Terahertz radiation - Wikipedia

Terahertz radiation - Wikipedia
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Range 300-3000 GHz of the electromagnetic spectrum
"T-ray" redirects here. For other uses, see
T-ray (disambiguation)
"T-light" redirects here. For the candle, see
tealight
Terahertz band
Frequency range
0.1
THz
to 30
THz
Wavelength range
mm
to 30
μm
Radio bands
ITU
1 (ELF)
2 (SLF)
3 (ULF)
4 (VLF)
5 (LF)
6 (MF)
7 (HF)
8 (VHF)
9 (UHF)
10 (SHF)
11 (EHF)
12 (THF)
EU / NATO / US ECM
IEEE
HF
VHF
UHF
mm
Other TV and radio
II
III
IV
VI
Terahertz waves lie mostly at the far end of the infrared band, the longest ones in the microwave band.
Terahertz radiation
– also known as
submillimeter radiation
terahertz waves
tremendously high frequency
THF
),
T-rays
T-waves
T-light
T-lux
or
THz
– consists of
electromagnetic waves
within the
International Telecommunication Union
-designated band of
frequencies
from 0.1 to 10
terahertz
(THz),
(from 0.3 to 3
terahertz
(THz) in older texts,
which is now called "decimillimetric waves"
), although the upper boundary is somewhat arbitrary and has been considered by some sources to be 30 THz.
One terahertz is 10
12
Hz
or 1,000 GHz. Wavelengths of radiation in the decimillimeter band correspondingly range 1 mm to 0.1 mm = 100 μm and those in the terahertz band 3 mm = 3000 μm to 30 μm. Because terahertz radiation begins at a wavelength of around 1 millimeter and proceeds into shorter wavelengths, it is sometimes known as the
submillimeter band
, and its radiation as
submillimeter waves
, especially in
astronomy
. This band of electromagnetic radiation lies within the transition region between
microwave
and
far infrared
and can be regarded as either.
Compared to lower radio frequencies, terahertz radiation is strongly
absorbed
by the
gases
of the
atmosphere
, and in air, most of the energy is
attenuated
within a few meters,
so it is not practical for long distance terrestrial
radio communication
. It can penetrate thin layers of materials but is blocked by thicker objects. THz beams transmitted through materials can be used for
material characterization
, layer inspection, relief measurement,
and as a lower-energy alternative to
X-rays
for producing high resolution images of the interior of solid objects.
10
Terahertz radiation occupies a middle ground where the ranges of
microwaves
and
infrared light
waves overlap, known as the "
terahertz gap
"; it is called a "gap" because the technology for its generation and manipulation is still in its infancy. The generation and
modulation
of electromagnetic waves in this frequency range ceases to be possible by the conventional electronic devices used to generate radio waves and microwaves, requiring the development of new devices and techniques.
Description
edit
In THz-TDS systems, since the time-domain version of the THz signal is available, the distortion effects of the diffraction can be suppressed.
11
Terahertz radiation falls in between
infrared radiation
and
microwave radiation
in the
electromagnetic spectrum
, and it shares some properties with each of these. Terahertz radiation travels in a
line of sight
and is
non-ionizing
. Like microwaves, terahertz radiation can penetrate a wide variety of
non-conducting materials
; clothing, paper,
cardboard
, wood,
masonry
, plastic and
ceramics
. The penetration depth is typically less than that of microwave radiation. Like infrared, terahertz radiation has limited penetration through
fog
and
clouds
and cannot penetrate liquid water or metal.
12
Terahertz radiation can penetrate some distance through body tissue like x-rays, but unlike them is
non-ionizing
, so it is of interest as a replacement for medical X-rays. Due to its longer wavelength, images made using terahertz waves have lower resolution than X-rays and need to be enhanced (see figure at right).
11
The
earth's atmosphere
is a strong absorber of terahertz radiation, so the range of terahertz radiation in air is limited to tens of meters, making it unsuitable for long-distance communications. However, at distances of ~10 meters the band may still allow many useful applications in imaging and construction of high bandwidth
wireless networking
systems, especially indoor systems. In addition, producing and detecting
coherent
terahertz radiation remains technically challenging, though inexpensive commercial sources now exist in the 0.3–1.0 THz range (the lower part of the spectrum), including
gyrotrons
backward wave oscillators
, and
resonant-tunneling diodes
citation needed
Due to the small energy of THz photons, current THz devices require low temperature during operation to suppress environmental noise. Tremendous efforts thus have been put into THz research to improve the operation temperature, using different strategies such as optomechanical meta-devices.
