Zimbabwe - Wikipedia
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This is the
latest accepted revision
reviewed
on
24 April 2026
Country in Southeastern Africa
This article is about the country. For other uses, see
Zimbabwe (disambiguation)
Republic of Zimbabwe
Flag
Coat of arms
Motto:
"Unity, Freedom, Work"
Anthem:
Blessed Be the Land of Zimbabwe
Show globe
Show map of Africa
Capital
and largest city
Harare
17°49′45″S
31°03′08″E
/
17.82917°S 31.05222°E
/
-17.82917; 31.05222
Official languages
16 languages
Chewa
Chibarwe
Kalanga
Khoisan
Nambya
Ndau
Ndebele
Shangani
Shona
Sotho
Tonga
Tswana
Venda
Xhosa
Zimbabwean sign language
Ethnic groups
(2022 census)
99.6%
Black African
0.2%
European
0.1%
Coloured
0.1% other
Religion
(2017)
84.1%
Christianity
69.2%
Protestantism
14.9% other
Christian
10.2%
no religion
4.5%
traditional faiths
1.2% others
Demonyms
Zimbabwean
Zimbo
(colloquial)
Government
Unitary
dominant party
presidential republic
President
Emmerson Mnangagwa
First Vice-President
Constantino Chiwenga
Second Vice-President
Kembo Mohadi
Legislature
Parliament
Upper house
Senate
Lower house
National Assembly
Independence
from the
United Kingdom
Declared
11 November 1965
Republic
2 March 1970
Zimbabwe Rhodesia
1 June 1979
Independence recognised
18 April 1980
Current constitution
15 May 2013
Area
• Total
390,757 km
(150,872 sq mi) (
60th
• Water (%)
Population
• February 2026 estimate
17,166,852
74th
• 2022 census
15,178,957
• Density
45/km
(116.5/sq mi) (
179th
GDP
PPP
2025 estimate
• Total
$93.870 billion
104th
• Per capita
$5,410
151st
GDP
(nominal)
2025 estimate
• Total
$53.310 billion
10
101st
• Per capita
$3,070
152nd
Gini
(2019)
45.5
11
medium inequality
HDI
(2023)
0.598
12
medium
153rd
Currency
De jure
Zimbabwe Gold
ZWG
13
De facto
United States dollar
USD
14
South African rand
ZAR
);
14
Other currencies
note 1
Time zone
UTC
+2
CAT
15
Date format
dd/mm/yyyy
Calling code
+263
ISO 3166 code
ZW
Internet TLD
.zw
Zimbabwe
officially the
Republic of Zimbabwe
, is a
landlocked country
in
Southeast Africa
, between the
Zambezi
and
Limpopo River
, bordered by
South Africa
to the south,
Botswana
to the southwest,
Zambia
to the north, and
Mozambique
to the east. The capital and largest city is
Harare
, and the second largest is
Bulawayo
A country of roughly 16.9 million people as per 2025 estimates,
16
Zimbabwe's largest ethnic group are the
Northern Ndebele
Shona
, who make up 95% of the population, followed by the other
smaller minorities
. Zimbabwe has 16
official languages
with English,
Shona
, and
Ndebele
the most common. Zimbabwe is a member of the
United Nations
, the
Southern African Development Community
, the
African Union
, and the
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
The region was long inhabited by the
San
, and was settled by
Bantu peoples
around 2,000 years ago. Beginning in the 11th century the
Shona people
constructed the city of
Great Zimbabwe
, which became one of the major African trade centres by the 13th century.
17
From there, the
Kingdom of Zimbabwe
was established, followed by the
Mutapa
and
Rozvi
empires. The British Empire began to consolidate control of the area following the
1890 British Ultimatum
against the Portuguese, who had claimed the area between
Angola
and
Mozambique
in the 1885
Pink Map
18
The
British South Africa Company
of
Cecil Rhodes
demarcated the
Rhodesia region
in 1890 when they conquered
Mashonaland
and later in 1893
Matabeleland
after the
First Matabele War
Company rule
ended in 1923 with the establishment of
Southern Rhodesia
as a
self-governing British colony
. In 1965, the
white
minority government
unilaterally declared independence
as
Rhodesia
. The state endured international isolation and a 15-year
guerrilla war
with black rebel forces; this culminated in a
peace agreement
that established
de jure
sovereignty as Zimbabwe in April 1980.
