Thunderstorm - Wikipedia

Thunderstorm - Wikipedia
Jump to content
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Storm characterized by lightning
"Electrical storm" redirects here. For other uses, see
Electrical storm (disambiguation)
For other uses, see
Thunderstorm (disambiguation)
Lightning from a thunderstorm near
Pritzerbe
, Germany
Part of
a series
on
Weather
Temperate and polar seasons
Winter
Spring
Summer
Autumn
Tropical seasons
Dry season
Harmattan
Wet season
Storms
Cloud
Cumulonimbus cloud
Arcus cloud
Downburst
Microburst
Heat burst
Derecho
Lightning
Volcanic lightning
Thunderstorm
Air-mass thunderstorm
Thundersnow
Dry thunderstorm
Mesocyclone
Supercell
Tornado
Anticyclonic tornado
Landspout
Waterspout
Dust devil
Fire whirl
Anticyclone
Cyclone
Polar low
Extratropical cyclone
European windstorm
Nor'easter
Subtropical cyclone
Tropical cyclone
Atlantic hurricane
Typhoon
Storm surge
Dust storm
Simoom
Haboob
Monsoon
Amihan
Gale
Sirocco
Firestorm
Winter storm
Ice storm
Blizzard
Ground blizzard
Snow squall
Precipitation
Drizzle
Freezing
Graupel
Hail
Megacryometeor
Ice pellets
Diamond dust
Rain
Freezing
Cloudburst
Snow
Rain and snow mixed
Snow grains
Snow roller
Slush
Topics
Air pollution
Atmosphere
Chemistry
Convection
Physics
River
Climate
Cloud
Physics
Fog
Mist
Season
Cold wave
Heat wave
Jet stream
Meteorology
Severe weather
List
Extreme
Severe weather terminology
Canada
Japan
United States
Weather forecasting
Weather modification
Glossaries
Meteorology
Climate change
Tornado terms
Tropical cyclone terms
Weather portal
thunderstorm
, also known as an
electrical storm
or a
lightning storm
, is a storm characterized by the presence of
lightning
and
thunder
Relatively weak thunderstorms are sometimes called
thundershowers
Thunderstorms occur in
cumulonimbus clouds
They are usually accompanied by strong
winds
and often produce
heavy rain
and sometimes
snow
sleet
, or
hail
but some thunderstorms can produce little or
no precipitation
at all. Thunderstorms may
line up in a series
or become a
rainband
, known as a
squall line
. Strong or
severe thunderstorms
include some of the most dangerous weather phenomena, including large hail, strong winds, and
tornadoes
. Some of the most persistent severe thunderstorms, known as
supercells
, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the
troposphere
that they occupy, vertical
wind shear
sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.
Thunderstorms result from the rapid upward movement of warm, moist air, sometimes along a
front
However, some kind of
cloud forcing
, whether it is a front,
shortwave
trough, or another system is needed for the air to rapidly accelerate upward. As the warm, moist air moves upward, it cools,
condenses
and forms a cumulonimbus cloud that can reach heights of over 20 kilometres (12 mi). As the rising air reaches its
dew point
temperature, water vapor condenses into water droplets or ice, reducing pressure locally within the thunderstorm cell. Any precipitation falls the long distance through the clouds towards the Earth's surface. As the droplets fall, they collide with other droplets and become larger. The falling droplets create a
downdraft
as it pulls cold air with it, and this cold air spreads out at the Earth's surface, occasionally causing strong winds that are commonly associated with thunderstorms.
Thunderstorms can form and develop in any geographic location but most frequently within the
mid-latitude
, where warm, moist air from tropical latitudes collides with cooler air from polar latitudes.
Thunderstorms are responsible for the development and formation of many severe weather phenomena, which can be potentially hazardous. Damage that results from thunderstorms is mainly inflicted by
downburst
winds, large hailstones, and
flash flooding
caused by heavy
precipitation
. Stronger thunderstorm cells are capable of producing tornadoes and
waterspouts
There are three types of thunderstorms:
single-cell
multi-cell
, and
supercell
Supercell thunderstorms are the strongest and most severe.
Mesoscale convective systems
formed by favorable vertical wind shear within the tropics and
subtropics
can be responsible for the development of
hurricanes
Dry thunderstorms
, with no precipitation, can cause the outbreak of
wildfires
from the heat generated from the
cloud-to-ground lightning
that accompanies them. Several means are used to study thunderstorms:
weather radar
weather stations
, and video photography. Past civilizations held various myths concerning thunderstorms and their development as late as the 18th century. Beyond the Earth's atmosphere, thunderstorms have also been observed on the planets of
Jupiter
Saturn
Neptune
, and, probably,
Venus
Life cycle
Stages of a thunderstorm's life
See also:
Cloud
Warm air has a lower
density
than cool air, so warmer air rises upwards and cooler air will settle at the bottom.
Clouds form when relatively warmer air, carrying moisture, rises within cooler air. The moist air rises, and, as it does so, it cools and some of the
water vapor
in that rising air
condenses
When the moisture condenses, it releases energy known as
latent heat
of condensation, which allows the rising packet of air to cool less than the cooler surrounding air
10
continuing the cloud's ascension. If enough
instability
is present in the atmosphere, this process will continue long enough for
cumulonimbus
clouds to form and produce
lightning
and
thunder
. Meteorological indices such as
convective available potential energy
(CAPE) and the
lifted index
can be used to assist in determining potential upward vertical development of clouds.
11
Generally, thunderstorms require moisture, an unstable air mass, and a lifting force in order to form.
citation needed
All thunderstorms, regardless of type, go through three stages: the developing stage, the mature stage, and the dissipation stage.
12
13
The average thunderstorm has a 24 km (15 mi) diameter. Depending on the conditions present in the atmosphere, each of these three stages take an average of 30 minutes.
14
Developing stage
Thunderstorms often develop from
cumulus congestus clouds
The first stage of a thunderstorm is the cumulus stage or developing stage. During this stage, masses of moisture are lifted upwards into the atmosphere. The trigger for this lift can be
solar illumination
, where the heating of the ground produces
thermals
, or where two winds converge forcing air upwards, or where winds blow over terrain of increasing elevation. The moisture carried upward cools into liquid drops of water due to lower temperatures at high altitude, which appear as
cumulus
clouds. As the water vapor condenses into liquid,
latent heat
is released, which warms the air, causing it to become less dense than the surrounding, drier air. The air tends to rise in an
updraft
through the process of
convection
. This process creates a
low-pressure zone
within and beneath the forming thunderstorm. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 500 million kilograms of water vapor are lifted into the
Earth's atmosphere
15
failed verification
Mature stage
Anvil-shaped thundercloud in the mature stage
In the mature stage of a thunderstorm, the warmed air continues to rise until it reaches an area of warmer air and can rise no farther. Often this 'cap' is the
tropopause
. The air is instead forced to spread out, giving the storm a characteristic
anvil
shape. The resulting cloud is called
cumulonimbus incus
. The water droplets
coalesce
into larger and heavier droplets and freeze to become ice particles. As these fall, they melt to become rain. If the updraft is strong enough, the droplets are held aloft long enough to become so large that they do not melt completely but fall as
hail
. While updrafts are still present, the falling rain drags the surrounding air with it, creating
downdrafts
as well. The simultaneous presence of both an updraft and a downdraft marks the mature stage of the storm and produces cumulonimbus clouds. During this stage, considerable internal
turbulence
can occur, which manifests as strong winds, severe lightning, and even
tornadoes
16
Typically, if there is little
wind shear
, the storm will rapidly enter the dissipating stage and 'rain itself out',
13
but, if there is sufficient change in wind speed or direction, the downdraft will be separated from the updraft, and the storm may become a
supercell
, where the mature stage can sustain itself for several hours.