13
14
Sources
edit
Natural
edit
Terahertz radiation is emitted as part of the
black-body radiation
from anything with a temperature greater than about 2
kelvin
. While this thermal emission is very weak,
observations at these frequencies
are important for characterizing cold 10–20
cosmic dust
in
interstellar clouds
in the Milky Way galaxy, and in distant
starburst galaxies
citation needed
Telescopes operating in this band include the
James Clerk Maxwell Telescope
, the
Caltech Submillimeter Observatory
and the
Submillimeter Array
at the
Mauna Kea Observatory
in Hawaii, the
BLAST
balloon borne telescope, the
Herschel Space Observatory
, the
Heinrich Hertz Submillimeter Telescope
at the
Mount Graham International Observatory
in Arizona, and at the
Atacama Large Millimeter Array
. Due to Earth's atmospheric absorption spectrum, the opacity of the atmosphere to submillimeter radiation restricts these observatories to very high altitude sites, or to space.
15
16
Artificial
edit
Dendrimer Dipole Excitation (DDE) Mechanism - The Rahman-Tomalia Effect
As of 2012
[update]
, viable sources of terahertz radiation are the
gyrotron
, the
backward wave oscillator
("BWO"), the molecule gas
far-infrared laser
Schottky-diode
multipliers,
17
varactor (
varicap
) multipliers,
quantum-cascade laser
18
19
20
21
the
free-electron laser
synchrotron light
sources,
photomixing
sources, single-cycle or pulsed sources used in
terahertz time-domain spectroscopy
such as photoconductive, surface field,
photo-Dember
and
optical rectification
emitters,
22
and electronic oscillators based on
resonant tunneling diodes
have been shown to operate up to 1.98 THz.
23
To the right, image of Dendrimer Dipole Excitation (DDE) Mechanism for broadband 30THz emitter used for sub-nanometer 3D Imaging and Spectroscopy.
24
There have also been solid-state sources of millimeter and submillimeter waves for many years. AB Millimeter in Paris, for instance, produces a system that covers the entire range from 8 GHz to 1,000 GHz with solid state sources and detectors. Nowadays, most time-domain work is done via ultrafast lasers.
In mid-2007, scientists at the U.S. Department of Energy's
Argonne National Laboratory
, along with collaborators in Turkey and Japan, announced the creation of a compact device that could lead to portable, battery-operated terahertz radiation sources.
25
The device uses high-temperature superconducting crystals, grown at the
University of Tsukuba
in Japan. These crystals comprise stacks of
Josephson junctions
, which exhibit a property known as the
Josephson effect
: when external voltage is applied, alternating current flows across the junctions at a frequency proportional to the voltage. This alternating current
induces
an
electromagnetic field
. A small voltage (around two millivolts per junction) can induce frequencies in the terahertz range.
In 2008, engineers at Harvard University achieved room temperature emission of several hundred nanowatts of coherent terahertz radiation using a semiconductor source. THz radiation was generated by
nonlinear mixing
of two modes in a mid-infrared
quantum cascade
laser. Previous sources had required cryogenic cooling, which greatly limited their use in everyday applications.
26
In 2009, it was discovered that the act of unpeeling adhesive tape generates non-polarized terahertz radiation, with a narrow peak at 2 THz and a broader peak at 18 THz. The mechanism of its creation is
tribocharging
of the adhesive tape and subsequent discharge; this was hypothesized to involve
bremsstrahlung
with absorption or
energy density focusing
during
dielectric breakdown
of a gas.
27
In 2013, researchers at
Georgia Institute of Technology
's Broadband Wireless Networking Laboratory and the
Polytechnic University of Catalonia
developed a method to create a
graphene antenna
: an antenna that would be shaped into graphene strips from 10 to 100 nanometers wide and one micrometer long. Such an antenna could be used to emit radio waves in the terahertz frequency range.
