying 16% more archaeological features than the satellite imagery. However, Google Earth imagery provided valuable cost-efficient and multitemporal contextual information. The analysis also considers the impact of modern disturbances, such as agricultural activity and road construction, on feature visibility. These findings emphasize the complementary strengths of elevation and vegetation-based anomaly detection and highlight the value of integrated remote sensing approaches for archaeological mapping in complex and dynamic landscapes. The study contributes to the refinement of UAV methodologies and the broader application of remote sensing in archaeological research.
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Papers by Susanne Reichert
Asian Perspectives, 2022
Not even a dozen burials are known from Neolithic times in the area of modern-day Mongolia. This ... more Not even a dozen burials are known from Neolithic times in the area of modern-day Mongolia. This period is of utmost interest as it constitutes the transitional phase from hunter-gatherer-fisher communities during the Palaeolithic to the introduction of mobile pastoralism around 3000 B.C.E. with the Afanas'evo culture. This article presents new excavation results from a Neolithic burial at "Ölziȋt Denzh" (internal site code KGS-11), near the center of Erdenemandal in Arkhangaȋ Aȋmag, Central Mongolia, and places this burial in the context of the earliest graves in Mongolia. The site consists of nearly 180 indistinct earth mound features, one of which was excavated to verify anthropogenic origin of the identified mounds. All mounds were strongly affected by burrowing animals. The excavation yielded the body of a female in an extremely crouched position. The find inventory contains two unique stone artifacts. Two radiocarbon dates put the burial at the first half of the fourth millennium B.C.E. The other 10 earliest burials from Mongolia fall into two regional groups, one in the Egiȋn Gol valley of northern Mongolia and one in eastern Mongolia; each group displays different burial customs and grave structures. Although it remains to be corroborated by further excavations, the pure earth mounds and their association within a large burial ground at Ölziȋt Denzh seem to be unique aspects of a burial style otherwise unknown for this time and region, as the comparison with the other largely contemporary remains from Mongolia shows. This article therefore aims to draw attention to a potentially new form of burial that has not previously been recognized in the field.
Full article: https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/871373
Karakorum, Mongolia, Finds, Samples, and Iron per m-grid Dataset (KAR-2)
The data collection complements the dissertation thesis "Craft Production in the Mongol Empi... more The data collection complements the dissertation thesis "Craft Production in the Mongol Empire. Karakorum and its Artisans" in the field of Pre- and Early Historical Archaeology by Susanne Reichert. It presents all finds, samples, and other iron items during excavations carried out by Bonn University together with the Archaeological Institute of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences from 2000 to 2005 in the middle of Karakorum (13th to early 15th century), the first capital of the Mongol Empire. The data comprises information on storage, descriptions, measurements, and interpretative categories.
Auf dem Rücken der Schildkröte: eine Inschrift im Spannungsfeld von Konflikt und Konsens im mongolischen Weltreich
Macht und Herrschaft als transkulturelle Phänomene, 2021
Biomarkers in archaeology – Land use around the Uyghur capital Karabalgasun, Orkhon Valley, Mongolia
Praehistorische Zeitschrift, 2014
Zusammenfassung: Zur Nutzungsanalyse großer ovaler, erstmalig entdeckter und dokumentierter von e... more Zusammenfassung: Zur Nutzungsanalyse großer ovaler, erstmalig entdeckter und dokumentierter von einem niedrigen Graben-Wall-System umgebener Anlagen wurden Bodenproben auf spezifische Lipide untersucht, die Hinweise auf die Anwesenheit – hinterlassene Verdauungsreste – bestimmter Nutztierarten und Menschen in den beprobten Bereichen geben könnten. Wahrscheinlich dienten die Anlagen dem Gartenbau, sicherlich nicht der Viehhaltung; in den angrenzenden Dachziegel und Keramikscherben aufweisenden viereckigen, deutlich kleineren umwallten Anlagen siedelten Menschen. Solche ovalen Anlagen sind in der Mongolei bisher nur aus dem Umfeld der uighurischen Hauptstadt Karabalgasun bekannt geworden, deren Stadtgebiet eine deutlich größere Fläche einnimmt als bisher angenommen wurde und vielteiliger sowie funktional gegliedert ist. Dieses erste stichpunktartige Ergebnis zeigt das Potential der Lipidanalysen, frühere Landnutzung zu rekonstruieren, beispielsweise Viehhaltung von acker- oder gartenb...