17
Dissipating stage
cirrus spissatus cloud
formed from a dissipating thunderstorm
In the dissipation stage, the thunderstorm is dominated by the downdraft. If atmospheric conditions do not support super cellular development, this stage occurs rather quickly, approximately 20–30 minutes into the life of the thunderstorm. The downdraft will push down out of the thunderstorm, hit the ground and spread out. This phenomenon is known as a
downburst
. The cool air carried to the ground by the downdraft cuts off the inflow of the thunderstorm, the updraft disappears and the thunderstorm will dissipate. Thunderstorms in an atmosphere with virtually no vertical wind shear weaken as soon as they send out an outflow boundary in all directions, which then quickly cuts off its
inflow
of relatively warm, moist air, and kills the thunderstorm's further growth.
18
The downdraft hitting the ground creates an
outflow boundary
. This can cause downbursts, a potential hazardous condition for aircraft to fly through, as a substantial change in wind speed and direction occurs, resulting in a decrease of airspeed and the subsequent reduction in lift for the aircraft. The stronger the outflow boundary is, the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear becomes.
19
Classification
Conditions favorable for thunderstorm types and complexes
There are four main types of thunderstorms: single-cell, multi-cell, squall line (also called multi-cell line) and supercell.
Which type forms depends on the instability and relative wind conditions at different layers of the atmosphere ("
wind shear
"). Single-cell thunderstorms form in environments of low vertical wind shear and last only 20–30 minutes.
Organized thunderstorms and thunderstorm clusters/lines can have longer life cycles as they form in environments of significant vertical wind shear, normally greater than 25 knots (13 m/s) in the lowest 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) of the
troposphere
20
which aids the development of stronger updrafts as well as various forms of severe weather. The supercell is the strongest of the thunderstorms,
most commonly associated with large hail, high winds, and tornado formation.
Precipitable water
values of greater than 31.8 millimetres (1.25 in) favor the development of organized thunderstorm complexes.
21
Those with heavy rainfall normally have precipitable water values greater than 36.9 millimetres (1.45 in).
22
Upstream values of
CAPE
of greater than 800 J/kg are usually required for the development of organized convection.
23
Single-cell
Main article:
Air-mass thunderstorm
A single-cell thunderstorm over
Grand Isle, Louisiana
A single-cell thunderstorm, also known as an
air-mass thunderstorm
, is a single thunderstorm with one main updraft. Single-cell thunderstorms are the typical summer thunderstorms in many temperate locales. They also occur in the cool unstable air that often follows the passage of a
cold front
from the sea during winter. Within a cluster of thunderstorms, the term "cell" refers to each separate principal updraft. Thunderstorm cells occasionally form in isolation, as the occurrence of one thunderstorm can develop an outflow boundary that sets up new thunderstorm development. Such storms are rarely severe and are a result of local atmospheric instability; hence the term "air mass thunderstorm". When such storms have a brief period of severe weather associated with them, it is known as a pulse severe storm. Pulse severe storms are poorly organized and occur randomly in time and space, making them difficult to forecast. Single-cell thunderstorms normally last 20–30 minutes.
14
Multi-cell clusters
Main article:
Multicellular thunderstorm
A group of thunderstorms over Brazil photographed by the
Space Shuttle
Challenger
This is the most common type of thunderstorm development.
Mature thunderstorms
are found near the center of the cluster, while dissipating thunderstorms exist on their downwind side.
Multicell storms
form as clusters of storms but may then evolve into one or more
squall lines
. While each cell of the cluster may only last 20 minutes, the cluster itself may persist for hours at a time. They often arise from convective updrafts in or near mountain ranges and linear weather boundaries, such as strong cold fronts or troughs of low pressure. These types of storms are stronger than the single-cell storm, yet much weaker than the supercell storm. Hazards with the multicell cluster include moderate-sized hail, flash flooding, and weak tornadoes.
14
Squall line
Main article:
Squall line
squall line
is an elongated line of severe thunderstorms that can form along or ahead of a
cold front
24
25
In the early 20th century, the term was used as a synonym for
cold front
26
The squall line contains heavy
precipitation
hail
, frequent
lightning
, strong straight line winds, and possibly
tornadoes
and
waterspouts
27
Severe weather
in the form of strong straight-line winds can be expected in areas where the squall line itself is in the shape of a
bow echo
, within the portion of the line that bows out the most.
28
Tornadoes
can be found along waves within a
line echo wave pattern
, or LEWP, where mesoscale
low pressure areas
are present.
29
Some bow echoes in the summer are called
derechos
, and move quite fast through large sections of territory.
30
On the back edge of the rain shield associated with mature squall lines, a
wake low
can form, which is a mesoscale low pressure area that forms behind the mesoscale high pressure system normally present under the rain canopy, which are sometimes associated with a
heat burst
31
This kind of storm is also known as "Wind of the Stony Lake" (
simplified Chinese
石湖风
traditional Chinese
石湖風
; shi2 hu2 feng1) in southern China.
32
Supercells
Main article:
Supercell
A supercell producing a tornado near
Stratton, Colorado
Supercell storms are large, usually
severe
, quasi-steady-state storms that form in an environment where wind speed or wind direction varies with height ("
wind shear
"), and they have separate downdrafts and updrafts (i.e., where its associated precipitation is not falling through the updraft) with a strong, rotating updraft (a "
mesocyclone
"). These storms normally have such powerful updrafts that the top of the supercell storm cloud (or anvil) can break through the
troposphere
and reach into the lower levels of the
stratosphere
. Supercell storms can be 24 kilometres (15 mi) wide. Research has shown that at least 90 percent of supercells cause
severe weather
17
These storms can produce destructive
tornadoes
, extremely large
hailstones
(10 centimetres or 4 inches diameter),
straight-line winds
in excess of 130 km/h (81 mph), and
flash floods
. In fact, research has shown that most tornadoes occur from this type of thunderstorm.
33
Supercells are generally the strongest type of thunderstorm.
14
Severe thunderstorms
In the United States, a thunderstorm is classed as severe if winds reach at least 93 kilometres per hour (58 mph), hail is 25 millimetres (1 in) in diameter or larger, or if
funnel clouds
or
tornadoes
are reported.
34
35
36
Although a funnel cloud or tornado indicates a severe thunderstorm, a
tornado warning
is issued in place of a
severe thunderstorm warning
. A severe thunderstorm warning is issued if a thunderstorm becomes severe, or will soon turn severe. In Canada, a rainfall rate greater than 50 millimetres (2 in) in one hour, or 75 millimetres (3 in) in three hours, is also used to indicate severe thunderstorms.
37
Severe thunderstorms can occur from any type of storm cell. However,
multicell
supercell
, and squall lines represent the most common forms of thunderstorms that produce severe weather.