28
29
Terahertz gap
edit
Until the 2008 manufacture of an EO (electro-optic) Dipole Dendrimer Excitation (DDE
30
) emitter, no practical technologies existed for generating and detecting radiation in a
frequency band
in the THz region, known as the "
terahertz gap"
. This gap has previously been defined as 0.1 to 10 THz (
wavelengths
of 3 mm to 30 μm) although the upper boundary is considered by some sources as 30 THz (a
wavelength
of 10 μm).
31
Until the 2008 DDE
30
implementation by Applied Research & Photonics (ARP) Inc., frequencies within the range from 0.1 to 30THz, useful power generation and receiver technologies were inefficient and unfeasible. Since 2008, ARP has commercially manufactured sub-nanometer resolution 3D Imaging & Spectroscopy tools, known as TeraSpectra.
Mass production of devices in this range and operation at
room temperature
(at which energy
kT
is equal to the
energy of a photon
with a frequency of 6.2 THz) are mostly impractical. This leaves a gap between mature
microwave
technologies in the highest frequencies of the
radio spectrum
and the well-developed
optical engineering
of
infrared detectors
in their lowest frequencies. This radiation is mostly used in small-scale, specialized applications such as
submillimetre astronomy
Research
that attempts to resolve this issue has been conducted since the late 20th century.
32
33
34
35
36
In 2024, an experiment was published by German researchers
37
where a TDLAS experiment at 4.75 THz was performed in "infrared quality" with an uncooled pyroelectric receiver. The THz source was a cw DFB-QC-Laser operating at 43.3 K, with laser currents between 480 mA and 600 mA.
Closure of the terahertz gap
edit
See DDE
30
as exception to, "Most vacuum electronic devices that are used for microwave generation can be modified to operate at terahertz frequencies, including the magnetron,
38
gyrotron,
39
synchrotron,
40
and free-electron laser.
41
" Similarly, microwave detectors such as the
tunnel diode
have been re-engineered to detect at terahertz
42
and infrared
43
frequencies as well. However, many of these devices are in prototype form, are not compact, or exist at university or government research labs, without the benefit of cost savings due to mass production.
Research
edit
Molecular biology
edit
Terahertz radiation has comparable frequencies to the motion of biomolecular systems in the course of their function (a frequency 1THz is equivalent to a timescale of 1 picosecond, therefore in particular the range of hundreds of GHz up to low numbers of THz is comparable to biomolecular relaxation timescales of a few ps to a few ns). Modulation of biological and also neurological function is therefore possible using radiation in the range hundreds of GHz up to a few THz at relatively low energies (without significant heating or ionisation) achieving either beneficial or harmful effects.
44
45
Medical imaging
edit
Unlike
X-rays
, terahertz radiation is not
ionizing radiation
and its low
photon energies
in general do not damage living
tissues
and
DNA
. Some frequencies of terahertz radiation can penetrate several millimeters of tissue with low water content (e.g., fatty tissue) and reflect back. Terahertz radiation can also detect differences in water content and
density
of a tissue. Such methods could allow effective detection of
epithelial
cancer with an imaging system that is safe, non-invasive, and painless.
46
In response to the demand for COVID-19 screening terahertz spectroscopy and imaging has been proposed as a rapid screening tool.
47
48
The first images generated using terahertz radiation date from the 1960s; however, in 1995 images generated using
terahertz time-domain spectroscopy
generated a great deal of interest.
citation needed
Some frequencies of terahertz radiation can be used for
3D imaging
of
teeth
and may be more accurate than conventional X-ray imaging in
dentistry
citation needed
Security
edit
Terahertz radiation can penetrate fabrics and plastics, so it can be used in
surveillance
, such as
security
screening, to uncover
concealed
weapons
on a person, remotely. This is of particular interest because many materials of interest have unique spectral "fingerprints" in the terahertz range. This offers the possibility to combine spectral identification with imaging. In 2002, the
European Space Agency
(ESA) Star Tiger team,
49
based at the
Rutherford Appleton Laboratory
(Oxfordshire, UK), produced the first passive terahertz image of a hand.