Robert Mugabe
became
Prime Minister of Zimbabwe
in 1980, when his
ZANU–PF
party won the
general election
following the end of white minority rule; it has remained the country's dominant party since. He was the President of Zimbabwe from 1987, after converting the country's initial
parliamentary system
into a
presidential one
, until his resignation in 2017. Under Mugabe's
authoritarian
regime, the state security apparatus dominated the country and was responsible for widespread
human rights
violations, which received worldwide condemnation.
19
From 1997 to 2008, the economy experienced consistent decline (and in the latter years,
hyperinflation
), though it has since seen
rapid growth
after the use of currencies other than the
Zimbabwean dollar
was permitted. In 2017, in the wake of over
a year of protests
against his government as well as Zimbabwe's rapidly declining economy, a
coup d'état
resulted in Mugabe's resignation.
Emmerson Mnangagwa
has since served as Zimbabwe's president.
Etymology
edit
Further information:
Rhodesia (name)
The name "Zimbabwe" stems from a
Shona
term for
Great Zimbabwe
, a medieval city (
Masvingo
) in the country's south-east. Two different theories address the origin of the word. Many sources hold that "Zimbabwe" derives from
dzimba-dza-mabwe
, translated from the Karanga dialect of Shona as "houses of stones" (
dzimba
= plural of
imba
, "house";
mabwe
= plural of
ibwe
, "stone").
20
21
22
The
Karanga-speaking
Shona people live around Great Zimbabwe in the modern-day
Masvingo
province. Archaeologist
Peter Garlake
claims that "Zimbabwe" represents a contracted form of
dzimba-hwe
, which means "venerated houses" in the Zezuru dialect of Shona and usually references chiefs' houses or graves.
23
Zimbabwe was formerly known as
Southern Rhodesia
(1898),
Rhodesia
(1965), and
Zimbabwe Rhodesia
(1979). The first recorded use of "Zimbabwe" as a term of national reference dates from 1960 as a coinage by the black nationalist
Michael Mawema
24
whose Zimbabwe National Party became the first to officially use the name in 1961.
25
The term "Rhodesia"—derived from the surname of
Cecil Rhodes
, the primary instigator of the British colonisation of the territory—was perceived by African nationalists as inappropriate because of its colonial origin and connotations.
24
According to Mawema, black nationalists held a meeting in 1960 to choose an alternative name for the country, proposing names such as "Matshobana" and "
Monomotapa
" before his suggestion, "Zimbabwe", prevailed.
26
It was initially unclear how the chosen term was to be used—a letter written by Mawema in 1961 refers to "Zimbabweland"
25
— but "Zimbabwe" was sufficiently established by 1962 to become the generally preferred term of the black nationalist movement.
24
Like those of many African countries that
gained independence
during the
Cold War
Zimbabwe
is an ethnically neutral name. It is debatable to what extent Zimbabwe, being over 80%
Shona
and dominated by them in various ways, can be described as a
nation state
27
The constitution acknowledges 16 languages, but only embraces two of them nationally, Shona and English. Shona is taught widely in schools, unlike
Ndebele
. Zimbabwe has never had a non-Shona head of state.
27
28
History
edit
Main article:
History of Zimbabwe
Pre-colonial era
edit
Further information:
Bantu expansion
Towers of
Great Zimbabwe
Archaeological records date archaic human settlement of present-day Zimbabwe to at least 500,000 years ago.
29
Zimbabwe's earliest known inhabitants were most likely the
San people
, who left behind a legacy of arrowheads and cave paintings. Approximately 2,000 years ago, the first Bantu-speaking farmers arrived during the Bantu expansion.
30
31
Societies speaking proto-
Shona languages
first emerged in the middle
Limpopo River
valley in the 9th century before moving on to the Zimbabwean highlands. The
Zimbabwean plateau
became the centre of subsequent Shona states, beginning around the 10th century. Around the early 10th century, trade developed with
Arab merchants
on the Indian Ocean coast, helping to develop the
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
in the 13th century. This was the precursor to the Shona civilisations that dominated the region from the 13th century, evidenced by ruins at
Great Zimbabwe
, near
Masvingo
, and by other smaller sites. The main archaeological site used a unique dry stone architecture. The Kingdom of Mapungubwe was the first in a series of trading states which had developed in Zimbabwe by the time the first European explorers arrived from Portugal. These states traded gold, ivory, and copper for cloth and glass.
32
By 1300, the
Kingdom of Zimbabwe
eclipsed Mapungubwe. This Shona state further refined and expanded upon Mapungubwe's stone architecture. From
c.