17
Mesoscale convective systems
See also:
Mesoscale convective system
A mesoscale convective complex (MCC) moving through the
Great Lakes region
mesoscale convective system
(MCS) is a complex of thunderstorms that becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms but smaller than
extratropical cyclones
, and normally persists for several hours or more.
38
A mesoscale convective system's overall cloud and precipitation pattern may be round or linear in shape, and include weather systems such as
tropical cyclones
squall lines
lake-effect snow
events,
polar lows
, and
mesoscale convective complexes
(MCCs), and they generally form near
weather fronts
. Most mesoscale convective systems develop overnight and continue their lifespan through the next day.
13
They tend to form when the surface temperature varies by more than 5 °C (9 °F) between day and night.
39
The type that forms during the warm season over land has been noted across North America, Europe, and Asia, with a maximum in activity noted during the late afternoon and evening hours.
40
41
Forms of MCS that develop in the tropics are found in use either the
Intertropical Convergence Zone
or
monsoon troughs
, generally within the warm season between spring and fall. More intense systems form over land than over water.
42
43
One exception is that of
lake-effect snow
bands, which form due to cold air moving across relatively warm bodies of water, and occurs from fall through spring.
44
Polar lows are a second special class of MCS. They form at high latitudes during the cold season.
45
Once the parent MCS dies, later thunderstorm development can occur in connection with its remnant
mesoscale convective vortex
(MCV).
46
Mesoscale convective systems are important to the
United States rainfall climatology
over the
Great Plains
since they bring the region about half of their annual warm season rainfall.
47
Motion
Thunderstorm line viewed in
reflectivity
dBZ
) on a
plan position indicator
radar display
The two major ways thunderstorms move are via
advection
of the wind and propagation along
outflow boundaries
towards sources of greater heat and moisture. Many thunderstorms move with the mean wind speed through the Earth's
troposphere
, the lowest 8 kilometres (5.0 mi) of the
Earth's atmosphere
. Weaker thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth's surface than stronger thunderstorms, as the weaker thunderstorms are not as tall. Organized, long-lived thunderstorm cells and complexes move at a right angle to the direction of the vertical
wind shear
vector. If the gust front, or leading edge of the outflow boundary, races ahead of the thunderstorm, its motion will accelerate in tandem. This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation (HP) than with thunderstorms with low precipitation (LP). When thunderstorms merge, which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other, the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates the future motion of the merged cell. The stronger the mean wind, the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion. On
weather radar
, storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan.
17
Back-building thunderstorm
A back-building thunderstorm, commonly referred to as a
training thunderstorm
, is a thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side in the
Northern Hemisphere
), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction. Though the storm often appears stationary on radar, or even moving upwind, this is an illusion. The storm is really a multi-cell storm with new, more vigorous cells that form on the upwind side, replacing older cells that continue to drift downwind.
48
49
When this happens, catastrophic flooding is possible. In
Rapid City, South Dakota
, in 1972, an unusual alignment of winds at various levels of the atmosphere combined to produce a continuously training set of cells that dropped an enormous quantity of rain upon the same area, resulting in
devastating flash flooding
50
A similar event occurred in
Boscastle
, England, on 16 August 2004,
51
and over Chennai on 1 December 2015.
52
Hazards
Each year, many people are killed or seriously injured by severe thunderstorms despite the advance warning
citation needed
. While severe thunderstorms are most common in the spring and summer, they can occur at just about any time of the year.
Cloud-to-ground lightning
See also:
Lightning strike
A return stroke, cloud-to-ground lightning strike during a thunderstorm
Cloud-to-ground lightning
frequently occurs within the phenomena of thunderstorms and have numerous hazards towards landscapes and populations. One of the more significant hazards lightning can pose is the
wildfires
they are capable of igniting.
53
Under a regime of low precipitation (LP) thunderstorms, where little precipitation is present, rainfall cannot prevent fires from starting when vegetation is dry as lightning produces a concentrated amount of extreme heat.
54
Direct damage caused by lightning strikes occurs on occasion.
55
In areas with a high frequency for cloud-to-ground lightning, like Florida, lightning causes several fatalities per year, most commonly to people working outside.
56
Acid Rain
Main article:
Acid Rain
Acid rain is also a frequent risk produced by thunderstorms.
Distilled water
has a
neutral
pH
of 7. "Clean" or unpolluted rain has a slightly acidic pH of about 5.2, because carbon dioxide and water in the air react together to form
carbonic acid
, a weak acid (pH 5.6 in distilled water), but unpolluted rain also contains other chemicals.
57
Nitric oxide
present during thunderstorm phenomena,
58
caused by the oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen, can result in the production of acid rain, if nitric oxide forms compounds with the water molecules in precipitation, thus creating acid rain. Acid rain can damage infrastructures containing calcite or certain other solid chemical compounds. In ecosystems, acid rain can dissolve plant tissues of vegetations and increase acidification process in bodies of water and in
soil
, resulting in deaths of marine and terrestrial organisms.
59
Hail
Main article:
Hail
Hailstorm in
Bogotá
, Colombia
Any thunderstorm that produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm.
60
Thunderclouds that are capable of producing hailstones are sometimes seen with green coloration. Hail is more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards (known as
orographic lifting
), thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely.
61
Hail can cause serious damage, notably to
automobiles
, aircraft, skylights, glass-roofed structures, livestock, and most commonly, farmers'
crops
62
Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft. When hail stones exceed 13 millimetres (0.5 in) in diameter, planes can be seriously damaged within seconds.
63
The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft.
Wheat, corn, soybeans, and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage.
64
Hail is one of Canada's most costly hazards.
65
Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history. One of the earliest recorded incidents occurred around the 9th century in
Roopkund
, Uttarakhand, India.
66
The largest hailstone in terms of maximum circumference and length ever recorded in the United States fell in 2003 in
Aurora, Nebraska
, United States.
67
One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India, which reported one of the highest hail-related death tolls on record in 1888.
64
China also experiences significant hailstorms.
68
Across Europe,
Croatia
experiences frequent occurrences of hail.
69
In North America, hail is most common in the area where
Colorado
Nebraska
, and
Wyoming
meet, known as "Hail Alley".
70
Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours, with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September.
Cheyenne, Wyoming
, is North America's most hail-prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season.
62
In South America, areas prone to hail are cities like Bogotá, Colombia.
Tornadoes and waterspouts
Main articles:
Tornado
and
Waterspout
In June 2007, the town of
Elie, Manitoba
was struck by
an F5 tornado
A tornado is a violent, rotating column of air in contact with both the surface of the earth and a cumulonimbus cloud (otherwise known as a thundercloud) or, in rare cases, the base of a
cumulus cloud
. Tornadoes come in many sizes but are typically in the form of a visible
condensation funnel
, whose narrow end touches the earth and is often encircled by a cloud of
debris
and
dust
71
Most tornadoes have wind speeds between 40 and 110 mph (64 and 177 km/h), are approximately 75 metres (246 ft) across, and travel several kilometers (a few miles) before dissipating. Some attain wind speeds of more than 300 mph (480 km/h), stretch more than 1,600 metres (1 mi) across, and stay on the ground for more than 100 kilometres (dozens of miles).
72
73
74
The
Fujita scale
and the
Enhanced Fujita Scale
rate tornadoes by damage caused. An EF0 tornado, the weakest category, damages trees but does not cause significant damage to structures. An EF5 tornado, the strongest category, rips buildings off their foundations and can deform large skyscrapers. The similar
TORRO scale
ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.