50
By 2004, ThruVision Ltd, a spin-out from the
Council for the Central Laboratory of the Research Councils
(CCLRC) Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, had demonstrated the world's first compact THz camera for security screening applications. The prototype system successfully imaged guns and explosives concealed under clothing.
51
Passive detection of terahertz signatures avoid the bodily privacy concerns of other detection by being targeted to a very specific range of materials and objects.
52
53
In January 2013, the
NYPD
announced plans to experiment with the new technology to detect
concealed weapons
54
prompting Miami blogger and privacy activist Jonathan Corbett to file a lawsuit against the department in Manhattan federal court that same month, challenging such use: "For thousands of years, humans have used clothing to protect their modesty and have quite reasonably held the expectation of privacy for anything inside of their clothing, since no human is able to see through them." He sought a court order to prohibit using the technology without reasonable suspicion or probable cause.
55
By early 2017, the department said it had no intention of ever using the sensors given to them by the federal government.
56
Scientific use and imaging
edit
In addition to its current use in
submillimetre astronomy
, terahertz radiation
spectroscopy
could provide new sources of information for
chemistry
and
biochemistry
57
Recently developed methods of
THz time-domain spectroscopy
(THz TDS) and
THz tomography
have been shown to be able to image samples that are opaque in the visible and
near-infrared
regions of the spectrum. The utility of THz-TDS is limited when the sample is very thin, or has a low
absorbance
, since it is very difficult to distinguish changes in the THz pulse caused by the sample from those caused by long-term fluctuations in the driving
laser
source or experiment. However, THz-TDS produces radiation that is both coherent and spectrally broad, so such images can contain far more information than a conventional image formed with a single-frequency source.
citation needed
Submillimeter waves are used in physics to study materials in high magnetic fields, since at high fields (over about 11
tesla
), the electron spin
Larmor frequencies
are in the submillimeter band. Many high-magnetic field laboratories perform these high-frequency
EPR
experiments, such as the
National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
(NHMFL) in Florida.
citation needed
Terahertz radiation could let art historians see murals hidden beneath coats of plaster or paint in centuries-old buildings, without harming the artwork.
58
In additional, THz imaging has been done with lens antennas to capture radio image of the object.
59
60
Particle accelerators
edit
New types of
particle accelerators
that could achieve multi Giga-electron volts per metre (GeV/m) accelerating gradients are of utmost importance to reduce the size and cost of future generations of high energy colliders as well as provide a widespread availability of compact accelerator technology to smaller laboratories around the world. Gradients in the order of 100 MeV/m have been achieved by conventional techniques and are limited by RF-induced plasma breakdown.
61
Beam driven dielectric wakefield accelerators (DWAs)
62
63
typically operate in the Terahertz frequency range, which pushes the plasma breakdown threshold for surface electric fields into the multi-GV/m range.
64
DWA technique allows to accommodate a significant amount of charge per bunch, and gives an access to conventional fabrication techniques for the accelerating structures. To date 0.3 GeV/m accelerating and 1.3 GeV/m decelerating gradients
65
have been achieved using a dielectric lined waveguide with sub-millimetre transverse aperture.
An accelerating gradient larger than 1 GeV/m, can potentially be produced by the Cherenkov Smith-Purcell radiative mechanism
66
67
in a dielectric capillary with a variable inner radius. When an electron bunch propagates through the capillary, its self-field interacts with the dielectric material and produces wakefields that propagate inside the material at the Cherenkov angle. The wakefields are slowed down below the speed of light, as the relative dielectric permittivity of the material is larger than 1. The radiation is then reflected from the capillary's metallic boundary and diffracted back into the vacuum region, producing high accelerating fields on the capillary axis with a distinct frequency signature. In presence of a periodic boundary the Smith-Purcell radiation imposes frequency dispersion.
citation needed
A preliminary study with corrugated capillaries has shown some modification to the spectral content and amplitude of the generated wakefields,
68
but the possibility of using Smith-Purcell effect in DWA is still under consideration.
citation needed
Communication
edit
The high atmospheric absorption of terahertz waves limits the range of communication using existing transmitters and antennas to tens of meters. However, the huge unallocated
bandwidth
available in the band (ten times the bandwidth of the
millimeter wave
band, 100 times that of the
SHF microwave
band) makes it very attractive for future data transmission and networking use. There are tremendous difficulties to extending the range of THz communication through the atmosphere, but the world telecommunications industry is funding much research into overcoming those limitations.
