Texas - Wikipedia

Texas - Wikipedia
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Coordinates
31°N
99°W
 / 
31°N 99°W
 /
31; -99
 (
State of Texas
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
U.S. state
"Texan" redirects here. For other uses, see
Texas (disambiguation)
and
Texan (disambiguation)
State in the United States
Texas
State
Flag
Seal
Nickname
The Lone Star State
Motto
Friendship
Anthem:
Texas, Our Texas
Location of Texas within the United States
Country
United States
Before statehood
Republic of Texas
Admitted to the Union
December 29, 1845 (28th)
Capital
Austin
Largest city
Houston
Largest county or equivalent
Harris
Largest metro
and
urban
areas
Dallas–Fort Worth
Government
Governor
Greg Abbott
Lieutenant Governor
Dan Patrick
(R)
Legislature
Texas Legislature
Upper house
Senate
Lower house
House of Representatives
Judiciary
Supreme Court of Texas
(Civil)
Texas Court of Criminal Appeals
(Criminal)
U.S. senators
John Cornyn
(R)
Ted Cruz
(R)
U.S. House delegation
24
Republicans
13
Democrats
1 vacant (
list
Area
• Total
268,597 sq mi (695,662 km
• Land
261,232 sq mi (676,587 km
• Water
7,365 sq mi (19,075 km
)  2.7%
• Rank
2nd
Dimensions
• Length
801 mi (1,289 km)
• Width
773 mi (1,244 km)
Elevation
1,710 ft (520 m)
Highest elevation
Guadalupe Peak
8,751 ft (2,667.4 m)
Lowest elevation
Gulf of Mexico
0 ft (0 m)
Population
(est. 2025)
• Total
31,709,821
• Rank
2nd
• Density
111/sq mi (42.9/km
• Rank
23rd
Median household income
$75,800 (2
23)
• Income rank
23rd
Demonym(s)
Texan
Texian
(archaic)
Tejano
(usually only used for Hispanics)
Language
Official language
None
Spoken language
only: 64.9%
Spanish
: 28.8%
Other
: 6.3%
Time zones
Majority of state
UTC−06:00
Central
• Summer (
DST
UTC−05:00
CDT
El Paso
Hudspeth
, and northwestern
Culberson
counties
UTC−07:00
Mountain
• Summer (
DST
UTC−06:00
MDT
USPS abbreviation
TX
ISO 3166 code
US-TX
Traditional abbreviation
Tex.
Latitude
25°50′ N to 36°30′ N
Longitude
93°31′ W to 106°39′ W
Website
texas
.gov
State symbols of Texas
List of state symbols
Flag of Texas
Seal of Texas
Coat of arms of Texas
Slogan
The Friendly State
Living insignia
Bird
Northern mockingbird
Mimus polyglottos
Fish
Guadalupe bass
Micropterus treculii
Flower
Bluebonnet
Lupinus
spp., namely Texas bluebonnet,
L. texensis
Insect
Monarch butterfly
Danaus plexippus
Mammal
Texas longhorn
Mexican long-nosed armadillo
Dasypus mexicanus
Mushroom
Texas star
Chorioactis geaster
Reptile
Texas horned lizard
Phrynosoma cornutum
Tree
Pecan
Carya illinoinensis
Inanimate insignia
Food
Chili
Game
Texas 42
dominoes
Instrument
Guitar
Shell
Lightning whelk
Busycon perversum pulleyi
Ship
USS
Texas
Soil
Houston Black
Sport
Rodeo
Other
Molecule:
Buckyball
(For more, see
article
State route marker
State quarter
Released in 2004
Lists of United States state symbols
Texas
TEK
-səss
is the most populous
state
in the
Southern United States
. It borders
Louisiana
to the east,
Arkansas
to the northeast,
Oklahoma
to the north,
New Mexico
to the west, and an
international border
with the
Mexican states
of
Chihuahua
Coahuila
Nuevo León
, and
Tamaulipas
to the south and southwest, that forms a natural boundary delineated by the
Rio Grande
. Texas has
a coastline
on the
Gulf of Mexico
to the southeast. Covering 268,596 square miles (695,660 km
) and with an estimated population of over 31.7 million residents in 2025,
10
it is the
second-largest U.S. state by area
and
population
. Texas is nicknamed the "
Lone Star State
" for the single star on
its flag
, symbolic of its former status as an independent country, the
Republic of Texas
11
Spain
was the first European country to
claim and control Texas
. Following
a brief period
of French colonization, the territory became part of
Mexico
after its independence from Spain in 1821. Increasing tensions between settlers and the Mexican government culminated in the
Texas Revolution
, which included the
Battle of the Alamo
, and led to the establishment of the independent Republic of Texas in 1836. In 1845, Texas joined the United States as the 28th state.
The state's annexation
contributed to the
Mexican–American War
in 1846. Texas remained a
slave state
until the
American Civil War
, during which it seceded from the
Union
in 1861 and joined the
Confederate States
. After the war and the restoration of its representation in the federal government, Texas entered a prolonged period of economic stagnation.
The
economy of Texas
(prior to
World War II
) has been shaped by bison, cattle, cotton, oil, and timber industries.
12
The cattle industry was a major economic driver and created the traditional image of the Texas cowboy. In the later 19th century, cotton and lumber grew to be major industries as the cattle industry became less lucrative. Ultimately, the discovery of major
petroleum
deposits (
Spindletop
in particular) initiated
an economic boom
that became the driving force behind the economy for much of the 20th century. Texas developed a diversified economy and
high tech
industry during the mid-20th century. As of 2024
[update]
, it has the
second-highest number
(52) of
Fortune
500
companies headquartered in the United States. With a growing base of industry, the state leads in many industries, including
tourism
agriculture
petrochemicals
energy
computers
and
electronics
aerospace
, and
biomedical sciences
. Texas has led the U.S.
in state export revenue
since 2002 and has the
second-highest
gross state product
. Texas consistently ranks highly among national averages for business growth, job creation, and economic opportunity with low taxes and a regulatory environment that encourages innovation.
13
The
Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex
and
Greater Houston
areas are the nation's fourth and fifth-most populous
urban regions
respectively. Its capital city is
Austin
. Due to its size and geologic features such as the
Balcones Fault
, Texas contains diverse
landscapes
common to both the U.S.
Southern
and the
Southwestern regions
14
Most population centers are in areas of former
prairies
grasslands
, forests, and the
coastline
. Traveling from east to west, terrain ranges from coastal
swamps
and
piney woods
, to rolling plains and rugged hills, to the desert and mountains of the
Big Bend
Etymology
The name
Texas
, based on the
Caddo word
táy:shaʼ
/tə́jːʃaʔ/
) 'friend', was applied, in the spelling
Tejas
or
Texas
15
16
17
by the Spanish to the
Caddo
themselves, specifically the
Hasinai
Confederacy.
18
During
Spanish colonial rule
, in the 18th century, the area was known as
Nuevas Filipinas
('
New Philippines
') and
Nuevo Reino de Filipinas
('New Kingdom of the Philippines'),
19
or as
provincia de los Tejas
('province of the
Tejas
'),
20
later also
provincia de Texas
(or
de Tejas
), ('province of Texas').
21
19
It was incorporated as
provincia de Texas
into the
Mexican Empire
in 1821, and declared
a republic
in 1836. The
Royal Spanish Academy
recognizes both spellings,
Tejas
and
Texas
, as Spanish-language forms of the name.
22
The English pronunciation with
/ks/
is unetymological, contrary to the historical value of the letter
) in
Spanish orthography
. Alternative etymologies of the name advanced in the late 19th century connected the name
Texas
with the Spanish word
teja
, meaning 'roof tile', the plural
tejas
being used to designate Indigenous
Pueblo
settlements.
23
A 1760s map by
Jacques-Nicolas Bellin
shows a village named
Teijas
on the
Trinity River
, close to the site of modern
Crockett
23
History
Precontact era
Main article:
History of Texas
Further information:
Pre-Columbian Mexico
and
Native American tribes in Texas
Early Native American tribal territories
Texas lies between two major cultural spheres of
Pre-Columbian North America
: the
Southwestern
and the
Plains
areas.
Archaeologists
have found that three major Indigenous cultures lived in this territory, and reached their developmental peak before the first European contact. These were: the
Ancestral Puebloans
from the upper Rio Grande region, centered west of Texas; the
Mississippian culture
, also known as
Mound Builders
, which extended along the
Mississippi River Valley
east of Texas; and the civilizations of
Mesoamerica
, which were centered south of Texas. Influence of
Teotihuacan
in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined between the 8th and 10th centuries.
24
When Europeans first arrived in the Texas region, the languages present in the state were
Caddoan
Atakapan
Athabaskan
Coahuiltecan
, and
Uto-Aztecan
, in addition to several language isolates such as
Tonkawa
. Uto-Aztecan Puebloan and
Jumano
peoples lived near the Rio Grande in the western portion of the state, and the Athabaskan-speaking Apache tribes lived throughout the interior. The agricultural, mound-building Caddo controlled much of the northeastern part of the state, along the
Red
Sabine
and Neches River
basins.
25
26
Atakapan peoples such as the
Akokisa
and
Bidai
lived along the northeastern Gulf Coast; the
Karankawa
lived along the central coast.
27
At least one tribe of
Coahuiltecans
, the
Aranama
, lived in southern Texas. This entire culture group, primarily centered in northeastern
Mexico
, is now extinct.
28
No one culture was dominant across the territory of present-day Texas, with many peoples inhabiting the area.
29
Native American tribes who have lived inside the boundaries of present-day Texas include the
Alabama
Apache
Atakapan
Bidai
Caddo
Aranama
Comanche
Choctaw
Coushatta
Hasinai
Jumano
Karankawa
Kickapoo
Kiowa
Tonkawa
, and
Wichita
30
31
Many of these peoples migrated from the north or east during the colonial period, such as the
Choctaw
, Alabama-Coushatta, and
Delaware
25
The region was primarily controlled by the Spanish until the
Texas Revolution
. They were most interested in relationships with the Caddo, who were - like the Spanish - a settled, agricultural people. Several Spanish missions were opened in Caddo territory, but a lack of interest in Christianity among the Caddo meant that few were converted. Positioned between French Louisiana and Spanish Texas, the Caddo maintained relations with both, but were closer with the French.
32
After Spain took control of Louisiana, most of the missions in eastern Texas were closed and abandoned.
33
The United States obtained Louisiana following the 1803
Louisiana Purchase
and began convincing tribes to self-segregate from whites by moving west; facing an overflow of native peoples in Missouri and Arkansas, they were able to negotiate with the Caddo to allow several displaced peoples to settle on unused lands in eastern Texas. These included the
Muscogee
Houma Choctaw
Lenape
and
Mingo Seneca
, among others, who came to view the Caddoans as saviors.
34
35
The different temperaments of Native American tribes directly affected the fates of the European explorers and
settlers
coming to the area.
36
Friendly tribes taught newcomers how to grow local crops, prepare foods, and hunt
wild game
, while warlike tribes resisted the settlers.
36
Prior treaties with the Spanish forbade either side from militarizing its native population in any potential conflict between the two nations. Several outbreaks of violence between Native Americans and Texans started to spread in the prelude to the Texas Revolution. Texans accused tribes of stealing livestock.
25
While no proof was found, those in charge of Texas at the time attempted to publicly blame and punish the Caddo, with speculation that the U.S. government was trying to keep them in check this way. The Caddo never turned to violence because of the situation, except in cases of self-defense.
34
By the 1830s, the U.S. had drafted the
Indian Removal Act
, which was used to facilitate the
Trail of Tears
. Fearing retribution, Indian Agents all over the eastern U.S. tried to convince all Indigenous peoples to uproot and move west. This included the Caddo of Louisiana and Arkansas. The first president of Texas,
Sam Houston
, aimed to cooperate and make peace with Native tribes, but his successor,
Mirabeau B. Lamar
, took a much more hostile stance. Hostility towards Natives by white Texans prompted the movement of most Native populations north into what would become
Indian Territory
(modern Oklahoma).
25
34
Only the
Alabama-Coushatta
would remain in the parts of Texas subject to white settlement, though the Comanche would continue to control most of the western half of the state until their defeat in the 1870s and 1880s.
37
Colonization
Main articles:
New Spain
New France
Louisiana (New France)
French colonization of Texas
Spanish Texas
French and Indian War
Treaty of Paris (1763)
Seminole Wars
Adams–Onís Treaty
Mexican War of Independence
Treaty of Córdoba
First Mexican Empire
Mexican Texas
Provisional Government of Mexico (1823–24)
1824 Constitution of Mexico
First Mexican Republic
Siete Leyes
, and
Centralist Republic of Mexico
The first historical document related to Texas was a map of the
Gulf Coast
, created in 1519 by Spanish explorer
Alonso Álvarez de Pineda
38
Nine years later, shipwrecked Spanish explorer
Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
and his cohort became the first Europeans in what is now Texas.
39
40
Cabeza de Vaca reported that in 1528, when the Spanish landed in the area, "half the natives died from a disease of the bowels and blamed us."