Asian Archaeology, 2020
Cities within a steppe environment and in societies based on pastoral nomadism are an often overl... more Cities within a steppe environment and in societies based on pastoral nomadism are an often overlooked theme in the anthropological literature. Yet, with Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol Empire (AD 1206–1368), we have a supreme example of such a city in the central landscape of the Orkhon valley in Mongolia. In this paper, we ask, what is the city in the steppes? Taking Karakorum as our starting point and case of reference and to attain a better comprehension of the characteristics of urbanism in the steppe, we apply a list of urban attributes compiled by Michael E. Smith (2016) to provide a thick description of Karakorum. The discussion not only comprises comparisons to other contemporary sites in Russia and Mongolia, but also addresses in detail the question of city–hinterland relations as a fundamental necessity for the survival of the city in an anti-urban environment. The analysis shows that during the Mongol period we can identify urbanism but no urbanization: there ...
Overlooked—Enigmatic—Underrated: The City Khar Khul Khaany Balgas in the Heartland of the Mongol World Empire
Journal of Field Archaeology, 2022
Cities in the Eurasian steppes, a core of nomadic empires, are rare. Erecting a city from scratch... more Cities in the Eurasian steppes, a core of nomadic empires, are rare. Erecting a city from scratch is even less typical. However, Khar Khul Khaany Balgas, situated north of the Khangai Mountains in central Mongolia, is such an exceptional example, never built over by subsequent settlements. Overlooked until now because researchers dated its latest settlement phase into the 17th century a.d., the first radiocarbon dates and material culture prove its existence during the Mongol empire only. During the past years, we conducted comprehensive geophysical and topographic mapping of the site, as well as a pedestrian survey, including its hinterland, and excavated a kiln. The layout of the city resembles that of the capital, Karakorum. Both cities together reveal that the Mongol Khans had a specific idea about the organization of a city. They were dependent on Chinese craftsmen to erect the buildings but not on Chinese city planning and ideology.
Antiquity
In the thirteenth century AD, the city of Karakorum was founded as the capital of the Mongol Empi... more In the thirteenth century AD, the city of Karakorum was founded as the capital of the Mongol Empire. Relatively little archaeological attention, however, has been directed at the site and the phenomenon of steppe urbanism. The authors report new magnetic and topographic surveys of the walled city and the surrounding landscape. The resulting maps reveal the city in unprecedented detail. Combining the magnetic and topographical data with aerial photographs, pedestrian surveys and documentary sources reveals the extent, layout and organisation of this extensive settlement. Road networks and areas of variable occupation density and types of activities deepen our understanding of this important commercial hub and royal palace, which is conceptualised as a form of ‘implanted’ urbanism.
Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol world empire: an imperial city in a non-urban society
Asian Archaeology, 2020
Cities within a steppe environment and in societies based on pastoral nomadism are an often overl... more Cities within a steppe environment and in societies based on pastoral nomadism are an often overlooked theme in the anthropological literature. Yet, with Karakorum, the first capital of the Mongol Empire (AD 1206–1368), we have a supreme example of such a city in the central landscape of the Orkhon valley in Mongolia. In this paper, we ask, what is the city in the steppes? Taking Karakorum as our starting point and case of reference and to attain a better comprehension of the characteristics of urbanism in the steppe, we apply a list of urban attributes compiled by Michael E. Smith (2016) to provide a thick description of Karakorum. The discussion not only comprises comparisons to other contemporary sites in Russia and Mongolia, but also addresses in detail the question of city–hinterland relations as a fundamental necessity for the survival of the city in an anti-urban environment. The analysis shows that during the Mongol period we can identify urbanism but no urbanization: there is no process of independent, natural growth of cities carried out by the population, but cities are “political” in the sense that they are deeply intertwined with the authority and have therefore much to tell about the relation between power and authority on the one hand and the ruled on the other.
In this article we present the framework and first results of a recently initiated project that f... more In this article we present the framework and first results of a recently initiated project that focuses on a micro-region in the Upper Orkhon Valley with the unique necropolis of Maikhan Tolgoi where khirgisuurs, slab graves, deer stones and currently undefined structures co-exist in one ritual space and overlap in time.
About 3km northeast another small necropolis – Ar Bulan Bronze – is situated on a hill above the Orkhon, a small Xiongnu period cemetery consisting of nine graves, is located nearby. In a first phase of the project the visible structures have been documented and mapped. In 2011, 2012 and 2015 excavations have been conducted. In this article we report shortly on the structures that had been excavated in the years 2011 and 2012. The cemetery of Maikhan Tolgoi is characterized by a unique density and variety of structures situated along the slope of a mountain ridge. The necropolis exhibits at least 108 identifiable surface structures (Fig. 1). While 31 structures are classifiable as slab graves and 37 as khirgisuurs other surface structures, such as stone rings and coverings of various designs are not specific for any known culture.