69
One promising application area is the
6G
cellphone and wireless standard, which will supersede the current
5G
standard around 2030.
69
In particular,
6G
is expected to leverage advanced technologies such as terahertz and
full duplex
(FD) communications, combined with dynamic spectrum sharing to meet the growing demand for higher data rates and more efficient spectrum efficiency.
70
For a given antenna aperture, the
gain
of
directive antennas
scales with the square of frequency, while for low power transmitters the power efficiency is independent of bandwidth. So the
consumption factor
theory of communication links indicates that, contrary to conventional engineering wisdom, for a fixed aperture it is more efficient in bits per second per watt to use higher frequencies in the millimeter wave and terahertz range.
69
Small directive antennas a few centimeters in diameter can produce very narrow 'pencil' beams of THz radiation, and
phased arrays
of multiple antennas could concentrate virtually all the power output on the receiving antenna, allowing communication at longer distances.
In May 2012, a team of researchers from the
Tokyo Institute of Technology
71
published in
Electronics Letters
that it had set a new record for
wireless
data transmission by using T-rays and proposed they be used as bandwidth for data transmission in the future.
72
The team's
proof of concept
device used a
resonant tunneling diode
(RTD)
negative resistance oscillator
to produce waves in the terahertz band. With this RTD, the researchers sent a signal at 542 GHz, resulting in a data transfer rate of 3 Gigabits per second.
72
It doubled the record for data transmission rate set in November 2011.
73
The study suggested that Wi-Fi using the system would be limited to approximately 10 metres (33 ft), but could allow data transmission at up to 100 Gbit/s.
72
clarification needed
In 2011, Japanese electronic parts maker Rohm and a research team at Osaka University produced a chip capable of transmitting 1.5
Gbit
/s using terahertz radiation.
74
In 2017, researchers at Brown University were able to transfer two videos at a speed of 50 Gbit/s using a terahertz multiplexer, considerably faster than the transfer speed of contemporary cellular data networks.
75
Potential uses exist in high-altitude telecommunications, above altitudes where water vapor causes signal absorption: aircraft to
satellite
, or satellite to satellite.
citation needed
Amateur radio
edit
Main article:
Submillimeter amateur radio
A number of administrations permit
amateur radio
experimentation within the 275–3,000 GHz range or at even higher frequencies on a national basis, under license conditions that are usually based on RR5.565 of the
ITU Radio Regulations
. Amateur radio operators utilizing submillimeter frequencies often attempt to set two-way communication distance records. In the
United States
, WA1ZMS and W4WWQ set a record of 1.42 kilometres (0.88 mi) on 403 GHz using CW (Morse code) on 21 December 2004. In
Australia
, at 30 THz a distance of 60 metres (200 ft) was achieved by stations VK3CV and VK3LN on 8 November 2020.
76
77
78
Manufacturing
edit
Many possible uses of terahertz sensing and imaging are proposed in
manufacturing
quality control
, and
process monitoring
. These in general exploit the traits of plastics and
cardboard
being transparent to terahertz radiation, making it possible to inspect
packaged
goods. The first imaging system based on optoelectronic terahertz time-domain spectroscopy were developed in 1995 by researchers from AT&T Bell Laboratories and was used for producing a transmission image of a packaged electronic chip.
79
This system used pulsed laser beams with duration in range of picoseconds. Since then commonly used commercial/ research terahertz imaging systems have used pulsed lasers to generate terahertz images. The image can be developed based on either the attenuation or phase delay of the transmitted terahertz pulse.
80
Since the beam is scattered more at the edges and also different materials have different absorption coefficients, the images based on attenuation indicates edges and different materials inside of objects. This approach is similar to
X-ray
transmission imaging, where images are developed based on attenuation of the transmitted beam.
81
In the second approach, terahertz images are developed based on the time delay of the received pulse. In this approach, thicker parts of the objects are well recognized as the thicker parts cause more time delay of the pulse. Energy of the laser spots are distributed by a
Gaussian function
. The geometry and behavior of
Gaussian beam
in the
Fraunhofer region
imply that the electromagnetic beams diverge more as the frequencies of the beams decrease and thus the resolution decreases.