41
Cabeza de Vaca also made observations about the way of life of the Ignaces Natives of Texas.
43
Francisco Vázquez de Coronado
described another encounter with native people in 1541.
44
The expedition of
Hernando de Soto
entered into Texas from the east, seeking a route to Mexico. They passed through the Caddo lands but turned back after reaching the River of Daycao (possibly the Brazos or Colorado), beyond which point the Native peoples were nomadic and did not have the agricultural stores to feed the expedition.
45
46
European powers ignored the area until accidentally settling there in 1685. Miscalculations by
René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle
resulted in his establishing the colony of
Fort Saint Louis
at
Matagorda Bay
rather than along the
Mississippi River
47
The colony lasted only four years before succumbing to harsh conditions and hostile natives.
48
A small band of survivors traveled eastward into the lands of the Caddo, but La Salle was killed by disgruntled expedition members.
49
In 1690 Spanish authorities, concerned that France posed a competitive threat, constructed several
missions
in
East Texas
among the Caddo.
50
After Caddo resistance, the Spanish missionaries returned to Mexico.
51
When France began settling
Louisiana
, in 1716 Spanish authorities responded by founding a new series of missions in East Texas.
52
Two years later, they created
San Antonio
as the first Spanish civilian settlement in the area.
53
Nicolas de La Fora's 1771 map of the northern frontier of
New Spain
clearly shows the Provincia de los Tejas.
54
Hostile native tribes and distance from nearby Spanish colonies discouraged settlers from moving to the area. It was one of New Spain's least populated provinces.
55
In 1749, the Spanish peace treaty with the
Lipan Apache
angered many tribes,
56
including the Comanche, Tonkawa, and Hasinai.
57
The Comanche signed a treaty with Spain in 1785 and later helped to defeat the Lipan Apache and Karankawa tribes.
58
59
With numerous missions being established, priests led a peaceful conversion of most tribes. By the end of the 18th century only a few
nomadic
tribes had not converted.
60
Stephen F. Austin
was the first American
empresario
given permission to operate a colony within
Mexican Texas
Mexico in 1824.
Coahuila y Tejas
is the northeasternmost state.
When the United States
purchased Louisiana
from France in 1803, American authorities insisted the agreement also included Texas. The boundary between New Spain and the United States was finally set in 1819 at the
Sabine River
, the modern border between Texas and Louisiana.
61
Eager for new land, many U.S. settlers refused to recognize the agreement. Several
filibusters
raised armies to invade the area west of the Sabine River.
62
Marked by the
War of 1812
, some men who had escaped from the Spanish, held (Old) Philippines had immigrated to and also passed through Texas (New Philippines)
63
and reached
Louisiana
where
Philippine exiles
aided the United States in the defense of
New Orleans
against a
British
invasion, with
Filipinos
in the
Saint Malo
settlement assisting
Jean Lafitte
in the
Battle of New Orleans
64
In 1821, the
Mexican War of Independence
included the Texas territory, which became part of Mexico.
65
Due to its low population, the territory was assigned to other
states and territories of Mexico
; the core territory was part of the state of
Coahuila y Tejas
, but other parts of today's Texas were part of
Tamaulipas
Chihuahua
, or the Mexican Territory of
Santa Fe de Nuevo México
66
Hoping more settlers would reduce the near-constant Comanche raids,
Mexican Texas
liberalized its immigration policies to permit immigrants from outside Mexico and Spain.
67
As a result of this, large swathes of land were allotted to
empresarios
, who recruited settlers from the United States, Europe, and the Mexican interior, primarily the U.S. Austin's settlers, the
Old Three Hundred
, made places along the
Brazos River
in 1822.
68
The population of Texas grew rapidly. By 1834, the population had grown to about 37,800 people, with only 7,800 of Mexican descent.
69
Many immigrants openly flouted Mexican law, especially the prohibition against
slavery
. Combined with United States' attempts to purchase Texas, Mexican authorities decided in 1830 to prohibit continued immigration from the United States.
70
However,
illegal immigration
from the United States into Mexico continued to increase the population of Texas.
71
New laws also called for the enforcement of
customs duties
angering native Mexican citizens (
Tejanos
) and recent immigrants alike.
72
The
Anahuac Disturbances
in 1832 were the first open revolt against Mexican rule, coinciding with a revolt in Mexico against the nation's president.
73
Texians
sided with the
federalists
against the government and drove all Mexican soldiers out of East Texas.
74
They took advantage of the lack of oversight to agitate for more political freedom. Texians met at the
Convention of 1832
to discuss requesting independent statehood, among other issues.
75
The following year, Texians reiterated their demands at the
Convention of 1833
76
Republic
Main articles:
Texas Revolution
Convention of 1836
Texas Declaration of Independence
Treaties of Velasco
, and
Republic of Texas
Within Mexico, tensions continued between federalists and centralists. In early 1835, wary
Texians
formed Committees of Correspondence and Safety.
77
The unrest erupted into armed conflict in late 1835 at the
Battle of Gonzales
78
This launched the
Texas Revolution
. Texians elected delegates to the
Consultation
, which created a provisional government.
79
The provisional government soon collapsed from infighting, and Texas was without clear governance for the first two months of 1836.
80
Surrender of Santa Anna
. Painting by William Henry Huddle, 1886.
Mexican President
Antonio López de Santa Anna
personally led an army to end the revolt.
81
General
José de Urrea
defeated all the Texian resistance along the coast culminating in the
Goliad massacre
82
López de Santa Anna's forces, after a
thirteen-day siege
, overwhelmed Texian defenders at the
Battle of the Alamo
. News of the defeats sparked panic among Texas settlers.
83
The
Republic of Texas
with present-day borders superimposed
The newly elected Texian delegates to the
Convention of 1836
quickly signed a
declaration of independence
on March 2, forming the
Republic of Texas
. After electing interim officers, the Convention disbanded.
84
The new government joined the other settlers in Texas in the
Runaway Scrape
, fleeing from the approaching Mexican army.
83
After several weeks of retreat, the
Texian Army
commanded by
Sam Houston
attacked and defeated López de Santa Anna's forces at the
Battle of San Jacinto
85
López de Santa Anna was captured and forced to sign the
Treaties of Velasco
, ending the war.
86
The
Constitution of the Republic of Texas
prohibited the government from restricting slavery or freeing slaves, and required free people of African descent to leave the country.
87
Political battles raged between two factions of the new Republic. The nationalist faction, led by
Mirabeau B. Lamar
, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the
Native Americans
, and the expansion of the Republic to the
Pacific Ocean
. Their opponents, led by Sam Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful co-existence with Native Americans. The conflict between the factions was typified by an incident known as the
Texas Archive War
88
With wide popular support, Texas first applied for annexation to the United States in 1836, but its status as a slaveholding country caused its admission to be controversial and it was initially rebuffed. This status, and Mexican diplomacy in support of its claims to the territory, also complicated Texas's ability to form foreign alliances and trade relationships.
89
The
Comanche
Indians furnished the main Native American opposition to the Texas Republic, manifested in multiple
raids on settlements
90
Mexico launched two small expeditions into Texas in 1842. The town of San Antonio was captured twice and Texans were defeated in battle in the
Dawson massacre
. Despite these successes, Mexico did not keep an occupying force in Texas, and the republic survived.
91
The cotton price crash of the 1840s depressed the country's economy.
89
Statehood
Main article:
History of Texas (1845–1860)
Further information:
Texas annexation
Admission to the Union
Mexican–American War
, and
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
See also:
List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union
On March 2, 1936, the U.S. Post Office issued a
commemorative stamp
commemorating the 100th anniversary of the Texas Declaration of Independence, featuring Sam Houston (left), Stephen Austin and the Alamo.
Texas was finally officially
annexed
when the expansionist
James K. Polk
won the
election of 1844
92
On December 29, 1845, the
U.S. Congress
admitted Texas to the U.S.
93
After Texas's annexation, Mexico broke off diplomatic relations with the United States. While the United States claimed Texas's border stretched to the Rio Grande, Mexico claimed it was the
Nueces River
leaving the
Rio Grande Valley
under contested Texan sovereignty.
93
While the former Republic of Texas could not enforce its border claims, the United States had the military strength and the political will to do so. President Polk ordered General
Zachary Taylor
south to the Rio Grande on January 13, 1846. A few months later Mexican troops routed an American cavalry patrol in the disputed area in the
Thornton Affair
starting the
Mexican–American War
. The first battles of the war were fought in Texas: the
Siege of Fort Texas
Battle of Palo Alto
and
Battle of Resaca de la Palma
. After these decisive victories, the United States invaded Mexican territory, ending the fighting in Texas.
94
Captain
Charles A. May
's squadron of the 2nd Dragoons slashes through the Mexican Army lines.
Resaca de la Palma
, Texas, May 1846.
The
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
ended the two-year war. In return for US$18,250,000, (equivalent to $679,111,000 in 2025), Mexico gave the U.S. undisputed control of Texas, ceded the
Mexican Cession
in 1848, most of which today is called the American Southwest, and Texas's borders were established at the Rio Grande.
94
The
Compromise of 1850
set Texas's boundaries at their present position: Texas ceded its claims to land which later became half of present-day
New Mexico
95
a third of
Colorado
, and small portions of
Kansas
Oklahoma
, and
Wyoming
to the federal government, in return for the assumption of $10 million of the old republic's debt (equivalent to $372,115,000 in 2025).
95
Post-war Texas grew rapidly as migrants poured into the cotton lands of the state.
96
They also brought or purchased enslaved African Americans, whose numbers tripled in the state from 1850 to 1860, from 58,000 to 182,566.
97
Civil War to late 19th century
Main article:
History of Texas (1865–1899)
Further information:
Ordinance of Secession
Confederate States of America
, and
Texas in the American Civil War
Texas re-entered war following the
election of 1860
. During this time, Black people comprised 30 percent of the state's population, and they were overwhelmingly enslaved.
98
When
Abraham Lincoln
was elected, South Carolina seceded from the Union; five other
Deep South
states quickly followed. A state convention considering secession opened in Austin on January 28, 1861. On February 1, by a vote of 166–8, the convention adopted an
Ordinance of Secession
. Texas voters approved this Ordinance on February 23, 1861. Texas joined the newly created Confederate States of America on March 4, 1861, ratifying the permanent
C.S. Constitution
on March 23.
99
Not all Texans favored secession initially, although many of the same would later support the Southern cause. Texas's most notable
Unionist
was the state governor,
Sam Houston
. Not wanting to aggravate the situation, Houston refused two offers from President Lincoln for Union troops to keep him in office. After refusing to swear an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Houston was deposed.
100
While far from the
major battlefields
of the
American Civil War
, Texas contributed large numbers of soldiers and equipment.
101
Union troops briefly
occupied
the state's primary port, Galveston. Texas's border with Mexico was known as the "backdoor of the Confederacy" because trade occurred at the border, bypassing the Union blockade.
102
The Confederacy repulsed all Union attempts to shut down this route,
101
but Texas's role as a supply state was marginalized in mid-1863 after the Union capture of the
Mississippi River
. The
final battle of the Civil War
was fought at
Palmito Ranch
, near Brownsville, Texas, and saw a Confederate victory.
103
104
Texas descended into anarchy for two months between the
surrender
of the
Army of Northern Virginia
and the assumption of authority by Union General
Gordon Granger
. Violence marked the early months of
Reconstruction
101
Juneteenth
commemorates the announcement of the
Emancipation Proclamation
in Galveston by General Gordon Granger, almost two and a half years after the original announcement.
105
President Johnson, in 1866, declared the civilian government restored in Texas.
106
Despite not meeting Reconstruction requirements, Congress resumed allowing elected Texas representatives into the federal government in 1870. Social volatility continued as the state struggled with agricultural depression and labor issues.
107
Like most of the South, the Texas economy was devastated by the War. However, since the state had not been as dependent on slaves as other parts of the South, it was able to recover more quickly. The culture in Texas during the later 19th century exhibited many facets of a frontier territory. The state became notorious as a haven for people from other parts of the country who wanted to escape debt, war tensions, or other problems. "Gone to Texas" was a common expression for those fleeing the law in other states. Nevertheless, the state also attracted many businessmen and other settlers with more legitimate interests.
108
The cattle industry continued to thrive, though it gradually became less profitable. Cotton and lumber became major industries creating new economic booms in various regions. Railroad networks grew rapidly as did the port at Galveston as commerce expanded. The lumber industry quickly expanded and was Texas's largest industry prior to the 20th century.
109
Early to mid-20th century
Spindletop, the first major oil gusher
In 1900, Texas suffered the deadliest natural disaster in U.S. history in the form of the
Galveston hurricane
110
The fortunes of the state would turn around in 1901, with discovery of the first major
oil well
in Texas, on January 10th 1901.
Spindletop
, was found south of
Beaumont
. Other fields were later discovered nearby in
East Texas
West Texas
, and under the
Gulf of Mexico
. The resulting "
oil boom
" transformed Texas.
111
Oil production averaged three million barrels per day at its peak in 1972.