The density and variety of structures in this cemetery is not only exceptional for the whole upper and middle Orkhon valley, but also for other regions as well. So far a total of twelve structures of different shape, size, and construction have been investigated in Maikhan Tolgoi (Fig. 1; structures 3, 10, satellite 3 and 9 of khirgisuur 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 51, 52, and 89). In Ar Bulan Bronze, two satellite structures of khirgisuurs and two slab graves have been excavated (ABB gr. 2 and 10, Figs. 8-12). In the Xiongnu period cemetery one grave (ABKH, gr. 2, Fig. 13-15) has been investigated together with its northern stone line.
Especially noteworthy is grave 3 with a slight figure shape that was E-W orientated. It dates between 1737-1526 BC and thus is currently the oldest grave of such a type in Central Mongolia. Four structures (Maikhan Tolgoi nos. 3, 13, 52, Ar Bulan Khunnu, gr. 2) produced almost complete skeletons with good bone preservation, thus allowing for a complex anthropological investigation. But also the partial skeletons of Ar Bulan Bronze, gr. 2 and 10 allowed for the conduction of isotopical analyses. All skeletons from Maikhan Tolgoi and Ar Bulan display muscle attachment features indicative of significant mechanical stress caused by work related loading that are more pronounced on the lower extremities than on the upper body.
Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, 2012
The Orkhon Valley in the Central Mongolia was included in the World Heritage list in 2004. It hos... more The Orkhon Valley in the Central Mongolia was included in the World Heritage list in 2004. It hosts multiple archaeological sites from Palaeolithic to recent times, which can contribute to the reconstruction of settlement history in this part of the Eurasian Steppe landscape. Almost 100 archaeological sites from prehistoric and historic times including ramparts and khirigsuurs were investigated in five field campaigns from 2008 to 2010 in the middle and upper Orkhon Valley. One site, MOR-2 (Dörvölzhin), proved especially difficult to date due to the lack of sufficient archaeological surface finds, and its role within a manifold of walled enclosures from different times in the study area remained unclear. Therefore, different techniques of archaeology, geophysics and geoarchaeology were combined at MOR-2 in order to determine a comprehensive picture about its timing, archaeological meaning, and environmental history. Information on topographical setting and morphometry of the rampart was gathered by an octocopter equipped with a high-resolution range finder camera. We achieved a high-resolution DEM that allowed us to map the rampart in detail and this served as a base map for all other investigations. SQUID magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, and electric resistivity measurements (capacitive coupled geoelectrics) were subsequently used to detect archaeological remains and to characterize the sediment distribution of the inner part of the enclosure and the ramparts themselves. The data show that the construction of the walls is similar to well-known Uighur neighbouring sites. Man-made sub-surface structures or bigger S70 Improving archaeological site analysis finds could not be detected. Sediment cores were drilled in a nearby meander, covering 3000 years BP. The analysis of the strata in terms of elemental composition (P, N, Mn, Fe, etc) revealed an increase of organic content in Medieval times, whereas the allochthonous filling of the back water must have started around the beginning of the 6th century AD. Using geophysical, archaeological and geological observations, we assume a dating in the Turk/Uighur period (6th-9th century AD) and a re-use under Mongolian reign (12th-17th century AD). This would mean that this site is the furthermost walled structure in the peri-urban area of Khar Balgas. However, the specific usage of this walled enclosure remains unclear and needs further analysis.
In this article we present the framework and first results of a recently initiated project that f... more In this article we present the framework and first results of a recently initiated project that focuses on a micro-region in the Upper Orkhon Valley with the unique necropolis of Maikhan Tolgoi where khirgisuurs, slab graves, deer stones and currently undefined structures co-exist in one ritual space and overlap in time.
Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, 2012
The Orkhon Valley in the Central Mongolia was included in the World Heritage list in 2004. It hos... more The Orkhon Valley in the Central Mongolia was included in the World Heritage list in 2004. It hosts multiple archaeological sites from Palaeolithic to recent times, which can contribute to the reconstruction of settlement history in this part of the Eurasian Steppe landscape. Almost 100 archaeological sites from prehistoric and historic times including ramparts and khirigsuurs were investigated in five field campaigns from 2008 to 2010 in the middle and upper Orkhon Valley. One site, MOR-2 (Dörvölzhin), proved especially difficult to date due to the lack of sufficient archaeological surface finds, and its role within a manifold of walled enclosures from different times in the study area remained unclear. Therefore, different techniques of archaeology, geophysics and geoarchaeology were combined at MOR-2 in order to determine a comprehensive picture about its timing, archaeological meaning, and environmental history. Information on topographical setting and morphometry of the rampart was gathered by an octocopter equipped with a high-resolution range finder camera. We achieved a high-resolution DEM that allowed us to map the rampart in detail and this served as a base map for all other investigations. SQUID magnetometry, ground-penetrating radar, and electric resistivity measurements (capacitive coupled geoelectrics) were subsequently used to detect archaeological remains and to characterize the sediment distribution of the inner part of the enclosure and the ramparts themselves. The data show that the construction of the walls is similar to well-known Uighur neighbouring sites. Man-made sub-surface structures or bigger S70 Improving archaeological site analysis finds could not be detected. Sediment cores were drilled in a nearby meander, covering 3000 years BP. The analysis of the strata in terms of elemental composition (P, N, Mn, Fe, etc) revealed an increase of organic content in Medieval times, whereas the allochthonous filling of the back water must have started around the beginning of the 6th century AD. Using geophysical, archaeological and geological observations, we assume a dating in the Turk/Uighur period (6th-9th century AD) and a re-use under Mongolian reign (12th-17th century AD). This would mean that this site is the furthermost walled structure in the peri-urban area of Khar Balgas. However, the specific usage of this walled enclosure remains unclear and needs further analysis.
Journal of Archaeological Science, 2015
Iron objects from Karakorum, the former capital of the Mongol Empire, were metallographically exa... more Iron objects from Karakorum, the former capital of the Mongol Empire, were metallographically examined. Most were forged out of bloomery iron, particularly those requiring superior functional properties. By contrast, approximately one third were made from cast iron, with carbon levels approximating either cast iron or ultrahigh carbon steel. The carbon concentration of the bloomery products was controlled either by a carburization treatment directed at the functional parts or by the welding of a pre-carburized steel plate to a low carbon body. By comparison, cast iron-based steelmaking was achieved by subjecting pieces of solid cast iron to a combined thermal and mechanical treatment aimed at accelerating decarburization. Some anonymous cast objects were circulated as a feedstock for this unique process, naturally taking the form of thin plates. Also, the cast products examined were contaminated with substantial amounts of sulfur and silicon, suggesting that they originated from liquid iron smelted at relatively high temperatures using fossil fuel instead of charcoal. Given these findings, it can be concluded that the Mongol Empire took advantage of an effective multi-faceted iron tradition, which combined bloomery-based and cast iron-based iron technologies. It is important to note, however, that the former still remained the key technological tradition dominating the local contemporary iron industry.
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Full article: https://www.muse.jhu.edu/article/871373
About 3km northeast another small necropolis – Ar Bulan Bronze – is situated on a hill above the Orkhon, a small Xiongnu period cemetery consisting of nine graves, is located nearby. In a first phase of the project the visible structures have been documented and mapped. In 2011, 2012 and 2015 excavations have been conducted. In this article we report shortly on the structures that had been excavated in the years 2011 and 2012. The cemetery of Maikhan Tolgoi is characterized by a unique density and variety of structures situated along the slope of a mountain ridge. The necropolis exhibits at least 108 identifiable surface structures (Fig. 1). While 31 structures are classifiable as slab graves and 37 as khirgisuurs other surface structures, such as stone rings and coverings of various designs are not specific for any known culture.
The density and variety of structures in this cemetery is not only exceptional for the whole upper and middle Orkhon valley, but also for other regions as well. So far a total of twelve structures of different shape, size, and construction have been investigated in Maikhan Tolgoi (Fig. 1; structures 3, 10, satellite 3 and 9 of khirgisuur 12, 13, 16, 17, 18, 51, 52, and 89). In Ar Bulan Bronze, two satellite structures of khirgisuurs and two slab graves have been excavated (ABB gr. 2 and 10, Figs. 8-12). In the Xiongnu period cemetery one grave (ABKH, gr. 2, Fig. 13-15) has been investigated together with its northern stone line.
Especially noteworthy is grave 3 with a slight figure shape that was E-W orientated. It dates between 1737-1526 BC and thus is currently the oldest grave of such a type in Central Mongolia. Four structures (Maikhan Tolgoi nos. 3, 13, 52, Ar Bulan Khunnu, gr. 2) produced almost complete skeletons with good bone preservation, thus allowing for a complex anthropological investigation. But also the partial skeletons of Ar Bulan Bronze, gr. 2 and 10 allowed for the conduction of isotopical analyses. All skeletons from Maikhan Tolgoi and Ar Bulan display muscle attachment features indicative of significant mechanical stress caused by work related loading that are more pronounced on the lower extremities than on the upper body.