82
This implies that terahertz imaging systems have higher resolution than
scanning acoustic microscope
(SAM) but lower resolution than
X-ray
imaging systems. Although terahertz can be used for inspection of packaged objects, it suffers from low resolution for fine inspections. X-ray image and terahertz images of an electronic chip are brought in the figure on the right.
83
Obviously the resolution of X-ray is higher than terahertz image, but
X-ray
is ionizing and can be impose harmful effects on certain objects such as semiconductors and live tissues.
citation needed
To overcome low resolution of the terahertz systems near-field terahertz imaging systems are under development.
84
85
In nearfield imaging the detector needs to be located very close to the surface of the plane and thus imaging of the thick packaged objects may not be feasible. In another attempt to increase the resolution, laser beams with frequencies higher than terahertz are used to excite the p-n junctions in semiconductor objects, the excited junctions generate terahertz radiation as a result as long as their contacts are unbroken and in this way damaged devices can be detected.
86
In this approach, since the absorption increases exponentially with the frequency, again inspection of the thick packaged semiconductors may not be doable. Consequently, a tradeoff between the achievable resolution and the thickness of the penetration of the beam in the packaging material should be considered.
citation needed
THz gap research
edit
Ongoing investigation has resulted in
improved emitters
(sources) and
detectors
, and research in this area has intensified. However, drawbacks remain that include the substantial size of emitters, incompatible frequency ranges, and undesirable operating temperatures, as well as component, device, and detector requirements that are somewhere between
solid state electronics
and
photonic
technologies.
87
88
89
Free-electron lasers
can generate a wide range of
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation
from microwaves, through terahertz radiation to
X-ray
. However, they are bulky, expensive and not suitable for applications that require critical timing (such as
wireless communications
). Other
sources of terahertz radiation
which are actively being researched include solid state oscillators (through
frequency multiplication
),
backward wave oscillators
(BWOs),
quantum cascade lasers
, and
gyrotrons
Safety
edit
The terahertz region is between the radio frequency region and the laser optical region. Both the IEEE C95.1–2005 RF safety standard
90
and the ANSI Z136.1–2007 Laser safety standard
91
have limits into the terahertz region, but both safety limits are based on extrapolation. It is expected that effects on biological tissues are thermal in nature and, therefore, predictable by conventional thermal models
citation needed
. Research is underway to collect data to populate this region of the spectrum and validate safety limits.
citation needed
A theoretical study published in 2010 and conducted by Alexandrov et al at the Center for Nonlinear Studies at
Los Alamos National Laboratory
in New Mexico
92
created mathematical models predicting how terahertz radiation would interact with double-stranded
DNA
, showing that, even though involved forces seem to be tiny,
nonlinear resonances
(although much less likely to form than less-powerful common resonances) could allow terahertz waves to "unzip double-stranded DNA, creating bubbles in the double strand that could significantly interfere with processes such as
gene expression
and
DNA replication
".
93
Experimental verification of this simulation was not done. Swanson's 2010 theoretical treatment of the Alexandrov study concludes that the DNA bubbles do not occur under reasonable physical assumptions or if the effects of temperature are taken into account.
94
A bibliographical study published in 2003 reported that T-ray intensity drops to less than 1% in the first 500 μm of
skin
but stressed that "there is currently very little information about the optical properties of human tissue at terahertz frequencies".
95
See also
edit
Far-infrared laser
Full body scanner
Heterojunction bipolar transistor
High-electron-mobility transistor
(HEMT)
Picarin
Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy
Microwave analog signal processing
References
edit
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Miles, Robert E; Harrison, Paul; Lippens, D., eds. (June 2000).
Terahertz Sources and Systems
. NATO Advanced Research Workshop. NATO Science Series II. Vol. 27. Château de Bonas, France (published 2001).
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LCCN
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External links
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terahertz radiation
or
T-ray
in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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. SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory (Press release). Palo Alto, California: Stanford University.
... researchers have successfully generated intense pulses of light in a largely untapped part of the electromagnetic spectrum – the so-called
terahertz gap
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