112
In 1901, the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed a bill requiring payment of a
poll tax
for voting, which effectively
disenfranchised
most Black and many poor White and
Latino
people. In addition, the legislature established
white primaries
, ensuring minorities were excluded from the formal political process. The number of voters dropped dramatically, and the Democrats crushed competition from the Republican and Populist parties.
113
The
Socialist Party
became the second-largest party in Texas after 1912,
114
coinciding with a large socialist upsurge in the United States during fierce battles in the labor movement and the popularity of national heroes like
Eugene V. Debs
. The socialists' popularity soon waned after their vilification by the federal government for their opposition to U.S. involvement in
World War I
115
116
The
Great Depression
and the
Dust Bowl
dealt a double blow to the state's economy, which had significantly improved since the Civil War. Migrants abandoned the worst-hit sections of Texas during the Dust Bowl years. Especially from this period on, Black people left Texas in the
Great Migration
to seek work in the Northern United States or California and to escape segregation.
98
In 1940, Texas was 74%
White
, 14.4% Black, and 11.5% Hispanic.
117
World War II
had a dramatic impact on Texas, as federal money poured in to build military bases, munitions factories, detention camps and Army hospitals; 750,000 Texans left for service; the cities exploded with new industry; and hundreds of thousands of poor farmers left the fields for service or much better-paying war jobs, never to return to agriculture.
118
119
Texas manufactured 3.1 percent of total United States military armaments produced during World War II, ranking eleventh among the 48 states.
120
Texas modernized and expanded its
system of higher education
through the 1960s. The state created a comprehensive plan for higher education, funded in large part by oil revenues, and a central state apparatus designed to manage state institutions more efficiently. These changes helped Texas universities receive federal research funds.
121
Mid-20th to early 21st century
From around the mid-20th century, Texas began to transform from a rural and agricultural state to one urban and industrialized.
122
The state's population grew quickly during this period, with large levels of migration from outside the state.
122
As a part of the
Sun Belt
, Texas experienced strong economic growth, particularly during the 1970s and early 1980s.
122
Texas's economy diversified, lessening its reliance on the
petroleum industry
122
By 1990,
Hispanics and Latino Americans
overtook Blacks to become the largest minority group.
122
Texas has the largest Black population with over 3.9 million.
123
During the late 20th century, the
Republican Party
replaced the
Democratic Party
as the dominant party in the state.
122
Beginning in the early 21st century, metropolitan areas including
Dallas–Fort Worth
and
Greater Austin
became centers for the
Texas Democratic Party
in statewide and national elections as liberal policies became more accepted in urban areas.
124
125
126
127
From the mid-2000s to 2019, Texas gained an influx of business relocations and regional headquarters from companies in
California
128
129
130
131
Texas became a major destination for migration during the early 21st century and was named the most popular state to move for three consecutive years.
132
Another study in 2019 determined Texas's growth rate at 1,000 people per day.
133
During the
COVID-19 pandemic in Texas
, Texas was one of the states to resist the imposition of repeated lockdowns.
134
135
During February 13–17, 2021, the state faced a major weather emergency as
Winter Storm Uri
hit the state, as well as most of the Southeastern and Midwestern United States.
136
137
Historically high power usage across the state caused the state's power grid to become overworked and
ERCOT
(the main operator of the
Texas Interconnection
grid) declared an emergency and began to implement rolling blackouts across Texas, causing a
power crisis
138
139
140
Over 3 million Texans were without power and over 4 million were under boil-water notices.
141
Geography
Main article:
Geography of Texas
Sam Rayburn Reservoir
Texas Hill Country
Texas is the
second-largest
U.S. state by area, after
Alaska
, and the largest state within the
contiguous United States
, at 268,820 square miles (696,200 km
). If it were an independent country, Texas would be the
39th-largest
142
It ranks 26th worldwide amongst
country subdivisions by size
Texas is in the
south central
part of the United States. The
Rio Grande
forms a natural border with the Mexican states of
Chihuahua
Coahuila
Nuevo León
, and
Tamaulipas
to the south. The
Red River
forms a natural border with Oklahoma and Arkansas to the north. The
Sabine River
forms a natural border with Louisiana to the east. The
Texas Panhandle
has an eastern border with Oklahoma at
100° W
, a northern border with Oklahoma at
36°30' N
and a western border with New Mexico at
103° W
El Paso
lies on the state's western tip at
32° N
and the Rio Grande.
95
Texas has 10
climatic regions
, 14
soil regions
and 11 distinct
ecological regions
143
One classification system divides Texas, in order from southeast to west, into the following:
Gulf Coastal Plains
, Interior Lowlands,
Great Plains
, and Basin and Range Province.
144
The Gulf Coastal Plains region wraps around the Gulf of Mexico on the southeast section of the state. Vegetation in this region consists of thick piney woods. The Interior Lowlands region consists of gently rolling to hilly forested land and is part of a larger pine-hardwood forest. The
Cross Timbers region
and
Caprock Escarpment
are part of the Interior Lowlands.
144
Steinhagen Reservoir
The Great Plains region in Central Texas spans through the state's
panhandle
and
Llano Estacado
to the state's
hill country
near
Lago Vista
and
Austin
. This region is dominated by
prairie
and
steppe
. "Far West Texas" or the "
Trans-Pecos
" region is the state's Basin and Range Province. The most varied of the regions, this area includes Sand Hills, the
Stockton Plateau
, desert valleys, wooded mountain slopes and desert grasslands.
145
Texas has 3,700 named streams and 15 major rivers,
146
147
with the
Rio Grande
as the largest. Other major rivers include the
Pecos
, the
Brazos
Colorado
, and
Red River
. While Texas has few natural lakes, Texans have built more than a hundred
artificial reservoirs
148
The size and unique history of Texas make its regional affiliation debatable; it can be considered a Southern or a Southwestern state, or both. The vast geographic, economic, and cultural diversity within the state itself prohibits easy categorization of the whole state into a
recognized region of the United States
. Notable extremes range from
East Texas
which is often considered an extension of the
Deep South
, to
Far West Texas
which is generally acknowledged to be part of the
interior Southwest
149
Geology
Main article:
Geology of Texas
Palo Duro Canyon
Franklin Mountains State Park
Big Bend National Park
Texas is the southernmost part of the Great Plains, which ends in the south against the folded
Sierra Madre Occidental
of Mexico. The
continental crust
forms a stable
Mesoproterozoic
craton
which changes across a broad continental margin and transitional crust into true
oceanic crust
of the Gulf of Mexico. The oldest rocks in Texas date from the Mesoproterozoic and are about 1,600 million years old.
150
The margin created by the continental crust existed until
Laurasia
and
Gondwana
collided in the
Pennsylvanian
subperiod to form
Pangea
151
Pangea began to break up in the
Triassic
, but
seafloor spreading
to form the Gulf of Mexico occurred only in the mid- and
late Jurassic
. The shoreline shifted again to the eastern margin of the state and the Gulf of Mexico's passive margin began to form. Today 9 to 12 miles (14 to 19 km) of sediments are buried beneath the Texas continental shelf and a large proportion of remaining US
oil reserves
are here. The incipient Gulf of Mexico basin was restricted and seawater often evaporated completely to form thick
evaporite
deposits of Jurassic age. These salt deposits formed
salt dome
diapirs
, and are found in East Texas along the Gulf coast.
152
East Texas outcrops consist of
Cretaceous
and
Paleogene
sediments which contain important deposits of
Eocene
lignite
. The Mississippian and Pennsylvanian sediments in the north; Permian sediments in the west; and Cretaceous sediments in the east, along the Gulf coast and out on the Texas
continental shelf
contain oil.
Oligocene
volcanic
rocks are found in far west Texas in the
Big Bend
area. A blanket of
Miocene
sediments known as the
Ogallala formation
in the western high plains region is an important
aquifer
153
Located far from an active
plate tectonic
boundary, Texas has no
volcanoes
and few earthquakes.
154
Wildlife
See also:
List of mammals of Texas
List of birds of Texas
List of reptiles of Texas
, and
List of amphibians of Texas
Texas is home to 65 species of mammals, 213 species of reptiles and amphibians, including the
American green tree frog
, and the greatest diversity of bird life in the United States—590 native species in all.
155
At least 12 species have been introduced and now reproduce freely in Texas.
156
Texas plays host to several species of
wasps
, including an abundance of
Polistes exclamans
157
and is an important ground for the study of
Polistes annularis
158
During the spring Texas
wildflowers
such as the state flower, the
bluebonnet
, line highways throughout Texas. During the Johnson Administration the first lady,
Lady Bird Johnson
, worked to draw attention to Texas wildflowers.
159
Climate
Main article:
Climate of Texas
Köppen climate types in Texas
The large size of Texas and its location at the intersection of multiple
climate zones
gives the state highly variable weather. The
Panhandle
of the state has colder winters than North Texas, while the Gulf Coast has mild winters. Texas has wide variations in precipitation patterns. El Paso, on the western end of the state, averages 8.7 inches (220 mm) of annual rainfall,
160
while parts of southeast Texas average as much as 64 inches (1,600 mm) per year.
161
Dallas in the North Central region averages a more moderate 37 inches (940 mm) per year.
162
Snow falls multiple times each winter in the Panhandle and mountainous areas of West Texas, once or twice a year in North Texas, and once every few years in Central and East Texas. Snow falls south of San Antonio or on the coast only in rare circumstances. Of note is the
2004 Christmas Eve snowstorm
, when 6 inches (150 mm) of snow fell as far south as
Kingsville
, where the average high temperature in December is 65 °F.
163
Night-time summer temperatures range from the upper 50s °F (14 °C) in the West Texas mountains to 80 °F (27 °C) in Galveston.
164
165
The table below consists of averages for August (generally the warmest month) and January (generally the coldest) in selected cities in various regions of the state.
Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected cities in Texas
166
Location
August (°F)
August (°C)
January (°F)
January (°C)
Houston
94/75
34/24
63/54
17/12
San Antonio
96/74
35/23
63/40
17/5
Dallas
96/77
36/25
57/37
16/3
Austin
97/74
36/23
61/45
16/5
El Paso
92/67
33/21
57/32
14/0
Laredo
100/77
37/25
67/46
19/7
Amarillo
89/64
32/18
50/23
10/−4
Brownsville
94/76
34/24
70/51
21/11
Storms
See also:
List of Texas hurricanes
Thunderstorms
strike Texas often, especially the eastern and northern portions of the state.
Tornado Alley
covers the northern section of Texas. The state experiences the most
tornadoes
in the United States, an average of 139 a year. These strike most frequently in North Texas and the Panhandle.
167
Tornadoes in Texas generally occur in April, May, and June.
168
Some of the most destructive hurricanes in U.S. history have seriously impacted Texas. A hurricane in 1875 killed about 400 people in
Indianola
, followed by
another hurricane
in 1886 that destroyed the town. These events meant that
Galveston
took over as the chief port city. The
1900 Galveston hurricane
subsequently devastated that city, killing a number estimated at from 8,000 to 12,000 in the deadliest
natural disaster
in U.S. history.
110
In 2017,
Hurricane Harvey
caused a landfall in
Rockport
as a Category 4 Hurricane, causing significant damage, with its unprecedented amounts of rain over the
Greater Houston
area resulting in widespread and catastrophic flooding, affecting hundreds of thousands of homes. Harvey ultimately became the costliest hurricane worldwide, causing an estimated $198.6 billion in damage, surpassing the cost of
Hurricane Katrina
169
Other devastating Texas hurricanes include the
1915 Galveston hurricane
Hurricane Audrey
in 1957,
Hurricane Carla
in 1961,
Hurricane Beulah
in 1967,
Hurricane Alicia
in 1983,
Hurricane Rita
in 2005, and
Hurricane Ike
in 2008.
Tropical storms
have also caused their share of damage:
Allison
in 1989 and again
during 2001
Claudette
in 1979, and
Tropical Storm Imelda in 2019.
170
171
172
There is no substantial physical barrier between Texas and the
polar region
, and although rare, it is possible for arctic or polar
air masses
to penetrate Texas,
173
174
as occurred during the
February 13–17, 2021 North American winter storm
175
176
Usually, prevailing winds in North America push polar air masses to the southeast before they reach Texas. Because such incidents are rare, and, generally unexpected, they may result in crises such as the
2021 Texas power crisis
Greenhouse gases
Main article:
Climate change in Texas
As of 2017
[update]
, Texas emitted the most
greenhouse gases
in the U.S.
177
As of 2017
[update]
the state emits about 1,600 billion pounds (707 million metric tons) of carbon dioxide annually.
177
As an independent state, Texas would rank as the world's seventh-largest producer of greenhouse gases.
178
Causes of the state's vast greenhouse gas emissions include the state's large number of
coal power plants
and the state's refining and manufacturing industries.
178
In 2010, there were 2,553 "emission events" which poured 44.6 million pounds (20,200 metric tons) of contaminants into the Texas sky.