75
Doppler
radar
data,
photogrammetry
, and ground swirl patterns (cycloidal marks) may also be analyzed to determine intensity and award a rating.
76
A waterspout near Thailand
Waterspouts have similar characteristics as tornadoes, characterized by a spiraling funnel-shaped wind current that form over bodies of water, connecting to large cumulonimbus clouds. Waterspouts are generally classified as forms of tornadoes, or more specifically, non-
supercelled
tornadoes that develop over large bodies of water.
77
These spiralling columns of air frequently develop within tropical areas close to the
equator
, but are less common within areas of
high latitude
78
Flash flood
Main article:
Flash flood
A flash flood caused by a severe thunderstorm
Flash flooding is the process where a landscape, most notably an urban environment, is subjected to rapid floods.
79
These rapid floods occur more quickly and are more localized than seasonal river flooding or areal flooding
80
and are frequently (though not always) associated with intense rainfall.
81
Flash flooding can frequently occur in slow-moving thunderstorms and is usually caused by the heavy liquid precipitation that accompanies it. Flash floods are most common in arid regions as well as densely populated urban environments, where few plants, and bodies of water are present to absorb and contain the extra water. Flash flooding can be hazardous to small infrastructure, such as bridges, and weakly constructed buildings. Plants and crops in agricultural areas can be destroyed and devastated by the force of raging water. Automobiles parked within affected areas can also be displaced.
Soil
erosion can occur as well, exposing risks of
landslide
phenomena.
Downburst
Main article:
Downburst
Trees uprooted or displaced by the force of a downburst wind in northwest
Monroe County, Wisconsin
Downburst winds can produce numerous hazards to landscapes experiencing thunderstorms. Downburst winds are generally very powerful, and are often mistaken for wind speeds produced by tornadoes,
82
due to the concentrated amount of force exerted by their straight-horizontal characteristic. Downburst winds can be hazardous to unstable, incomplete, or weakly constructed infrastructures and buildings. Agricultural crops, and other plants in nearby environments can be uprooted and damaged. Aircraft engaged in takeoff or landing can crash.
13
82
Automobiles can be displaced by the force exerted by downburst winds. Downburst winds are usually formed in areas when high pressure air systems of downdrafts begin to sink and displace the air masses below it, due to their higher density. When these downdrafts reach the surface, they spread out and turn into the destructive straight-horizontal winds.
13
Thunderstorm asthma
Main article:
Thunderstorm asthma
Thunderstorm asthma is the triggering of an asthma attack by environmental conditions directly caused by a local thunderstorm. During a thunderstorm, pollen grains can absorb moisture and then burst into much smaller fragments with these fragments being easily dispersed by wind. While larger pollen grains are usually filtered by hairs in the nose, the smaller pollen fragments are able to pass through and enter the lungs, triggering the asthma attack.
83
84
85
86
Safety precautions
See also:
Emergency management
and
Tornado preparedness
Most thunderstorms come and go fairly uneventfully; however, any thunderstorm can become
severe
, and all thunderstorms, by definition, present the danger of
lightning
87
Thunderstorm preparedness and safety refers to taking steps before, during, and after a thunderstorm to minimize injury and damage.
Preparedness
Preparedness refers to precautions that should be taken before a thunderstorm. Some preparedness takes the form of general readiness (as a thunderstorm can occur at any time of the day or year).
88
Preparing a family emergency plan, for example, can save valuable time if a storm arises quickly and unexpectedly.
89
Preparing the home by removing dead or rotting limbs and trees, which can be blown over in high winds, can also significantly reduce the risk of property damage and personal injury.
90
The
National Weather Service
(NWS) in the United States recommends several precautions that people should take if thunderstorms are likely to occur:
88
Know the names of local counties, cities, and towns, as these are how warnings are described.
88
Monitor forecasts and weather conditions and know whether thunderstorms are likely in the area.
91
Be alert for natural signs of an approaching storm.
Cancel or reschedule outdoor events (to avoid being caught outdoors when a storm hits).
91
Take action early so you have time to get to a safe place.
91
Get inside a substantial building or hard-topped metal vehicle before threatening weather arrives.
91
If you hear
thunder
, get to the safe place immediately.
91
Avoid open areas like hilltops, fields, and beaches, and do not be or be near the tallest objects in an area when thunderstorms are occurring.
88
91
Do not shelter under tall or isolated trees during thunderstorms.
91
If in the woods, put as much distance as possible between you and any trees during thunderstorms.
91
If in a group, spread out to increase the chances of survivors who could come to the aid of any victims from a
lightning strike
91
Safety
While safety and preparedness often overlap, "thunderstorm safety" generally refers to what people should do during and after a storm. The
American Red Cross
recommends that people follow these precautions if a storm is imminent or in progress:
87
Take action immediately upon hearing thunder. Anyone close enough to the storm to hear thunder can be struck by lightning.
90
Avoid electrical appliances, including corded telephones.
87
Cordless
and wireless telephones are safe to use during a thunderstorm.
90
Close and stay away from windows and doors, as glass can become a serious hazard in high wind.
87
Do not bathe or shower, as plumbing conducts electricity.
If driving, safely exit the roadway, turn on hazard lights, and park. Remain in the vehicle and avoid touching metal.
87
The NWS stopped recommending the "lightning crouch" in 2008 as it does not provide a significant level of protection and will not significantly lower the risk of being killed or injured from a nearby lightning strike.
91
92
93
Frequent occurrences
See also:
United States rainfall climatology
Rotating
wall cloud
in
Oklahoma
Thunderstorms occur throughout the world, even in the polar regions, with the greatest frequency in tropical
rainforest
areas, where they may occur nearly daily. At any given time, approximately 2,000 thunderstorms are occurring on Earth.
94
Kampala
and
Tororo
in Uganda have each been mentioned as the most thunderous places on Earth,
95
a claim also made for Singapore and
Bogor
on the Indonesian island of
Java
. Other cities known for frequent storm activity include
Darwin
, Caracas,
Manila
and
Mumbai
. Thunderstorms are associated with the various
monsoon
seasons around the globe, and they populate the
rainbands
of
tropical cyclones
96
In temperate regions, they are most frequent in spring and summer, although they can occur along or ahead of
cold fronts
at any time of year.
97
They may also occur within a cooler air mass following the passage of a cold front over a relatively warmer body of water. Thunderstorms are rare in polar regions because of cold surface temperatures.
citation needed
Some of the most powerful thunderstorms over the United States occur in the Midwest and the
Southern states
. These storms can produce large hail and powerful tornadoes. Thunderstorms are relatively uncommon along much of the
West Coast of the United States
98
but they occur with greater frequency in the inland areas, particularly the
Sacramento
and
San Joaquin
Valleys of California. In spring and summer, they occur nearly daily in certain areas of the
Rocky Mountains
as part of the
North American Monsoon
regime. In the
Northeast
, storms take on similar characteristics and patterns as the Midwest, but with less frequency and severity. During the summer,
air-mass thunderstorms
are an almost daily occurrence over central and southern parts of Florida.
citation needed
Energy
How thunderstorms launch particle beams into space
See also:
Sprite (lightning)
Upper-atmospheric lightning
, and
St. Elmo's fire
If the quantity of water that is condensed in and subsequently precipitated from a cloud is known, then the total energy of a thunderstorm can be calculated. In a typical thunderstorm, approximately 5×10
kg of water vapor are lifted, and the amount of energy released when this condenses is 10
15
joules
. This is on the same order of magnitude of energy released within a tropical cyclone, and more energy than that released during
the atomic bomb blast at Hiroshima, Japan in 1945
15
failed verification
The
Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor
results show that
gamma rays
and
antimatter
particles (
positrons
) can be generated in powerful thunderstorms.