179
Administrative divisions
See also:
List of counties in Texas
List of Texas metropolitan areas
, and
List of municipalities in Texas
Largest city in Texas
by year
180
Year(s)
City
1850–1870
San Antonio
181
1870–1890
Galveston
182
1890–1900
Dallas
180
1900–1930
San Antonio
181
1930–present
Houston
183
Texas Counties
and
municipalities
Colonia
in the
Rio Grande Valley
near the
Mexico–United States border
The state has three cities with populations exceeding one million: Houston, San Antonio, and Dallas.
184
These three rank among the 10 most populous cities of the United States. As of 2020, six Texas cities had populations greater than 600,000. Austin, Fort Worth, and El Paso are among the 20
largest U.S. cities
. Texas has four
metropolitan areas
with populations greater than a million:
Dallas–Fort Worth–Arlington
Houston–Sugar Land–The Woodlands
San Antonio–New Braunfels
, and
Austin–Round Rock–San Marcos
. The Dallas–Fort Worth and Houston metropolitan areas number about 7.5 million and 7 million residents as of 2019, respectively.
185
Three
interstate highways
I-35
to the west (Dallas–Fort Worth to San Antonio, with Austin in between),
I-45
to the east (Dallas to Houston), and
I-10
to the south (San Antonio to Houston) define the
Texas Urban Triangle
region. The region of 60,000 square miles (160,000 km
) contains most of the state's largest cities and metropolitan areas as well as 17 million people, nearly 75 percent of Texas's total population.
186
Houston and Dallas have been recognized as
world cities
187
These cities are spread out amongst the state.
188
In contrast to the cities, unincorporated rural settlements known as
colonias
often lack basic infrastructure and are marked by poverty.
189
The office of the Texas Attorney General stated, in 2011, that Texas had about 2,294 colonias, and estimates about 500,000 lived in the colonias.
Hidalgo County
, as of 2011, has the largest number of colonias.
190
Texas has the largest number of people living in
colonias
of all states.
189
Texas has
254 counties
, more than any other state.
191
Each county runs on
Commissioners' Court
system consisting of four elected commissioners (one from each of four precincts in the county, roughly divided according to population) and a county judge elected at large from the entire county. County government runs similar to a "weak"
mayor-council
system; the county judge has no veto authority, but votes along with the other commissioners.
192
193
Although Texas permits cities and counties to enter "interlocal agreements" to share services, the state does not allow
consolidated city-county
governments, nor does it have
metropolitan governments
. Counties are not granted
home rule
status; their powers are strictly defined by state law.
194
195
The state does not have townships—areas within a county are either incorporated or unincorporated. Incorporated areas are part of a municipality. The county provides limited services to unincorporated areas and to some smaller incorporated areas. Municipalities are classified either "general law" cities or "home rule".
196
A municipality may elect home rule status once it exceeds 5,000 population with voter approval.
197
Texas also permits the creation of "special districts", which provide limited services. The most common is the
school district
, but can also include hospital districts, community college districts, and utility districts. Municipal, school district, and special district elections are
nonpartisan
198
though the party affiliation of a candidate may be well-known. County and state elections are partisan.
199
Largest cities or towns in Texas
2022 U.S. Census Bureau Estimate
200
Rank
Name
County
Pop.
Rank
Name
County
Pop.
Houston
Harris
2,302,878
11
Laredo
Webb
256,187
San Antonio
Bexar
1,472,909
12
Irving
Dallas
254,715
Dallas
Dallas
1,299,544
13
Garland
Dallas
240,854
Austin
Travis
974,447
14
Frisco
Collin
219,587
Fort Worth
Tarrant
956,709
15
McKinney
Collin
207,507
El Paso
El Paso
677,456
16
Grand Prairie
Dallas
201,843
Arlington
Tarrant
394,602
17
Amarillo
Potter
201,291
Corpus Christi
Nueces
316,239
18
Brownsville
Cameron
189,382
Plano
Collin
289,547
19
Killeen
Bell
159,172
10
Lubbock
Lubbock
263,930
20
Denton
Denton
150,353
Demographics
Main article:
Demographics of Texas
Historical population
Census
Pop.
Note
%±
1850
212,592
1860
604,215
184.2%
1870
818,579
35.5%
1880
1,591,749
94.5%
1890
2,235,527
40.4%
1900
3,048,710
36.4%
1910
3,896,542
27.8%
1920
4,663,228
19.7%
1930
5,824,715
24.9%
1940
6,414,824
10.1%
1950
7,711,194
20.2%
1960
9,579,677
24.2%
1970
11,196,730
16.9%
1980
14,229,191
27.1%
1990
16,986,510
19.4%
2000
20,851,820
22.8%
2010
25,145,561
20.6%
2020
29,145,505
15.9%
2025 (est.)
31,709,821
8.8%
1910–2020
201
Texas population density map
The resident population of Texas was 29,145,505 in the
2020 census
, a 15.9% increase since the
2010 census
201
At the 2020 census, the apportioned population of Texas stood at 29,183,290.
202
The
U.S. Census Bureau
estimated the population was 31,290,831 as of July 1, 2024, an increase of 7.4% since the
2020 census
Texas is the second-most populous state in the United States after California and the only other U.S. state to surpass a total estimated population of 30 million people as of July 2, 2022.
203
204
In 2015, Texas had 4.7 million foreign-born residents, about 17% of the population and 21.6% of the state workforce.
205
The major countries of origin for Texan immigrants were Mexico (55.1% of immigrants), India (5%), El Salvador (4.3%), Vietnam (3.7%), and China (2.3%).
205
Of immigrant residents, 35.8 percent were
naturalized
U.S. citizens.
205
As of 2018, the population increased to 4.9 million foreign-born residents or 17.2% of the state population, up from 2,899,642 in 2000.
206
In 2014, there were an estimated 1.7 million undocumented immigrants in Texas, making up 35% of the total Texas immigrant population and 6.1% of the total state population.
205
In addition to the state's foreign-born population, 4.1 million Texans (15% of the state's population) were born in the United States yet had at least one immigrant parent.
205
According to the
American Community Survey
's 2019 estimates, 1,739,000 residents were undocumented immigrants, a decrease of 103,000 since 2014 but an increase of 142,000 since 2016. Of the undocumented immigrant population, 951,000 had resided in Texas no more than 14 years; an estimated 788,000 had lived in Texas for 15 or more years.
207
Texas's
Rio Grande Valley
has seen significant migration from across the
U.S.–Mexico border
. During the
2014 crisis
, many
Central Americans
, including unaccompanied minors traveling alone from
Guatemala
Honduras
, and
El Salvador
, reached the state, overwhelming Border Patrol resources for a time. Many sought
asylum
in the United States.
208
209
Texas's population density as of 2020 is 110 people per square mile (42 people/km
) which is slightly higher than the average
population density
of the U.S. as a whole, at 93 people per square mile (36 people/km
). In contrast, while Texas and France are similarly sized geographically, the European country has a population density of 256 people per square mile (99 people/km
). Using
population-weighted density
note 1
, Texas has a density of 3,604 people per square mile (1,392 people/km
), lower than the US average, at 5,217 people per square mile (2,014 people/km
210
211
. Two-thirds of all Texans live in major metropolitan areas such as Houston.
According to
HUD
's 2022
Annual Homeless Assessment Report
, there were an estimated 24,432
homeless
people in Texas.
212
213
Race and ethnicity
Map of counties in Texas by racial and ethnic plurality, per the 2020 U.S. census
Non-Hispanic White
20–30%
30–40%
40–50%
50–60%
60–70%
70–80%
80–90%
Hispanic or Latino
40–50%
50–60%
60–70%
70–80%
80–90%
90%+
Ethnic composition as of the
2020 census
Race and ethnicity
214
Alone
Total
Hispanic or Latino
40.2%
Non-Hispanic White
39.7%
39.8%
African American
11.8%
12.8%
Asian
5.4%
6.1%
Native American
0.3%
1.4%
Pacific Islander
0.1%
0.2%
Other
0.4%
1.0%
Texas – racial and ethnic composition
Note: The US Census treats Hispanic/Latino as an ethnic category. This table excludes Latinos from the racial categories and assigns them to a separate category. Hispanics/Latinos may be of any race.
Race / Ethnicity
NH = Non-Hispanic
Pop 2000
215
Pop 2010
216
Pop 2020
217
% 2000
% 2010
% 2020
White
alone (NH)
10,933,313
11,397,345
11,584,597
52.43%
45.33%
39.75%
Black or African American
alone (NH)
2,364,255
2,886,825
3,444,712
11.34%
11.48%
11.82%
Native American
or
Alaska Native
alone (NH)
68,859
80,586
85,425
0.33%
0.32%
0.29%
Asian
alone (NH)
554,445
948,426
1,561,518
2.66%
3.77%
5.36%
Pacific Islander
alone (NH)
10,757
17,920
27,857
0.05%
0.07%
0.10%
Other race
alone (NH)
19,958
33,980
113,584
0.10%
0.14%
0.39%
Mixed race or Multiracial
(NH)
230,567
319,558
886,095
1.11%
1.27%
3.04%
Hispanic or Latino
(any race)
6,669,666
9,460,921
11,441,717
31.99%
37.62%
39.26%
Total
20,851,820
25,145,561
29,145,505
100.00%
100.00%
100.00%
In 2019,
non-Hispanic Whites
represented 41.2% of Texas's population, reflecting a national demographic shift.
218
219
220
Black people
made up 12.9%,
American Indians and Alaska Natives
1.0%,
Asian Americans
5.2%,
Native Hawaiians
and other
Pacific Islanders
0.1%, some other race 0.2%, and
two or more races
1.8%.
Hispanics or Latino Americans
of any race made up 39.7% of the estimated population.
221
At the 2020 census, the racial and ethnic composition of the state was 42.5%
White
(39.8% non-Hispanic White), 11.8% Black, 5.4% Asian, 0.3% American Indian and Alaska Native, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and other Pacific Islander, 13.6% some other race, 17.6% two or more races, and 40.2% Hispanic and Latino American of any race. Minority Americans make up 60.2% of the Texas population.
222
223
In 2010, 49% of all births were Hispanics; 35% were non-Hispanic White; 11.5% were non-Hispanic Black, and 4.3% were Asians/Pacific Islanders.
224
Based on U.S. Census Bureau data released in February 2011, for the first time in recent history, Texas's White population is below 50% (45%) and Hispanics grew to 38%. Between 2000 and 2010, the total population grew by 20.6%, but Hispanics and Latino Americans grew by 65%, whereas non-Hispanic Whites grew by only 4.2%.
225
Texas has the fifth highest rate of teenage births in the nation and a plurality of these are to Hispanics or Latinos.
226
227
As of 2022, Hispanics and Latinos of any race replaced the non-Hispanic White population as the largest share of the state's population.
228
Texas has the second-largest share of
Mexican Americans
in the US, making up 32.2% of the total population and 80% of the state's Hispanic population.
229
Other than Mexican, the largest self-reported ancestries in the state as of 2022 were
German
(8.1%),
(7.9%),
Irish
(5.8%), those identifying as
American
(4.6%),
Italian
(1.9%),
Indian
(1.9%),
Salvadoran
(1.4%),
Scottish
(1.3%),
Vietnamese
(1.1%),
Chinese
(1%),
Puerto Rican
(0.9%),
Polish
(0.9%),
Honduran
(0.8%),
Filipino
(0.8%), and
Scotch-Irish
(0.7%).
230
231
229
Languages
Main article:
Languages of Texas
Most common non-English languages
Language
Population
(as of 2010)
232
Spanish
29.2%
Vietnamese
0.8%
Chinese
0.6%
German
0.3%
Tagalog
0.3%
French
0.3%
Korean
and
Urdu
(tied)
0.2%
Hindi
0.2%
Arabic
0.2%
Niger-Congo languages
0.2%
The most common
accent
or
dialect
spoken by natives throughout Texas is sometimes referred to as
Texan English
, itself a sub-variety of a broader category of
American English
known as
Southern American English
233
234
Creole language
is spoken in some parts of East Texas.
235
In some areas of the state—particularly in the large cities—
Western American English
and
General American English
, is increasingly common.
Chicano English
—due to a growing Hispanic population—is widespread in South Texas, while
African-American English
is especially notable in historically minority areas of urban Texas.
At the 2020 American Community Survey's estimates, 64.9% of the population of Texas spoke only English, while 35.1% spoke a language other than English.
236
Roughly 30% of the total population spoke Spanish. By 2021, approximately 50,546 Texans spoke French or a
French-based creole language
. German and other West Germanic languages were spoken by 49,565 residents; Russian, Polish, and other Slavic languages by 37,444; Korean by 31,673; Chinese 86,370; Vietnamese 92,410; Tagalog 40,124; and Arabic by 47,170 Texans.
237
At the census of 2010, 65.8% (14,740,304) of Texas residents age
5 and older spoke only
at home, while 29.2% (6,543,702) spoke
Spanish
, 0.8 percent (168,886)
Vietnamese
, and
Chinese
(which includes
Cantonese
and
Mandarin
) was spoken by 0.6% (122,921) of the population over five.
232
Other languages spoken include
German
(including
Texas German
) by 0.3% (73,137),
Tagalog
with 0.3% (64,272) speakers, and
French
(including
Cajun French
) was spoken by 0.3% (55,773) of Texans.
232
Reportedly,
Cherokee
is the most widely spoken
Native American language
in Texas.
238
In total, 34.2% (7,660,406) of Texas's population aged five and older spoke a language at home other than English as of 2006.
232
Religion
See also:
List of cathedrals in Texas
Religious affiliation (2020)
239
Christian
75.5%
Catholic
28%
Protestant
47%
Other Christian
0.5%
Unaffiliated
20%
Jewish
1%
Muslim
1%
Buddhist
1%
Other faiths
5%
With the coming of Spanish Catholic and American Protestant missionary societies,
240
American Indian religions and spiritual traditions
dwindled. Since then, colonial and present-day Texas has become a predominantly Christian state, with 75.5% of the population identifying as such according to the
Public Religion Research Institute
in 2020.
241
St. Mary's Cathedral Basilica
of the
Archdiocese of Galveston-Houston
Among its majority Christian populace, the largest Christian denomination as of 2014 has been the
Catholic Church
, per the
Pew Research Center
at 23% of the population, although
Protestants
collectively constituted 50% of the Christian population in 2014;
242
in the 2020 study by the Public Religion Research Institute, the Catholic Church's membership increased to encompassing 28% of the population identifying with a religious or spiritual belief.
241
At the 2020
Association of Religion Data Archives
study, there were 5,905,142 Catholics in the state.
243
The largest Catholic jurisdictions in Texas are the
Archdiocese of Galveston–Houston
—the first and oldest
Latin Church
diocese in Texas
244
—the dioceses of
Dallas
and
Fort Worth
, and the
Archdiocese of San Antonio
First Baptist Church of Dallas
Being part of the strongly, socially conservative
Bible Belt
245
Protestants as a whole declined to 47% of the population in the 2020 study by the Public Religion Research Institute. Predominantly-white
Evangelical Protestantism
declined to 14% of the Protestant Christian population.
Mainline Protestants
in contrast made up 15% of Protestant Texas. Hispanic or Latino American-dominated Protestant churches and
historically Black or African American Protestantism
grew to a collective 13% of the Protestant population.
Evangelical Protestants were 31% of the population in 2014, and
Baptists
were the largest Evangelical tradition (14%);
242
according to the 2014 study, they made up the second-largest Mainline Protestant group behind
Methodists
(4%).
Nondenominational
and interdenominational Protestant Christians were the second largest Evangelical group (7%) followed by
Pentecostals
(4%). The largest Evangelical Baptists in the state were the
Southern Baptist Convention
(9%) and independent Baptists (3%). The
Assemblies of God USA
was the largest Evangelical Pentecostal denomination in 2014. Among
Mainline Protestants
, the
United Methodist Church
was the largest denomination (4%) and the
American Baptist Churches USA
comprised the second-largest Mainline Protestant group (2%).
According to the Pew Research Center in 2014, the state's largest historically African American Christian denominations were the
National Baptist Convention (USA)
and the
Church of God in Christ
. Black Methodists and other Christians made up less than 1 percent each of the Christian demographic. Other Christians made up 1 percent of the total Christian population, and the
Eastern
and
Oriental Orthodox
formed less than 1 percent of the statewide Christian populace. The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
is the largest
nontrinitarian
Christian group in Texas alongside the
Jehovah's Witnesses
242
Among its Protestant population, the Association of Religion Data Archives in 2020 determined Southern Baptists numbered 3,319,962; non-denominational Protestants 2,405,786 (including
Christian Churches and Churches of Christ
, and the
Churches of Christ
altogether numbering 2,758,353); and United Methodists 938,399 as the most numerous Protestant groups in the state.
243
Baptists altogether (Southern Baptists,
American Baptist Associates
, American Baptists,
Full Gospel Baptists
General Baptists
Free Will Baptists
, National Baptists,
National Baptists of America
National Missionary Baptists
National Primitive Baptists
, and
Progressive National Baptists
) numbered 3,837,306; Methodists within United Methodism, the
AME
AME Zion
CME
, and the
Free Methodist Church
numbered 1,026,453 Texans.
The same study tabulated 425,038 Pentecostals spread among the Assemblies of God,
Church of God (Cleveland)
, and Church of God in Christ. Nontrinitarian or
Oneness Pentecostals
numbered 7,042 between
Bible Way Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ
COOLJC
, and the
Pentecostal Assemblies of the World
. Other Christians, including the Eastern and Oriental Orthodox, numbered 55,329 altogether, and Episcopalians numbered 134,318, although the
Anglican Catholic Church
Anglican Church in America
Anglican Church in North America
Anglican Province of America
, and
Holy Catholic Church Anglican Rite
had a collective presence in 114 churches.
243
Non-Christian faiths accounted for 4% of the religious population in 2014, and 5% in 2020 per the Pew Research Center and Public Religion Research Institute.
242
241
Adherents of many other religions reside predominantly in the urban centers of Texas. Judaism, Islam, and Buddhism were tied as the second largest religion as of 2014 and 2020. In 2014, 18% of the state's population were religiously unaffiliated. Of the unaffiliated in 2014, an estimated 2% were
atheists
and 3%
agnostic
; in 2020, the Public Religion Research Institute noted the largest non-Christian groups were the
irreligious
(20%),
Judaism
(1%),
Islam
(1%),
Buddhism
(1%) and
Hinduism
, and other religions at less than 1 percent each.
In 1990, the Islamic population was about 140,000 with more recent figures putting the current number of Muslims between 350,000 and 400,000 as of 2012.
246
The Association of Religion Data Archives estimated there were 313,209 Muslims as of 2020.
243
Texas is the fifth-largest
Muslim
-populated state as of 2014.
247
The Jewish population was around 128,000 in 2008.
248
In 2020, the Jewish population grew to over 176,000.
249
According to ARDA's 2020 study, there were 43
Chabad
synagogues; 17,513
Conservative Jews
; 8,110
Orthodox Jews
; and 31,378
Reform Jews
. Around 146,000 adherents of religions such as
Hinduism
and
Sikhism
lived in Texas as of 2004.
250
By 2020, there were 112,153 Hindus and 20 Sikh gurdwaras; 60,882 Texans adhered to
Buddhism
Economy
Main article:
Economy of Texas
See also:
Texas locations by per capita income
and
Texas Stock Exchange
A geomap depicting income by county as of 2014
Texas counties by GDP (2021)
As of 2024, Texas had a
gross state product
(GSP) of $2.664 trillion, the
second highest of any U.S. state
251
Its GSP is greater than the GDP of
Brazil
, the world's
8th-largest economy
252
The state ranks 22nd among U.S. states with a median household income of $64,034, while the
poverty rate
is 14.2%, making Texas the state with 14th highest poverty rate (compared to 13.15% nationally). Texas's economy is the
second-largest of any country subdivision
globally, behind
California
. According to
Business Observer
, Texas ranked third among U.S. states for business formations in 2025, with 457,373 new businesses formed within the state that year.
253
Texas's large population, natural resources, cities, and centers of higher education have contributed to a large and diverse economy. Since oil was discovered, the state's economy has reflected the state of the
petroleum industry
. In recent times, urban centers of the state have increased in size, containing two-thirds of the population in 2005. The state's economic growth has led to
urban sprawl
and its associated symptoms.
254
As of May 2025, the unemployment rate was 4.1%.
255
In 2010,
Site Selection Magazine
ranked Texas as the most business-friendly state, in part because of the state's three-billion-dollar
Texas Enterprise Fund
256
As of 2024, it has the
second-highest number
(52) of
Fortune
500
companies headquartered in the United States.
257
In 2010, there were 346,000 millionaires in Texas, the second-largest population of millionaires in the nation.
258
In 2018, the number of
millionaire households
increased to 566,578.
259
Small businesses, or businesses that employ fewer than 500 people, make up 99.8% of businesses in Texas and employ approximately 5.1 million people, as of December 2025. The number of small businesses increased by 24% from 2017 and 2022.
260
Taxation
Texas has a reputation for a low tax.
261
According to the
Tax Foundation
, Texans' state and local tax burdens are seventh-lowest nationally; state and local taxes cost $3,580 per capita, or 8.4 percent of resident incomes.
262
Texas is one of seven states that lack a
state income tax
262
263
Instead, the state collects revenue from
property taxes
(though these are collected at the county, city, and school district level; Texas has a state constitutional prohibition against a state property tax) and
sales taxes
. The state sales tax rate is 6.25 percent,
262
264
but local taxing jurisdictions (cities, counties, special purpose districts, and transit authorities) may also impose sales and use tax up to 2
percent for a total maximum combined rate of 8.25 percent.
265
Gasoline tax, as of 2025, is 38.40 cents per gallon.
255
Texas receives more federal spending than it pays in federal taxes, receiving $1.21 for each dollar paid to the federal government.
266
To attract business, Texas has incentive programs worth $19 billion per year (2012); more than any other U.S. state.
267
268
Agriculture and mining
Cotton modules after harvest in West Texas
Texas longhorn
cattle in
Boerne, Texas
Texas has the most farms and the highest acreage in the United States. The state is ranked No. 1 for revenue generated from total livestock and livestock products. It is ranked No. 2 for total agricultural revenue, behind California.
269
At $7.4 billion or 56.7 percent of Texas's annual agricultural cash receipts, beef cattle production represents the largest single segment of Texas agriculture. This is followed by cotton at $1.9 billion (14.6 percent), greenhouse/nursery at $1.5 billion (11.4 percent),
broiler chickens
at $1.3 billion (10 percent), and dairy products at $947 million (7.3 percent).
270
Texas leads the nation in the production of cattle, horses, sheep, goats, wool, mohair and hay.
270
The state also leads the nation in production of cotton which is the number one crop grown in the state in terms of value.
269
271
272
The state grows significant amounts of cereal crops and produce.
269
Texas' fishing industry, along the
Texas Gulf Coast
, is vital to Texas' economy. In 2015, there were 80.4 million pounds of seafood landed, valued at more than $173.4 million.
273
With mineral resources, Texas leads in creating cement, crushed stone, lime, salt, sand and gravel.
269
Texas throughout the 21st century has been
hammered by drought
, costing the state billions of dollars in livestock and crops.
274
Energy
Main article:
Energy in Texas
See also:
Deregulation of the Texas electricity market
An oil well
Brazos Wind Farm
Ever since the discovery of oil at
Spindletop
, energy has been a dominant force politically and economically within the state.
275
If Texas were its own country it would be the sixth-largest oil producer in the world according to a 2014 study.
276
The
Railroad Commission of Texas
regulates the state's
oil and gas industry
, gas utilities, pipeline safety, safety in the
liquefied petroleum gas
industry, and surface coal and
uranium
mining. Until the 1970s, the commission controlled the price of petroleum because of its ability to regulate Texas's oil reserves. The founders of the
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) used the Texas agency as one of their models for petroleum price control.
277
As of January 1, 2021, Texas has
proved recoverable petroleum reserves
of about 15.6 billion barrels (2.48
10
) of
crude oil
(44% of the known U.S. reserves) and 9.5 billion barrels (1.51
10
) of
natural gas liquids
278
279
The state's
refineries
can process 5.95 million barrels (946,000 m
) of oil a day.
278
279
The
Port Arthur Refinery
in Southeast Texas is the largest refinery in the U.S.
278
Texas is also a leader in
natural gas
production at 28.8 billion cubic feet (820,000,000 m
) per day, some 32% of the nation's production.
280
Texas has 102.4 trillion cubic feet (2.90
10
12
) of gas reserves which is 23% of the nation's gas reserves.
278
279
Many
petroleum companies
are based in Texas such as:
ConocoPhillips
281
EOG Resources
ExxonMobil
282
Halliburton
283
Hilcorp,
Marathon Oil
284
Occidental Petroleum
285
Valero Energy
286
and
Western Refining
287
As of 2023, Texans consume, on average, the sixth most energy (of all types) in the nation per capita, following Alaska, Louisiana, North Dakota, Wyoming and West Virginia.
278
Unlike the rest of the nation, most of Texas is on its own
alternating current
power grid
, the
Texas Interconnection
. Texas has a
deregulated
electric service. Texas leads the nation in total net electricity production, generating 437,236 MWh in 2014, 89% more MWh than Florida, which ranked second.
288
289
The state is a leader in
renewable energy commercialization
; it produces the most
wind power
in the nation.
278
290
In 2014, 10.6% of the electricity consumed in Texas came from
wind turbines
291
The
Roscoe Wind Farm
in
Roscoe, Texas
, is one of the world's largest
wind farms
with a 781.5
megawatt
(MW) capacity.
292
The Energy Information Administration states the state's large agriculture and forestry industries could give Texas an enormous amount of
biomass
for use in biofuels. The state also has the highest
solar power
potential for development in the U.S.