99
It is suggested that the antimatter positrons are formed in
terrestrial gamma-ray flashes
(TGF). TGFs are brief bursts occurring inside thunderstorms and associated with lightning. The streams of positrons and electrons collide higher in the atmosphere to generate more gamma rays.
100
About 500 TGFs may occur every day worldwide, but mostly go undetected.
Studies
Summer storm in 19th-century Polish
countryside
picture
by
Jozef Chelmonski
, 1896, 107 cm (42.1 in)x163 cm (64.1 in),
National Museum in Kraków
In more contemporary times, thunderstorms have taken on the role of a scientific curiosity. Every spring,
storm chasers
head to the
Great Plains
of the United States and the Canadian Prairies to explore the scientific aspects of storms and tornadoes through use of videotaping.
101
Radio pulses produced by cosmic rays are being used to study how electric charges develop within thunderstorms.
102
More organized meteorological projects such as
VORTEX2
use an array of sensors, such as the
Doppler on Wheels
, vehicles with mounted automated
weather stations
weather balloons
, and unmanned aircraft to investigate thunderstorms expected to produce severe weather.
103
Lightning is detected remotely using sensors that detect cloud-to-ground lightning strokes with 95 percent accuracy in detection and within 250 metres (820 ft) of their point of origin.
104
Mythology and religion
Thunderstorms strongly influenced many early civilizations.
Greeks
believed that they were battles waged by
Zeus
, who hurled lightning bolts forged by
Hephaestus
. Some
American Indian
tribes associated thunderstorms with the
Thunderbird
, who they believed was a servant of the
Great Spirit
. The
Norse
considered thunderstorms to occur when
Thor
went to fight
Jötnar
, with the thunder and lightning being the effect of his strikes with the hammer
Mjölnir
Hinduism
recognizes
Indra
as the god of rain and thunderstorms. Christian doctrine accepts that fierce storms are the work of God. These ideas were still within the mainstream as late as the 18th century.
105
Martin Luther
was out walking when a thunderstorm began, causing him to pray to God for being saved and promising to become a monk.
106
Outside of Earth
Thunderstorms, evidenced by flashes of
lightning
, on Jupiter have been detected and are associated with clouds where water may exist as both a liquid and ice, suggesting a mechanism similar to that on Earth. (Water is a
polar molecule
that can carry a charge, so it is capable of creating the charge separation needed to produce lightning).
107
These electrical discharges can be up to a thousand times more powerful than lightning on the Earth.
108
The water clouds can form thunderstorms driven by the heat rising from the interior.
109
The clouds of Venus may also be capable of producing
lightning
; some observations suggest that the lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth.
110
See also
Weather portal
Barber's pole
Continuous gusts
Convective storm detection
Derecho
Hector (cloud)
Severe thunderstorm warning
and
Severe thunderstorm watch
Thundersnow
Tornado warning
Tornado watch
Training (meteorology)
References
"Weather Glossary – T"
. National Weather Service. 21 April 2005
. Retrieved
23 August
2006
"Lightning FAQ"
JetStream
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
"Cumulonimbus clouds"
Met Office
. Retrieved
14 January
2021
"thunderstorm | Definition, Types, Structure, & Facts"
Encyclopedia Britannica
. Retrieved
14 January
2021
"Thunderstorms | UCAR Center for Science Education"
scied.ucar.edu
. Retrieved
14 January
2021
National Severe Storms Laboratory
"SEVERE WEATHER 101 / Thunderstorm Basics"
SEVERE WEATHER 101
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
. Retrieved
2 January
2020
"Thunderstorms and Tornadoes"
www.ux1.eiu.edu
. Retrieved
14 January
2021
Albert Irvin Frye (1913).
Civil engineers' pocket book: a reference-book for engineers, contractors
. D. Van Nostrand Company. p.
462
. Retrieved
31 August
2009
FMI (2007).
"Fog And Stratus – Meteorological Physical Background"
. Zentralanstalt für Meteorologie und Geodynamik
. Retrieved
7 February
2009
Chris C. Mooney (2007).
Storm world: hurricanes, politics, and the battle over global warming
. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p.
20
ISBN
978-0-15-101287-9
. Retrieved
31 August
2009
David O. Blanchard (September 1998).
"Assessing the Vertical Distribution of Convective Available Potential Energy"
Weather and Forecasting
13
(3).
American Meteorological Society
870–
7.
Bibcode
1998WtFor..13..870B
doi
10.1175/1520-0434(1998)013<0870:ATVDOC>2.0.CO;2
S2CID
124375544
"Thunderstorm Basics"
NOAA National Severe Storms Laboratory
. Retrieved
14 January
2021
Michael H. Mogil (2007).
Extreme Weather
. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publisher. pp.
210–211
ISBN
978-1-57912-743-5
National Severe Storms Laboratory (15 October 2006).
"A Severe Weather Primer: Questions and Answers about Thunderstorms"
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
. Archived from
the original
on 25 August 2009
. Retrieved
1 September
2009
Gianfranco Vidali (2009).
"Rough Values of Various Processes"
Syracuse University
. Archived from
the original
on 15 March 2010
. Retrieved
31 August
2009
Pilot's Web The Aviator's Journal (13 June 2009).
"Structural Icing in VMC"
. Archived from
the original
on 19 August 2011
. Retrieved
2 September
2009
Jon W. Zeitler & Matthew J. Bunkers (March 2005).
"Operational Forecasting of Supercell Motion: Review and Case Studies Using Multiple Datasets"
(PDF)
National Weather Service
Forecast Office,
Riverton, Wyoming
. Retrieved
30 August
2009
The Weather World 2010 Project (3 September 2009).
"Vertical Wind Shear"
. University of Illinois
. Retrieved
21 October
2006
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link
T. T. Fujita
(1985).
The Downburst, microburst and macroburst: SMRP Research Paper 210
Markowski, Paul and Yvette Richardson. Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2010.
pp. 209.
Maddox R.A., Chappell C.F., Hoxit L.R. (1979).
"Synoptic and meso-α scale aspects of flash flood events"
Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc
60
(2):
115–
123.
Bibcode
1979BAMS...60..115M
doi
10.1175/1520-0477-60.2.115
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
Schnetzler, Amy Eliza. Analysis of Twenty-Five Years of Heavy Rainfall Events in the Texas Hill Country. University of Missouri-Columbia, 2008. pp. 74.
Markowski, Paul and Yvette Richardson. Mesoscale Meteorology in Midlatitudes. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2010. pp. 215, 310.
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Squall line"
American Meteorological Society
. Archived from
the original
on 17 December 2008
. Retrieved
14 June
2009
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Prefrontal squall line"
American Meteorological Society
. Archived from
the original
on 17 August 2007
. Retrieved
14 June
2009
University of Oklahoma (2004).
"The Norwegian Cyclone Model"
(PDF)
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 1 September 2006
. Retrieved
17 May
2007
Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (2008).