278
Technology
Astronaut training at the
Johnson Space Center
in
Houston
With large universities systems coupled with initiatives like the Texas Enterprise Fund and the
Texas Emerging Technology Fund
, a wide array of different
high tech
industries have developed in Texas. The Austin area is nicknamed the "
Silicon Hills
" and the north Dallas area the "
Silicon Prairie
". Many high-tech companies are located in or have their headquarters in Texas (and
Austin in particular
), including
Dell
, Inc.,
293
Borland
294
Forcepoint
295
Indeed.com
296
Texas Instruments
297
Perot Systems
298
Rackspace
and
AT&T
299
300
301
The
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
's
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
(NASA JSC) is located in Southeast Houston. Both
SpaceX
and
Blue Origin
have their test facilities in Texas.
302
303
Fort Worth
hosts both
Lockheed Martin
's
Aeronautics division
and
Bell Helicopter Textron
304
305
Lockheed builds the
F-16 Fighting Falcon
, the largest Western fighter program, and its successor, the
F-35 Lightning II
in Fort Worth.
306
Commerce
Texas has strong commercial sector consisting of
retail
wholesale
, banking and insurance, and construction sectors.
13
Texas further has a diverse economy, with multiple
Fortune
500 companies not based on Texas traditional industries such as
AT&T
Kimberly-Clark
J. C. Penney
Whole Foods Market
, and
Tenet Healthcare
307
Nationally, the Dallas–Fort Worth area, home to the
second shopping mall
in the United States, has the most shopping malls per capita of any American metropolitan statistical area.
308
Mexico, the state's largest trading partner, imports a third of the state's exports because of the
North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA). NAFTA has encouraged the formation of
maquiladoras
on the Texas–Mexico border.
309
Transportation
Main article:
Transportation in Texas
The
High Five Interchange
in
Dallas
Although the state's large size and rough terrain have historically complicated transportation, Texas has compensated by building the nation's largest highway and railway systems. The
regulatory authority
, the
Texas Department of Transportation
(TxDOT), maintains the state's highway system, and regulates aviation and
public transportation
systems.
310
311
Texas is an important
transportation hub
in America - from the Dallas/Fort Worth area, trucks can reach 93 percent of the nation's population within 48 hours, and 37 percent within 24 hours.
312
Texas has 33
foreign trade zones
(FTZ), the most in the nation.
313
In 2004, a combined total of $298 billion of goods passed through Texas FTZs.
313
Highways
Main article:
Texas state highways
"Welcome to Texas" sign, entering the state from Arkansas on
Interstate 30
The first Texas freeway was the
Gulf Freeway
opened in 1948 in Houston.
314
As of 2005, 79,535 miles (127,999 km) of public highway crisscrossed Texas (up from 71,000 miles or 114,000 km in 1984).
315
To fund recent growth in the state highways, Texas has
17 toll roads
with several additional
tollways
proposed.
316
In
Central Texas
, the southern section of the
State Highway 130
toll road has a speed limit of 85 miles per hour (137 km/h), the highest in the nation.
317
All federal and state highways in Texas are paved.
Airports
See also:
List of airports in Texas
Terminal D at
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
Terminal E at
George Bush Intercontinental Airport
in Houston
Texas has 730 airports, second-most of any state in the nation. Largest in Texas by size and passengers served,
Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
(DFW) is the second-largest by area in the United States, and fourth in the world with 18,076 acres (73.15 km
).
318
In traffic, DFW airport is the busiest in the state, the fourth busiest in the United States,
319
and sixth worldwide.
320
Southwest Airlines
, headquartered in Dallas, has its operations at
Dallas Love Field
321
American Airlines Group
's
American
American Eagle
, the world's largest airline in total passengers-miles transported and passenger fleet size,
322
uses DFW as its largest and main
hub
Texas's second-largest air facility is Houston's
George Bush Intercontinental Airport
(IAH). It serves as the largest hub for
United Airlines
, the world's third-largest airline, by passenger-miles flown.
323
IAH offers service to the most Mexican destinations of any U.S. airport.
324
325
The next five largest airports in the state all serve more than three million passengers annually; they include
Austin-Bergstrom International Airport
William P. Hobby Airport
San Antonio International Airport
Dallas Love Field
and
El Paso International Airport
. The smallest airport in the state to be designated an international airport is
Del Rio International Airport
Ports
Main article:
List of ports in the United States
Port of Houston
along the
Houston Ship Channel
Around 1,150
seaports
dot Texas's coast with over 1,000 miles (1,600 km) of
channels
326
Ports employ nearly one-million people and handle an average of 317 million
metric tons
327
Texas ports connect with the rest of the U.S. Atlantic seaboard with the
Gulf
section of the
Intracoastal Waterway
326
The
Port of Houston
today is the busiest port in the United States in foreign tonnage, second in overall tonnage, and
tenth
worldwide in tonnage.
328
The
Houston Ship Channel
spans 530 feet (160 m) wide by 45 feet (14 m) deep by 50 miles (80 km) long.
329
Railroads
DART rail
in Dallas
METRORail
in Houston
See also:
List of Texas railroads
Part of the state's
tradition
of cowboys is derived from the massive
cattle drives
which its ranchers organized in the nineteenth century to
drive
livestock to railroads and markets.
The first railroad to operate in Texas was the
Buffalo Bayou, Brazos and Colorado Railway
, opening in August 1853.
330
The first railroad to enter Texas from the north, completed in 1872, was the
Missouri–Kansas–Texas Railroad
331
With increasing railroad access, the ranchers did not have to take their livestock up to the Midwest and shipped beef out from Texas. This caused a decline in the economies of the cow towns.
citation needed
Since 1911, Texas has led the nation in length of railroad miles within the state. Texas railway length peaked in 1932 at 17,078 miles (27,484 km), but declined to 14,006 miles (22,540 km) by 2000. While the
Railroad Commission of Texas
originally regulated state railroads, in 2005 the state reassigned these duties to TxDOT.
332
In the Dallas–Fort Worth area, three public transit agencies provide rail service:
Dallas Area Rapid Transit
(DART),
Denton County Transportation Authority
(DCTA), and
Trinity Metro
. DART began operating the first light rail system in the Southwest United States in 1996.
333
The
Trinity Railway Express
(TRE)
commuter rail
service, which connects Fort Worth and Dallas, is provided by
Trinity Metro
and DART.
334
Trinity Metro also operates the
TEXRail
commuter rail line, connecting downtown Fort Worth and Northeast Tarrant County to DFW Airport.
335
The
A-train
commuter rail line, operated by DCTA, acts as an extension of the DART Green line into Denton County.
336
In the Austin area,
Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority
operates a commuter rail service known as
Capital MetroRail
to the northwestern suburbs. The
Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas
(METRO) operates light rail lines called
METRORail
in the Houston area.
337
Amtrak
provides Texas with limited intercity passenger rail service. Three scheduled routes serve the state: the daily
Texas Eagle
(Chicago–San Antonio)
; the tri-weekly
Sunset Limited
(New Orleans–Los Angeles)
, with stops in Texas; and the daily
Heartland Flyer
(Fort Worth–Oklahoma City)
. Texas may get one of the nation's first
high-speed rail
line. Plans for a privately funded high-speed rail line between Dallas and Houston have been planned by the
Texas Central Railway
company.
338
Culture
Main article:
Culture of Texas
See also:
List of Texas symbols
The Alamo
is one of the most recognized symbols of Texas.
Historically, Texas culture comes from a blend of mostly Southern
(Dixie)
, Western (frontier), and Southwestern
(Mexican/Anglo fusion)
influences, varying in degrees of such from one intrastate region to another. A popular food item, the
breakfast burrito
, draws from all three, having a soft flour tortilla wrapped around bacon and scrambled eggs or other hot, cooked fillings. Adding to Texas's traditional culture, established in the 18th and 19th centuries, immigration has made Texas a
melting pot
of cultures from around the world.
339
340
Texas has made a strong mark on national and international pop culture. The entire state is strongly associated with the image of the
cowboy
shown in
westerns
and in
country western music
. The state's numerous oil tycoons are also a popular pop culture topic as seen in the hit TV series
Dallas
341
The internationally known slogan "
Don't Mess with Texas
" began as an anti-littering
advertisement
. Since the campaign's inception in 1986, the phrase has become "an identity statement, a declaration of Texas swagger".
342
Texas self-perception
Big Tex
presided over every
Texas State Fair
since 1952 until it was destroyed by a fire in 2012. Since then a new Big Tex was created.
"Texas-sized" describes something that is about the size of Texas,
343
344
or something (usually but not always originating from Texas) that is large compared to other objects of its type.
345
346
347
Texas was the largest U.S. state until
Alaska
became a state in 1959. The phrase "everything is bigger in Texas" has been in regular use since at least 1950.
348
Arts
Further information:
Music of Texas
ZZ Top
performing in 2016. The
power trio
are considered cultural icons of Texas and
blues
-inspired
rock music
Houston is one of only five American cities with permanent professional resident companies in all the major performing arts disciplines: the
Houston Grand Opera
, the
Houston Symphony Orchestra
, the
Houston Ballet
, and
The Alley Theatre
349
Known for the vibrancy of its
visual
and
performing arts
, the
Houston Theater District
ranks second in the country in the number of theater seats in a concentrated downtown area, with 12,948 seats for live performances and 1,480 movie seats.
349
Founded in 1892,
Modern Art Museum of Fort Worth
, also called "The Modern", is Texas's oldest art museum. Fort Worth also has the
Kimbell Art Museum
, the
Amon Carter Museum
, the
National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame
, the
Will Rogers Memorial Center
, and the
Bass Performance Hall
downtown. The
Arts District
of
Downtown Dallas
has arts venues such as the
Dallas Museum of Art
, the
Morton H. Meyerson Symphony Center
the Margot and Bill Winspear Opera House
the Trammell & Margaret Crow Collection of Asian Art
, and the
Nasher Sculpture Center
350
Houston Symphony
at the
Jones Hall
The
Deep Ellum
district within Dallas became popular during the 1920s and 1930s as the prime
jazz
and
blues
hotspot in the Southern United States. The name Deep Ellum comes from local people pronouncing "Deep Elm" as "Deep Ellum".
351
Artists such as
Blind Lemon Jefferson
Robert Johnson
, Huddie "
Lead Belly
" Ledbetter, and
Bessie Smith
played in early Deep Ellum clubs.
352
Austin,
The Live Music Capital of the World
, boasts "more live music venues per capita than such music hotbeds as Nashville, Memphis, Los Angeles, Las Vegas or New York City".
353
The city's music revolves around the
nightclubs
on
6th Street
; events like the film, music, and
multimedia
festival
South by Southwest
; the longest-running concert music program on American television,
Austin City Limits
; and the
Austin City Limits Music Festival
held in
Zilker Park
354
Since 1980, San Antonio has evolved into "The
Tejano Music
Capital Of The World".
355
The
Tejano Music Awards
have provided a forum to create greater awareness and appreciation for Tejano music and culture.
356
Sports
Main article:
Sports in Texas
Further information:
List of University Interscholastic League events
AT&T Stadium
, home of the
Dallas Cowboys
, who are commonly known as
America's Team
Playoff game between the
San Antonio Spurs
and the
Dallas Mavericks
in
2014
; the Spurs won the
NBA Finals
that year.
Texan baseball fans attending a game between the state's two
MLB
teams (
Texas Rangers
and
Houston Astros
) at
Globe Life Field
in
Arlington
Within the
"Big Four" professional leagues
, Texas has two
NFL
teams (the
Dallas Cowboys
and the
Houston Texans
), two
MLB
teams (the
Houston Astros
and the
Texas Rangers
),
357
358
three
NBA
teams (the
San Antonio Spurs
, the
Houston Rockets
, and the
Dallas Mavericks
), and one
NHL
team (the
Dallas Stars
). The
Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex
is one of only
twelve American metropolitan areas that host sports teams from all the "Big Four" professional leagues
. Outside of the "Big Four", Texas also has a
WNBA
team (the
Dallas Wings
), three
Major League Soccer
teams (
Austin FC
Houston Dynamo FC
and
FC Dallas
), and one
NWSL
team (the
Houston Dash
).
Collegiate athletics
have deep significance in Texas culture, especially
football
. The state has twelve
Division I-FBS
schools, the most in the nation. Four of the state's schools claim at least one national championship in football: the Texas Longhorns, the Texas A&M Aggies, the TCU Horned Frogs, and the SMU Mustangs.
359
360
361
362
According to a survey of Division I-A coaches, the
rivalry
between the
University of Oklahoma
and the University of Texas at Austin, the
Red River Shootout
, ranks the third-best in the nation.
363
The TCU Horned Frogs and SMU Mustangs also share a rivalry and compete annually in the
Battle for the Iron Skillet
. A fierce rivalry, the
Lone Star Showdown
, also exists between the state's two largest universities, Texas A&M University and the University of Texas at Austin. The athletics portion of the Lone Star Showdown rivalry was paused between 2012, when Texas A&M left the Big 12 and joined the SEC, and 2024, when Texas joined them.
364
The
University Interscholastic League
(UIL) organizes most primary and secondary school competitions. Events organized by UIL include contests in athletics (the most popular being
high school football
) as well as artistic and academic subjects.