"Chapter 2: Definitions"
(PDF)
NOAA
. pp.
2–
1. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 6 May 2009
. Retrieved
3 May
2009
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Bow echo"
American Meteorological Society
. Archived from
the original
on 6 June 2011
. Retrieved
14 June
2009
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
Line echo wave pattern
American Meteorological Society
ISBN
978-1-878220-34-9
. Archived from
the original
on 24 September 2008
. Retrieved
3 May
2009
Stephen F. Corfidi; Jeffry S. Evans & Robert H. Johns (2015).
"About Derechos"
Storm Prediction Center
, NCEP, NWS, NOAA Web Site
. Retrieved
17 February
2015
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
Heat burst
American Meteorological Society
ISBN
978-1-878220-34-9
. Archived from
the original
on 6 June 2011
. Retrieved
14 June
2009
"Squall lines and "Shi Hu Feng" – what you want to know about the violent squalls hitting Hong Kong on 9 May 2005"
. Hong Kong Observatory. 17 June 2005. Archived from
the original
on 25 October 2019
. Retrieved
23 August
2006
"Supercell Thunderstorms"
Weather World 2010 Project
. University of Illinois. 4 October 1999
. Retrieved
23 August
2006
National Weather Service
(21 April 2005).
"Weather Glossary – S"
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
. Retrieved
17 June
2007
Kim Runk (2009).
1" Hail
(.wmv). Silver Spring, Maryland: NOAA.
National Weather Service
Forecast Office,
Phoenix, Arizona
(7 April 2009).
"New Hail Criteria"
. Retrieved
3 September
2009
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
Environment Canada
Ontario Region (24 May 2005).
"Fact Sheet – Summer Severe Weather Warnings"
. Archived from
the original
on 28 February 2009
. Retrieved
3 September
2009
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Mesoscale convective system"
American Meteorological Society
. Archived from
the original
on 6 June 2011
. Retrieved
27 June
2009
Haerter, Jan O.; Meyer, Bettina; Nissen, Silas Boye (30 July 2020). "Diurnal self-aggregation".
npj Climate and Atmospheric Science
(1): 30.
arXiv
2001.04740
Bibcode
2020npCAS...3...30H
doi
10.1038/s41612-020-00132-z
S2CID
220856705
William R. Cotton; Susan van den Heever & Israel Jirak (2003).
"Conceptual Models of Mesoscale Convective Systems: Part 9"
(PDF)
Colorado State University
. Retrieved
23 March
2008
C. Morel & S. Senesi (2002).
"A climatology of mesoscale convective systems over Europe using satellite infrared imagery II: Characteristics of European mesoscale convective systems"
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society
128
(584): 1973.
Bibcode
2002QJRMS.128.1973M
doi
10.1256/003590002320603494
ISSN
0035-9009
S2CID
120021136
. Retrieved
2 March
2008
Semyon A. Grodsky & James A. Carton (15 February 2003).
"The Intertropical Convergence Zone in the South Atlantic and the Equatorial Cold Tongue"
(PDF)
Journal of Climate
16
(4).
University of Maryland, College Park
: 723.
Bibcode
2003JCli...16..723G
doi
10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016<0723:TICZIT>2.0.CO;2
S2CID
10083024
. Retrieved
5 June
2009
Michael Garstang; David Roy Fitzjarrald (1999).
Observations of surface to atmosphere interactions in the tropics
. Oxford University Press US. pp.
40–
41.
ISBN
978-0-19-511270-2
B. Geerts (1998).
"Lake Effect Snow"
University of Wyoming
. Archived from
the original
on 6 November 2020
. Retrieved
24 December
2008
E. A. Rasmussen & J. Turner (2003).
Polar Lows: Mesoscale Weather Systems in the Polar Regions
. Cambridge University Press. p. 612.
ISBN
978-0-521-62430-5
Lance F. Bosart & Thomas J. Galarneau Jr. (2005).
"3.5 The Influence of the Great Lakes on Warm Season Weather Systems During BAMEX"
(PDF)
. 6th
American Meteorological Society
Coastal Meteorology Conference
. Retrieved
15 June
2009
William R. Cotton; Susan van den Heever & Israel Jirak (Fall 2003).
"Conceptual Models of Mesoscale Convective Systems: Part 9"
(PDF)
. Retrieved
23 March
2008
Stephen Corfidi (4 February 2015).
"MCS Movement and Behavior (PowerPoint)"
. National Weather Service, Storm Prediction Center
. Retrieved
18 February
2015
National Weather Service
(1 September 2009).
"Types of Thunderstorms"
. National Weather Service Southern Region Headquarters
. Retrieved
3 September
2009
National Weather Service
Forecast Office,
Rapid City, South Dakota
(15 May 2007).
"The Rapid City Flood of 1972"
National Weather Service
Central Region Headquarters
. Retrieved
3 September
2009
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
David Flower (9 February 2008).
"Boscastle Flood 2004"
. Tintagel – King Arthur Country
. Retrieved
3 September
2009
Jayesh Phadtare (2018).
"Role of Eastern Ghats Orography and Cold Pool in an Extreme Rainfall Event over Chennai on 1 December 2015"
Monthly Weather Review
146
(4). American Meteorological Society.:
943–
965.
Bibcode
2018MWRv..146..943P
doi
10.1175/MWR-D-16-0473.1
Scott, A (2000). "The Pre-Quaternary history of fire".
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
164
1–
4): 281.
Bibcode
2000PPP...164..281S
doi
10.1016/S0031-0182(00)00192-9
Vladimir A. Rakov (1999).
"Lightning Makes Glass"
University of Florida
, Gainesville
. Retrieved
7 November
2007
Bruce Getz & Kelli Bowermeister (9 January 2009).
"Lightning and Its Hazards"
. Hughston Sports Medicine Foundation. Archived from
the original
on 24 January 2010
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
Charles H. Paxton; J. Colson & N. Carlisle (2008).
"P2.13 Florida lightning deaths and injuries 2004–2007"
American Meteorological Society
. Retrieved
5 September
2009
G. E. Likens; W. C. Keene; J. M. Miller & J. N. Galloway (1987). "Chemistry of precipitation from a remote, terrestrial site in Australia".
Journal of Geophysical Research
92
(13):
299–
314.
Bibcode
1987JGR....92..299R
doi
10.1029/JA092iA01p00299
Joel S. Levine; Tommy R. Augustsson; Iris C. Andersont; James M. Hoell Jr. & Dana A. Brewer (1984). "Tropospheric sources of NOx: Lightning and biology".
Atmospheric Environment
18
(9):
1797–
1804.
Bibcode
1984AtmEn..18.1797L
doi
10.1016/0004-6981(84)90355-X
PMID
11540827
Office of Air and Radiation Clean Air Markets Division (1 December 2008).
"Effects of Acid Rain – Surface Waters and own Aquatic Animals"
United States Environmental Protection Agency
. Archived from
the original
on 18 January 2008
. Retrieved
5 September
2009
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Hailstorm"
American Meteorological Society
. Archived from
the original
on 6 June 2011
. Retrieved
29 August
2009
Geoscience Australia (4 September 2007).
"Where does severe weather occur?"
. Commonwealth of Australia. Archived from
the original
on 21 June 2009
. Retrieved
28 August
2009
Nolan J. Doesken (April 1994).