365
Rodeo
(the state sport) in
Austin
Texans also enjoy
rodeo
. The world's first rodeo was hosted in
Pecos, Texas
366
The annual
Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo
is the largest rodeo in the world. The
Southwestern Exposition and Livestock Show
in Fort Worth is the oldest continuously running rodeo incorporating many of the state's most historic traditions into its annual events. Dallas hosts the
State Fair of Texas
each year at
Fair Park
367
Texas Motor Speedway
hosts annual
NASCAR Cup Series
and
IndyCar Series
auto races since 1997. Since 2012, Austin's
Circuit of the Americas
plays host to a round of the
Formula 1
World Championship.
368
The
Panther City Lacrosse Club
is a professional lacrosse team in the
National Lacrosse League
. They have played local matches at Dickies Arena in Fort Worth, Texas since their inaugural 2021–2022 season.
369
Education
Main article:
Education in Texas
The second
president of the Republic of Texas
Mirabeau B. Lamar
, is known as the
Father of Texas Education
. During his term, the state set aside three
leagues
in each county for public schools. An additional 50 leagues of land set aside for the support of two universities would later become the basis of the state's
Permanent University Fund
370
Lamar's actions set the foundation for a Texas-wide public school system.
371
Texas has
over 1,000
school districts
, all administered by the
Texas Education Agency
, and all districts except the
Stafford Municipal School District
are independent from municipal government and many cross city boundaries.
372
School districts have the power to
tax
their residents and to assert
eminent domain
over privately owned property. Due to court-mandated equitable school financing, the state has a tax redistribution system called the "
Robin Hood plan
" which transfers property tax revenue from wealthy school districts to poor ones.
373
The TEA has no authority over private or
homeschooling
activities.
374
Students in Texas take the
State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness
(STAAR) in primary and secondary school. STAAR assess students' attainment of
reading
, writing,
mathematics
, science, and
social studies
skills required under Texas education standards and the
No Child Left Behind Act
. The test replaced the
Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills
(TAKS) test in the 2011–2012 school year.
375
Generally prohibited in the
Western world
school corporal punishment
is not unusual in the more conservative, rural areas of the state,
376
377
378
with 28,569 public school students
paddled
at least one time,
according to government data for the 2011–2012 school year.
379
The rate of school corporal punishment in Texas is surpassed only by
Mississippi
Alabama
, and
Arkansas
379
Higher education
Further information:
List of colleges and universities in Texas
The
University of Texas at Austin
University of Houston
Texas A&M University
Rice University
The state's two most widely recognized flagship universities are
The University of Texas at Austin
and
Texas A&M University
, ranked as the 21st
380
and 41st
381
best universities in the nation according to 2020's latest Center for World University Rankings report, respectively. Some observers
382
also include the
University of Houston
and
Texas Tech University
as tier one flagships alongside UT Austin and A&M.
383
384
The
Texas Higher Education Coordinating Board
ranks the state's public universities into three distinct tiers:
385
National Research Universities (Tier 1)
386
387
The University of Texas at Austin
Texas A&M University
Texas Tech University
University of Houston
Rice University
The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston
The University of Texas at Arlington
The University of Texas at Dallas
The University of North Texas
The University of Texas at El Paso
Emerging Research Universities (Tier 2)
385
The University of Texas at San Antonio
Texas State University
Comprehensive Universities (Tier 3)
385
All other public universities (25 in total)
The Carnegie Foundation classifies six of Texas's universities as Tier One research institutions:
388
The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston
Rice University
The University of Texas at Austin
Texas A&M University
University of Houston
Texas Tech University
Texas's alternative affirmative action plan,
Texas House Bill 588
, guarantees Texas students who graduated in the
top 10
percent of their high school class automatic admission to state-funded universities. This does not apply to
The University of Texas at Austin
, which automatically admits Texas students who graduated in the
top 6
percent of their high school class.
389
The bill encourages demographic diversity while attempting to avoid problems stemming from the
Hopwood v. Texas
(1996) case.
390
Thirty-six public universities exist in Texas, of which 32 belong to one of the six state university systems.
391
392
Discovery of minerals on
Permanent University Fund
land, particularly oil, has helped fund the rapid growth of the state's two largest university systems: the
University of Texas System
and the
Texas A&M System
. The four other university systems: the
University of Houston System
, the
University of North Texas System
, the
Texas State System
, and the
Texas Tech System
are not funded by the Permanent University Fund.
393
The University of Texas at Austin and Texas A&M University are the flagship universities of the
University of Texas System
and
Texas A&M University System
, respectively. Both were established by the Texas Constitution and hold stakes in the Permanent University Fund.
393
The state has sought to expand the number of flagship universities by elevating some of its seven institutions designated as "emerging research universities". The two expected to emerge first are the University of Houston and Texas Tech University, likely in that order according to discussions on the House floor of the 82nd Texas Legislature.
394
The state is home to various private institutions of higher learning—ranging from liberal arts colleges to a nationally recognized top-tier research university.
Rice University
in Houston is one of the leading teaching and research universities of the United States and is ranked the nation's 17th-best overall university by
U.S. News & World Report
395
Trinity University
, a private, primarily undergraduate liberal arts university in San Antonio, has ranked first among universities granting primarily bachelor's and select master's degrees in the Western United States for 20 consecutive years by
U.S. News
396
Private universities include
Abilene Christian University
Austin College
Baylor University
University of Mary Hardin–Baylor
, and
Southwestern University
397
398
399
Universities in Texas host three presidential libraries:
George Bush Presidential Library
at Texas A&M University,
400
the
Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum
at The University of Texas at Austin,
401
402
and the
George W. Bush Presidential Library
at
Southern Methodist University
403
Healthcare
Main article:
Healthcare in Texas
See also:
List of hospitals in Texas
Notwithstanding the concentration of elite medical centers in the state,
The Commonwealth Fund
ranks the Texas healthcare system the third worst in the nation.
404
Texas ranks close to last in access to healthcare, quality of care, avoidable hospital spending, and equity.
404
In May 2006, Texas initiated the program "code red" in response to the report the state had 25.1 percent of the population without health insurance, the largest proportion in the nation.
405
The
Trust for America's Health
ranked Texas 15th highest in adult
obesity
: 27.2 percent of the state's population is obese.
406
The 2008
Men's Health
obesity survey ranked four Texas cities among the top 25 fattest cities in America: Houston ranked 6th, Dallas 7th, El Paso 8th, and
Arlington
14th.
407
Texas had only one city (Austin, ranked 21st) in the top 25 "fittest cities" in America.
407
The state is ranked forty-second in the percentage of residents who engage in regular exercise according to a 2007 study.
408
Texas has the
highest maternal mortality rate
in the developed world, and the rate by which Texas women died from pregnancy-related complications doubled from 2010 to 2014, to 23.8 per 100,000—a rate unmatched in any other U.S. state or economically developed country.
409
In May 2021, the state legislature passed the
Texas Heartbeat Act
, which banned
abortion
from as early as six weeks of pregnancy, except to save the life of the mother. The Act allows private citizens to sue abortion providers and anyone else who assists in an abortion, except for the woman on whom the abortion is performed.
410
411
On August 25, 2022, another law took effect that made committing abortion at any stage of pregnancy a felony punishable by life in prison.
412
Access to allergy and immunology specialists in Texas is unevenly distributed. While the state is served by approximately 462 allergists and immunologists, these specialists are primarily concentrated in major urban centers such as Dallas, Houston, and Austin. In rural areas of Texas, the average availability is significantly lower, with approximately one specialist for every 50,000 residents.
413
Medical research
The
Texas Medical Center
in Houston
Texas has many elite research medical centers. The state has 15
medical schools
414
four dental schools,
415
and two
optometry
schools.
416
Texas has two
Biosafety Level 4
(BSL-4) laboratories: one at
The University of Texas Medical Branch
(UTMB) in Galveston,
417
and the other at the
Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research
in San Antonio—the first privately owned BSL-4 lab in the United States.
418
The
Texas Medical Center
in Houston holds the world's largest concentration of research and healthcare institutions, with over 50 member institutions.
419
Texas Medical Center performs the most heart transplants in the world.
420
The
University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center
in Houston is a highly regarded academic institution that centers around cancer patient care, research, education and prevention.
421
San Antonio's
South Texas Medical Center
facilities rank sixth in clinical medicine research impact in the United States.
422
The
University of Texas Health Science Center
is another highly ranked research and educational institution in San Antonio.
423
424
Both the
American Heart Association
and the
University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center
call Dallas home.
425
The
institution's medical school
employs the most medical school
Nobel laureates
in the world.
425
426
Government and politics
The current
Texas Constitution
was adopted in 1876. Like many
states
, it explicitly provides for a separation of powers. The state's Bill of Rights is much larger than its
federal counterpart
, and has provisions unique to Texas.
427
State government
Main article:
Government of Texas
Further information:
Law of Texas
See also:
List of Texas state agencies
The
Texas State Capitol
at night
Texas has a plural
executive branch
system limiting the power of the governor, which is a weak executive compared to some other states. Except for the
secretary of state
, voters elect executive officers independently; candidates are directly answerable to the public, not the governor.
428
This election system has led to some executive branches split between parties and reduced the ability of the governor to carry out a program. When
Republican
president
George W. Bush
served as Texas's governor, the state had a
Democratic
lieutenant governor,
Bob Bullock
. The executive branch positions consist of the
governor
lieutenant governor
, comptroller of public accounts, land commissioner,
attorney general
, agriculture commissioner, the three-member
Texas Railroad Commission
, the State Board of Education, and the secretary of state.
428
The
bicameral
Texas Legislature
consists of the
House of Representatives
, with 150 members, and a
Senate
, with 31 members. The
Speaker of the House
leads the House, and the lieutenant governor, the Senate.
429
The Legislature meets in regular session biennially for just over a hundred days, but the governor can call for special sessions as often as desired (notably, the Legislature cannot call itself into session).
430
The state's
fiscal year
begins September
1.
431
The
judiciary of Texas
is among the most complex in the United States, with many layers and overlapping jurisdictions. Texas has two courts of last resort: the
Texas Supreme Court
, for civil cases, and the
Texas Court of Criminal Appeals
. Except for some municipal benches, partisan elections select judges at all levels of the judiciary; the governor fills vacancies by appointment.
432
Texas is notable for
its use of capital punishment
, having led the country in executions since capital punishment was reinstated in the
Gregg v. Georgia
case.
433
The
Texas Ranger Division
of the
Texas Department of Public Safety
is a
law enforcement agency
with statewide
jurisdiction
. Over the years, the Texas Rangers have investigated crimes ranging from
murder
to political corruption. They have acted as
riot police
and as detectives, protected the Texas governor, tracked down fugitives, and functioned as a paramilitary force. The Texas Rangers were unofficially created by
Stephen F. Austin
in 1823 and formally constituted in 1835. The Rangers were integral to several important events of Texas history and some of the best-known criminal cases in the history of the
Old West
434
The Texas constitution defines the responsibilities of county governments, which serve as agents of the state. Commissioners court and court judges are elected to serve as the administrative arm. Most cities in the state, those over 5,000 in population, have
home-rule
governments. The vast majority of these have charters for
council-manager
forms of government, by which voters elect council members, who hire a professional city manager as an operating officer.
435
Politics
Main article:
Politics of Texas
Further information:
Political party strength in Texas
See also:
Republican Party of Texas
and
Texas Democratic Party
Lyndon B. Johnson
of Texas, 36th president of the United States
George W. Bush
of Texas, 43rd president of the United States
The Democratic Party dominated
Texas politics
from the turn of the 20th century, imposing racial segregation and white supremacy. It held power until after passage in the mid-1960s of national civil rights legislation enforcing constitutional rights of all citizens.
436
437
The state's conservative White voters began to support Republican presidential candidates by the mid-20th century. After this period, they supported Republicans for local and state offices as well, and most Whites became Republican Party members.
438
The party also attracted some minorities, but many have continued to vote for Democratic candidates. The shift to the Republican Party is much-attributed to the fact the Democratic Party became increasingly
liberal
during the 20th century, and thus increasingly out-of-touch with the average Texas voter.
439
As Texas was always a
conservative
state, voters switched to the Republicans, which now more closely reflected their beliefs.
439
440
Commentators have also attributed the shift to Republican political consultant
Karl Rove
, who managed numerous political campaigns in Texas in the 1980s and 1990s.
440
Other stated reasons included court-ordered redistricting and the growing Sun Belt cities' conservatism unlike the liberal tradition of their northeastern counterparts as well as the popularity of Republican party in the suburbs.
122
The
2003 Texas redistricting
of Congressional districts led by Republican
Tom DeLay
, was called by
The New York Times
"an extreme case of partisan
gerrymandering
".
441
A group of Democratic legislators, the "Texas Eleven", fled the state in a
quorum
-busting effort to prevent the legislature from acting, but was unsuccessful.
442
The state had already redistricted following the 2000 census. Despite these efforts, the legislature passed a map heavily in favor of Republicans, based on 2000 data and ignoring the estimated nearly one million new residents in the state since then. Career attorneys and analysts at the Department of Justice objected to the plan as diluting the votes of African American and Hispanic voters, but political appointees overrode them and approved it.