"Hail, Hail, Hail ! The Summertime Hazard of Eastern Colorado"
(PDF)
Colorado Climate
17
(7). Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 25 November 2010
. Retrieved
18 July
2009
Federal Aviation Administration
(2009).
"Hazards"
. Retrieved
29 August
2009
John E. Oliver (2005).
Encyclopedia of World Climatology
. Springer. p. 401.
ISBN
978-1-4020-3264-6
. Retrieved
28 August
2009
Damon P. Coppola (2007).
Introduction to international disaster management
. Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 62.
ISBN
978-0-7506-7982-4
David Orr (7 November 2004).
"Giant hail killed more than 200 in Himalayas"
. Telegraph Group Unlimited via the Internet Wayback Machine. Archived from
the original
on 3 December 2005
. Retrieved
28 August
2009
Knight C. A., Knight N.C. (2005).
"Very Large Hailstones From Aurora, Nebraska"
Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc
86
(12):
1773–
1781.
Bibcode
2005BAMS...86.1773K
doi
10.1175/bams-86-12-1773
Dongxia Liu; Guili Feng & Shujun Wu (February 2009). "The characteristics of cloud-to-ground lightning activity in hailstorms over northern China".
Atmospheric Research
91
2–
4):
459–
465.
Bibcode
2009AtmRe..91..459L
doi
10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.06.016
Damir Počakal; Željko Večenaj & Janez Štalec (2009). "Hail characteristics of different regions in continental part of Croatia based on influence of orography".
Atmospheric Research
93
1–
3): 516.
Bibcode
2009AtmRe..93..516P
doi
10.1016/j.atmosres.2008.10.017
Rene Munoz (2 June 2000).
"Fact Sheet on Hail"
. University Corporation for Atmospheric Research. Archived from
the original
on 15 October 2009
. Retrieved
18 July
2009
Renno, Nilton O. (August 2008).
"A thermodynamically general theory for convective vortices"
(PDF)
Tellus A
60
(4):
688–
99.
Bibcode
2008TellA..60..688R
doi
10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00331.x
hdl
2027.42/73164
Edwards, Roger
(4 April 2006).
"The Online Tornado FAQ"
Storm Prediction Center
. Retrieved
8 September
2006
"Doppler On Wheels"
. Center for Severe Weather Research. 2006. Archived from
the original
on 5 February 2007
. Retrieved
29 December
2006
"Hallam Nebraska Tornado"
. Omaha/Valley, NE Weather Forecast Office. 2 October 2005
. Retrieved
8 September
2006
Dr. Terence Meaden (2004).
"Wind Scales: Beaufort, T – Scale, and Fujita's Scale"
. Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from
the original
on 30 April 2010
. Retrieved
11 September
2009
Storm Prediction Center.
"Enhanced F Scale for Tornado Damage"
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
. Retrieved
21 June
2009
"Waterspout"
American Meteorological Society
. 2009. Archived from
the original
on 20 June 2008
. Retrieved
11 September
2009
National Weather Service
Forecast Office,
Burlington, Vermont
(3 February 2009).
"15 January 2009: Lake Champlain Sea Smoke, Steam Devils, and Waterspout: Chapters IV and V"
. Eastern Region Headquarters
. Retrieved
21 June
2009
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
Glossary of Meteorology (2009).
"Flash Flood"
American Meteorological Society
. Archived from
the original
on 6 June 2011
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
National Weather Service.
"Flood Products: What Do They Mean?"
. NOAA
. Retrieved
23 August
2011
National Weather Service.
"Flash Flood"
. NOAA
. Retrieved
23 August
2011
National Weather Service
Forecast Office
Columbia, South Carolina
(27 January 2009).
"Downbursts..."
National Weather Service
Eastern Region Headquarters
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
Suphioglu C (1998). "Thunderstorm Asthma Due to Grass Pollen".
Int Arch Allergy Immunol
116
(4):
253–
260.
doi
10.1159/000023953
PMID
9693274
S2CID
46754817
Taylor P.E., Jonsson H. (2004). "Thunderstorm asthma".
Curr Allergy Asthma Rep
(5):
409–
13.
doi
10.1007/s11882-004-0092-3
PMID
15283882
S2CID
19351066
Dabrera G, Murray V, Emberlin J, Ayres JG, Collier C, Clewlow Y, Sachon P (March 2013).
"Thunderstorm asthma: an overview of the evidence base and implications for public health advice"
QJM
106
(3):
207–
17.
doi
10.1093/qjmed/hcs234
PMID
23275386
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
D'Amato G, Vitale C, D'Amato M, Cecchi L, Liccardi G, Molino A, Vatrella A, Sanduzzi A, Maesano C, Annesi-Maesano I (March 2016).
"Thunderstorm-related asthma: what happens and why"
(PDF)
Clin Exp Allergy
46
(3):
390–
6.
doi
10.1111/cea.12709
PMID
26765082
S2CID
12571515
{{
cite journal
}}
: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
link
American Red Cross.
"Thunderstorm Safety Checklist"
(PDF)
. American Red Cross
. Retrieved
24 August
2011
National Weather Service Weather Forecast Office.
"Thunderstorm"
Severe Weather Preparedness Information
. Albuquerque, NM: NOAA
. Retrieved
24 August
2011
Federal Emergency Management Agency.
"Thunderstorms and Lightning"
Ready
. US Department of Homeland Security. Archived from
the original
on 23 June 2011
. Retrieved
24 August
2011
Federal Emergency Management Agency.
"What to Do Before a Thunderstorm"
. US Department of Homeland Security. Archived from
the original
on 20 August 2011
. Retrieved
24 August
2011
"NWS Lightning Safety Myths"
. Lightningsafety.noaa.gov. 30 June 2014. Archived from
the original
on 28 March 2015
. Retrieved
20 August
2014
"NWS JetStream – Lightning Frequently Asked Questions"
. Srh.noaa.gov. 28 June 2014
. Retrieved
20 August
2014
"You're not safer crouching: Six things you didn't know about lightning"
LA Times
. Retrieved
20 August
2014
National Geographic Almanac of Geography,
ISBN
0-7922-3877-X
, page 75.
"How many thunderstorms occur each year?"
Thunderstorms
. Sky Fire Productions. Archived from
the original
on 11 July 2007
. Retrieved
23 August
2006
National Weather Service
JetStream (8 October 2008).
"Tropical Cyclone Hazards"
National Weather Service
Southern Region Headquarters
. Retrieved
30 August
2009
David Roth.
"Unified Surface Analysis Manual"
(PDF)
Hydrometeorological Prediction Center
. Retrieved
22 October
2006
Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (7 June 2001).
"National Severe Local Storms Operations Plan – Chapter 2"
(PDF)
Department of Commerce
. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 6 May 2009
. Retrieved
23 August
2006
Garner, Rob (26 June 2015).
"Fermi Catches Antimatter-Hurling Storms"
nasa.gov
. Retrieved
19 July
2016
Ouellette, Jennifer (13 January 2011).
"Fermi Spots Antimatter in Thunderstorms"
Discovery News
. Archived from
the original
on 12 November 2012
. Retrieved
16 January
2011
Alan Moller
(5 March 2003).
"Storm Chase Ethics"
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
Florida Institute of Technology
(2 June 2009).
"Scientists use high-energy particles from space to probe thunderstorms"
. Archived from
the original
on 22 February 2023
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
VORTEX2 (2009).
"What is VORTEX2?"
. Archived from
the original
on 25 November 2020
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
{{
cite web
}}
: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
link
Peter P. Neilley & R. B. Bent (2009).
"An Overview of the United States Precision Lightning Network (USPLN)"
American Meteorological Society
Fourth Conference on the Meteorological Applications of Lightning Data
. Retrieved
9 September
2009
John D. Cox (2002).
Storm Watchers
. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. p.
ISBN
978-0-471-38108-2
"Martin Luther"
. Christian History. 8 August 2008
. Retrieved
6 July
2016
Elkins-Tanton, Linda T. (2006).
Jupiter and Saturn
. New York: Chelsea House.
ISBN
978-0-8160-5196-0
Watanabe, Susan, ed. (25 February 2006).
"Surprising Jupiter: Busy Galileo spacecraft showed jovian system is full of surprises"
. NASA. Archived from
the original
on 8 October 2011
. Retrieved
20 February
2007
Kerr, Richard A. (2000). "Deep, Moist Heat Drives Jovian Weather".
Science
287
(5455):
946–
947.
doi
10.1126/science.287.5455.946b
S2CID
129284864
Russell, S. T.; Zhang, T.L.; Delva, M.; et al. (2007). "Lightning on Venus inferred from whistler-mode waves in the ionosphere".
Nature
450
(7170):
661–
662.
Bibcode
2007Natur.450..661R
doi
10.1038/nature05930
PMID
18046401
S2CID
4418778
Further reading
Burgess, D. W., R. J. Donaldson Jr., and P. R. Desrochers, 1993:
Tornado detection and warning by radar. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards, Geophys. Monogr.
, No. 79,
American Geophysical Union
, 203–221.
Corfidi, S. F., 1998:
Forecasting MCS mode and motion.
Preprints 19th Conf. on Severe Local Storms,
American Meteorological Society
Minneapolis
, Minnesota, pp. 626–629.
Davies J. M. (2004).
"Estimations of CIN and LFC associated with tornadic and nontornadic supercells"
Weather Forecast
19
(4):
714–
726.
Bibcode
2004WtFor..19..714D
doi
10.1175/1520-0434(2004)019<0714:eocala>2.0.co;2
Davies, J. M., and R. H. Johns, 1993:
Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part I: Helicity and mean shear magnitudes. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards
(C. Church et al., Eds.), Geophysical Monograph 79, American Geophysical Union, 573–582.
David, C. L. 1973:
An objective of estimating the probability of severe thunderstorms
. Preprint Eight conference of Severe Local Storms.
Denver
, Colorado,
American Meteorological Society
, 223–225.
Doswell, C.A. III; Baker, D. V.; Liles, C. A. (2002).
"Recognition of negative factors for severe weather potential: A case study"
Weather Forecast
17
937–
954.
doi
10.1175/1520-0434(2002)017<0937:ronmff>2.0.co;2
Doswell, C.A., III, S.J. Weiss and R.H. Johns (1993):
Tornado forecasting: A review. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction, and Hazards (C. Church et al., Eds)
, Geophys. Monogr. No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 557–571.
Johns, R. H., J. M. Davies, and P. W. Leftwich, 1993:
Some wind and instability parameters associated with strong and violent tornadoes. Part II: Variations in the combinations of wind and instability parameters. The Tornado: Its Structure, Dynamics, Prediction and Hazards, Geophys. Mongr.
, No. 79, American Geophysical Union, 583–590.
Evans, Jeffry S.,:
Examination of Derecho Environments Using Proximity Soundings
NOAA.gov
J. V. Iribarne and W.L. Godson,
Atmospheric Thermodynamics
, published by D. Reidel Publishing Company,
Dordrecht
, the
Netherlands
, 1973
M. K. Yau and R. R. Rogers,
Short Course in Cloud Physics, Third Edition
, published by Butterworth-Heinemann, 1 January 1989,
ISBN
9780750632157
ISBN
0-7506-3215-1
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Thunderstorms
Wikivoyage has a travel guide for
Thunderstorms
Anatomy of a thunderstorm
Archived
18 February 2006 at the
Wayback Machine
Electronic Journal of Severe Storms Meteorology
Meteorological data and variables
General
Adiabatic processes
Advection
Buoyancy
Lapse rate
Lightning
Surface solar radiation
Surface weather analysis
Visibility
Vorticity
Wind
Wind shear
Condensation
Cloud
Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)
Fog
Convective condensation level (CCL)
Lifting condensation level (LCL)
Precipitable water
Precipitation
Water vapor
Convection
Convective available potential energy (CAPE)
Convective inhibition (CIN)
Convective instability
Convective momentum transport
Conditional symmetric instability
Convective temperature (
Equilibrium level (EL)
Free convective layer (FCL)
Helicity
K Index
Level of free convection (LFC)
Lifted index (LI)
Maximum parcel level (MPL)
Bulk Richardson number (BRN)
Significant tornado parameter (STP)
Temperature
Dew point (
Dew point depression
Dry-bulb temperature
Equivalent temperature (
Forest fire weather index
Haines Index
Heat index
Humidex
Humidity
Relative humidity (RH)
Mixing ratio
Potential temperature (
Equivalent potential temperature (
Sea surface temperature (SST)
Temperature anomaly
Thermodynamic temperature
Vapor pressure
Virtual temperature
Wet-bulb temperature
Wet-bulb globe temperature
Wet-bulb potential temperature
Wind chill
Pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Baroclinity
Barotropicity
Pressure gradient
Pressure-gradient force (PGF)
Velocity
Maximum potential intensity
Natural disasters
list by death toll
Geological
Mass wasting
Landslide
Avalanche
Mudflow
Debris flow
Earthquake
List
Seismic hazard
Seismic risk
Soil liquefaction
Volcano eruption
Pyroclastic flow
Lahar
Volcanic ash
Natural erosion
Sinkhole
Hydrological
Flood
List
Coastal flood
Flash flood
Storm surge
Other
Tsunami
Megatsunami
Limnic eruption
Meteorological
Temperature
Blizzard
Cold wave
Ice storm
Heat wave
Drought
Megadrought
Cyclonic storms
Bomb cyclone
Thunderstorm
Hail
Tornado
Tornado outbreak
Tropical cyclone
Other
Derecho
Wildfire
Firestorm
ARkStorm
Astronomical
Potentially hazardous object
Impact event
Meteor shower
Geomagnetic storm
Solar flare
Supernova
Hypernova
Authority control databases
International
GND
National
United States
France
BnF data
Czech Republic
Israel
Other
Yale LUX
Retrieved from "
Categories
Lightning
Atmospheric electricity
Weather hazards to aircraft
Mesoscale meteorology
Severe weather and convection
Storm
Weather hazards
Rain
Hidden categories:
CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list
CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list
Articles with short description
Short description is different from Wikidata
Good articles
Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Wikipedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Use dmy dates from August 2024
All articles with unsourced statements
Articles with unsourced statements from August 2025
All articles with failed verification
Articles with failed verification from April 2024
Articles containing simplified Chinese-language text
Articles containing traditional Chinese-language text
Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019
Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024
Commons category link is on Wikidata
Webarchive template wayback links
Articles containing video clips
Thunderstorm
Add topic