441
Legal challenges to the redistricting reached the national
Supreme Court
in the case
League of United Latin American Citizens v. Perry
(2006), but the court ruled in favor of the state (and Republicans).
443
In the
2014 Texas elections
, the
Tea Party movement
made large gains, with numerous Tea Party favorites being elected into office, including
Dan Patrick
as lieutenant governor,
444
445
Ken Paxton
as attorney general,
444
446
in addition to numerous other candidates
446
including conservative Republican
Greg Abbott
as governor.
447
Texas voters lean toward
fiscal conservatism
, while enjoying the benefits of significant federal investment in the state in military and other facilities achieved by the power of the Solid South in the 20th century. They also tend to have
socially conservative
values.
261
448
Since 1980, most Texas voters have supported Republican presidential candidates. Austin, Dallas, Houston, San Antonio, and El Paso consistently lean Democratic in both local and statewide elections.
124
Residents of counties along the
Rio Grande
closer to the
Mexico–United States border
, where there are many Latino residents, generally vote for Democratic Party candidates, while most other rural and suburban areas of Texas have shifted to voting for Republican Party candidates.
449
450
As of the
midterm elections of 2022
, a large majority of the members of Texas's
U.S. House
delegation are
Republican
, along with both
U.S. Senators
. In the
119th United States Congress
, of the 38
congressional districts in Texas
, 25 are held by Republicans and 13 by Democrats. Texas's Senators are
John Cornyn
and
Ted Cruz
. Since 1994, Texans have not elected a Democrat to a statewide office. The state's Democratic voters are made up primarily by liberal and
minority groups
in Austin, Beaumont, Dallas, El Paso, Houston, and San Antonio as well as minority voters in East and South Texas.
451
452
453
According to a study by the
Cato Institute
, Texas ranks last in personal freedom among the states, by factors including incarceration rates, cannabis laws, civil asset forfeiture policies, educational freedom, gambling laws, marriage freedom, and travel freedom.
454
455
Lesser parties that have ballot access are the
Green Party
and the
Libertarian Party
456
Criminal law
Main article:
Crime in Texas
See also:
List of law enforcement agencies in Texas
Texas has a reputation of very harsh criminal punishment for criminal offenses. It is one of the 32 states that practice
capital punishment
, and since the
US Supreme Court
allowed capital punishment to resume in 1976, 40% of all U.S. executions have taken place in Texas.
457
In 2018, Texas had the
8th highest incarceration rate in the U.S.
458
Texas also has strong
right of self-defense
and
self defense
laws, allowing citizens to use lethal force to defend themselves, their families, or their property.
459
Texas has one of the strictest
abortion
bans in the country.
460
See also
Texas portal
United States portal
North America portal
Outline of Texas
Index of Texas-related articles
List of people from Texas
USS
Texas
, 4 ships
Notes
Mean of density in 1mi radii circles around each person
Elevation adjusted to
North American Vertical Datum of 1988
In
Peninsular Spanish
, the spelling variant
Tejas
is also used alongside
Texas
. According to the
Diccionario panhispánico de dudas
by the
Royal Spanish Academy
and the
Association of Academies of the Spanish Language
, the spelling version with
⟨j⟩
aligns with modern-day orthographic conventions and is correct; however, the spelling with
⟨x⟩
is recommended, as it is the one that is used in
Mexican Spanish
See
Spanish orthography § History
locally also
TEK
-siz
Spanish
Texas
or
Tejas
pronounced
[ˈtexas]
Cabeza de Vaca wrote, "They went about with a firebrand, setting fire to the plains and timber so as to drive off the mosquitos, and also to get lizards and similar things which they eat, to come out of the soil. In the same manner they kill deer, encircling them with fires, and they do it also to deprive the animals of pasture, compelling them to go for food where the Indians want."
42
Vázquez de Coronado wrote, "Two kinds of people travel around these plains with the cows; one is called
Querechos
and the others
Teyas
; they are very well built, and painted, and are enemies of each other. They have no other settlement or location than comes from traveling around with the cows. They kill all of these they wish and tan the hides, with which they clothe themselves and make their tents, and they eat the flesh, sometimes even raw, and they also even drink the blood when thirsty. The tents they make are like field tents, and they set them up over poles they have made for this purpose, which come together and are tied at the top, and when they go from one place to another they carry them on some dogs they have, of which they have many, and they load them with the tents and poles and other things, for the country is so level, as I said, that they can make use of these, because they carry the poles dragging along on the ground. The sun is what they worship most."
44
Persons of Hispanic or Latino origin are not distinguished between total and partial ancestry.
Second to
California
Based on the industry-standard measure of revenue passenger-kilometers/miles flown
This figure refers to only the number of students paddled, regardless of whether a student was spanked multiple times in a year, and does not refer to the number of instances of corporal punishment, which would be substantially higher.
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January 27,
2026
"Household Income in States and Metropolitan Areas: 2023"
(PDF)
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on January 12, 2025
. Retrieved
January 12,
2025
"Languages Spoken at Home"
. United States Census Bureau.
Archived
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. Retrieved
June 5,
2020
Plocheck, Robert (November 20, 2017).
"Facts"
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Archived
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Archived
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June 28,
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. Retrieved
October 20,
2011
"Elevations and Distances in the United States"
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. 2001. Archived from
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October 24,
2011
Wells, John C.
(1982).
Accents of English
. Vol. 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674). Cambridge University Press. p. 551.
doi
10.1017/CBO9780511611766
ISBN
0-52128541-0
"Texas" in
Diccionario panhispánico de dudas
by
Royal Spanish Academy
and
Association of Academies of the Spanish Language
, Madrid: Santillana. 2005. ISBN 978-8-429-40623-8.
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April 8,
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Archived
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April 11,
2010
Ramos, Mary G.; Reavis, Dick J. (2004).
Texas
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ISBN
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ISBN
978-0-292-71809-8
José Arlegui,
Chronica de la provincia de N.S.P.S. Francisco de Zacatecas Front Cover
(1737),
p. 53
"Texas"
Online Etymology Dictionary
. Douglas Harper.
Archived
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. Retrieved
February 25,
2007
Fry, Phillip L. (March 7, 2016) [July 15, 2010].
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Handbook of Texas
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Davis, Lucile (2003).
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. Rosen Publishing. p. 5.
ISBN
9780823964352
Teja, Jesús de la (June 15, 2010).
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Oakah L. Jones,
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, University of Oklahoma Press (1996),
p. 277
, citing a document dated November 5, 1730.
Joseph de Laporte,
El viagero universal: Ó, Noticia del mundo antiguo y nuevo
vol. 27 (1799),
p. 114
"Texas. Grafía recomendada para el nombre de este estado norteamericano. Su pronunciación correcta es [téjas], no [téksas]. Se recomienda escribir asimismo con x el gentilicio correspondiente: texano. Son también válidas las grafías con j (Tejas, tejano), de uso mayoritario en España."
Diccionario panhispánico de dudas
Real Academia Española (2005), s.v.
Texas
Archived
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Appletons' Journal
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758f.
Richardson et al. 2021
, p. 9.
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0-585-17049-5
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10.7560/711501
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978-0-292-79978-3
Aten, Lawrence E. (1983).
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. Academic Pr.
ISBN
0-12-065740-6
OCLC
254092448
Richardson et al. 2021
, p. 09.
Richardson et al. 2021
, p. 10.
Richardson et al. 2021
, p. 12.
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(online ed.).
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Barr, Juliana (November 2009).
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. University of North Carolina Press.
ISBN
978-1-4696-0470-1
OCLC
1148108904
Galán, Francis X. (2020).
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. Texas A&M University Press.
ISBN
978-1-62349-878-8
OCLC
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No free person of African descent, either in whole or in part, shall be permitted to reside permanently in the Republic, without the consent of Congress, and the importation or admission of Africans or negroes into this Republic, excepting from the United States of America, is forever prohibited, and declared to be piracy.
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The Southern states, especially the hills of Tennessee and Alabama, were impoverished; war tensions still split neighborhoods. Soon, empty houses had crude signs that stated that the former inhabitants had "Gone to Texas." Church records, also, had the phrase, "Gone to Texas" by numerous names on their roles. So many families left Maury County, Tenn., to settle in eastern Collin County, just across East Fork, that several communities, such as Culleoka, have names directly from south Maury County. That group joined relatives that had come here in the 1850s. Most new immigrants had some link to Collin County, which brought them here. They stayed with relatives and friends until they could find a place to settle. Landowners recruited farmers from the old states by persuading relatives and former neighbors to come. However, numerous families, in the pioneer tradition, loaded their children and belongings in a wagon and headed toward the unknown west. Clarksville, Bonham and Dallas newspapers reported how many wagons passed through each day and how many were camped on the "jockey yards" waiting to find a place to settle. Some of these had sold farms and had money to buy land, but most of these immigrants became tenant farmers and worked on shares.
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Morris Hillquit sought to keep alive the ties of his Socialist Party to its comrades abroad. Senator Robert La Follette filled many a speech with praise for progressives in other countries who shared his hatred for militarism. Henry Ford chartered an ocean liner to transport himself and dozens of other activists across the Atlantic, where they lobbied neutral governments to embrace a peace plan they would press on the warring powers. These Americans, like most critics of the war elsewhere in the world, wanted to create a new global order based on cooperative relationships between nation states and their gradual disarmament. Militarism, they argued, isolated peoples behind walls of mutual fear and loathing. Until April 1917, this formidable coalition of idealists—or realists—did much to keep the nation at peace. They may even have had a majority of Americans on their side until just weeks before Congress, at Wilson's behest, voted to declare war. To prevent that from happening, peace activists pressed for a national referendum on the question, confident that "the people" would recoil from fighting and paying the bills in order to help one group of European powers conquer another.
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Bibliography
Main article:
History of Texas § Further reading
Buenger, Walter L., and Arnoldo De Leon, eds.
Beyond Texas through time: breaking away from past interpretations
(Texas A&M UP, 2011); historiography.
Calvert, Robert A. et al.
The History of Texas
(5th edition. Wiley Blackwell. 2014), a standard scholarly history.
online
Campbell, Randolph B.
Gone to Texas: a History of the Lone Star State
(Oxford University Press, 2003, 500 pages)
online
Chipman, Donald E. (1992).
Spanish Texas, 1519–1821
University of Texas Press
ISBN
978-0-292-77659-3
Davis, William C. (2006).
Lone Star Rising
. Texas A&M University Press.
ISBN
978-1-58544-532-5
originally published 2004 by New York: Free Press
Lone Star Rising
at
Google Books
Edmondson, J.R. (2000),
The Alamo Story: From History to Current Conflicts
, Plano: Republic of Texas Press,
ISBN
978-1-55622-678-6
Fehrenbach, T.R. (2000) [1968].
Lone Star: A History of Texas and the Texans
. Open Road Media.
ISBN
978-1-4976-0970-9
Hardin, Stephen L. (1994).
Texian Iliad: A Military History of the Texas Revolution, 1835-1836
. University of Texas Press.
ISBN
978-0-292-79252-4
Hatch, Rosie, ed.
Texas Almanac 2024–2025
(2023);
summary of contents
Regan, Brett. ed.
Texas Almanac 2026–2027
(2025); richly detailed coverage in 700 pages; newest edition.
Manchaca, Martha (2001).
Recovering History, Constructing Race: The Indian, Black, and White Roots of Mexican Americans
. The Joe R. and Teresa Lozano Long Series in Latin American and Latino Art and Culture. University of Texas Press.
ISBN
978-0-292-75253-5
Richardson, Rupert N.; Wintz, Cary D.; Boswell, Angela; Anderson, Adrian; Wallace, Ernest (2021).
Texas: The Lone Star State
(Eleventh ed.). Taylor & Francis.
ISBN
9781000403763
Storey, John W., and Mary L Kelley, eds.
Twentieth-century Texas: A social and cultural history.
(U of North Texas Press, 2008)..
Todish, Timothy J.; Todish, Terry; Spring, Ted (1998).
Alamo Sourcebook, 1836: A Comprehensive Guide to the Battle of the Alamo and the Texas Revolution
. Eakin Press.
ISBN
978-1-57168-152-2
Report of President's Commission on the assassination of President John F. Kennedy. (1992).
The Warren Commission Report
. Warren Commission Hearings. Vol. IV. National Archives.
ISBN
978-0-312-08257-4
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on May 25, 2017
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January 3,
2009
Weber, David J. (1992).
The Spanish Frontier in North America
. Yale Western Americana Series.
Yale University Press
ISBN
978-0-300-05198-8
Weddle, Robert S. (1995).
Changing Tides: Twilight and Dawn in the Spanish Sea, 1763–1803
. Centennial Series of the Association of Former Students Number 58.
Texas A&M University Press
ISBN
978-0-89096-661-7
Winders, Richard Bruce (2004).
Sacrificed at the Alamo: Tragedy and Triumph in the Texas Revolution
. Military History of Texas Series: Number Three. State House Press.
ISBN
978-1-880510-80-3
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