1450 to 1760, the
Kingdom of Mutapa
ruled much of the area of present-day Zimbabwe, plus parts of central Mozambique. It is known by many names including the Mutapa Empire, also known as
Mwene Mutapa
or
Monomotapa
as well as "Munhumutapa", and was renowned for its strategic trade routes with the Arabs and Portugal. The Portuguese sought to monopolise this influence and began a series of wars which left the empire in near collapse in the early 17th century.
32
As a direct response to increased European presence in the interior a new Shona state emerged, known as the
Rozwi Empire
. Relying on centuries of military, political and religious development, the Rozwi (meaning "destroyers") expelled the Portuguese from the Zimbabwean plateau in 1683. Around 1821 the
Zulu
general
Mzilikazi
of the
Khumalo clan
successfully rebelled against King
Shaka
and established his own clan, the
Ndebele
. The Ndebele fought their way northwards into the
Transvaal
, leaving a trail of destruction in their wake and beginning an era of widespread devastation known as the
Mfecane
. When Dutch
trekboers
converged on the Transvaal in 1836, they drove the tribe even further northward, with the assistance of
Tswana
Barolong
warriors and
Griqua
commandos. By 1838 the Ndebele had conquered the Rozwi Empire, along with the other smaller Shona states, and reduced them to
vassaldom
33
A Matabele
kraal
, as depicted by
William Cornwallis Harris
, 1836
After losing their remaining South African lands in 1840, Mzilikazi and his tribe permanently settled in the southwest of present-day Zimbabwe in what became known as Matabeleland, establishing
Bulawayo
as their capital. Mzilikazi then organised his society into a military system with regimental
kraals
, similar to those of Shaka, which was stable enough to repel further Boer incursions. Mzilikazi died in 1868; following a violent power struggle, his son
Lobengula
succeeded him.
Colonial era and Rhodesia (1888–1964)
edit
Main articles:
Company rule in Rhodesia
Southern Rhodesia
, and
Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland
The
Union Jack
was raised over
Fort Salisbury
on 13 September 1890.
In the 1880s, European colonists arrived with
Cecil Rhodes
's
British South Africa Company
(chartered in 1889). In 1888, Rhodes obtained a
concession for mining rights
from King
Lobengula
of the Ndebele peoples.
34
He presented this concession to persuade the government of the United Kingdom to grant a
royal charter
to the company over Matabeleland, and its subject states such as
Mashonaland
as well.
35
Rhodes used this document in 1890 to justify sending the
Pioneer Column
, a group of Europeans protected by well-armed
British South Africa Police
(BSAP) through Matabeleland and into Shona territory to establish Fort Salisbury (present-day
Harare
), and thereby establish
company rule
over the area. In 1893 and 1894, with the help of their new
Maxim
guns, the BSAP would go on to defeat the Ndebele in the
First Matabele War
. Rhodes additionally sought permission to negotiate similar concessions covering all territory between the Limpopo River and
Lake Tanganyika
, then known as "Zambesia".
35
In accordance with the terms of aforementioned concessions and treaties,
35
mass settlement was encouraged, with the British maintaining control over labour as well as over precious metals and other mineral resources.
36
The
Battle of the Shangani
on 25 October 1893
In 1895, the BSAC adopted the name
"Rhodesia"
for the territory, in honour of Rhodes. In 1898, "Southern Rhodesia" became the official name for the region south of the
Zambezi
river,
37
38
which later adopted the name "Zimbabwe". The region to the north, administered separately, was later termed
Northern Rhodesia
(present-day Zambia). Shortly after the disastrous Rhodes-sponsored
Jameson Raid
on the
South African Republic
, the Ndebele rebelled against white rule, led by their charismatic religious leader, Mlimo. The
Second Matabele War
of 1896–1897 lasted in Matabeleland until 1896, when Mlimo was assassinated by American scout
Frederick Russell Burnham
. Shona agitators staged unsuccessful revolts (known as
Chimurenga
) against company rule during 1896 and 1897.
citation needed
Following these failed insurrections, the Rhodes administration subdued the Ndebele and Shona groups and organised the land with a disproportionate bias favouring Europeans, thus displacing many indigenous peoples.
39
The Queen
's portrait featured on Rhodesian banknotes and coins
The United Kingdom annexed Southern Rhodesia on 12 September 1923.
40
41
42
43
Shortly after annexation, on 1 October 1923, the first constitution for the new Colony of Southern Rhodesia came into force.
42
44
Under the new constitution, Southern Rhodesia became a
self-governing
British colony
, subsequent to a
1922 referendum
. Rhodesians of all races served on behalf of the United Kingdom during the two World Wars in the early-20th century. Proportional to the white population, Southern Rhodesia contributed more
per capita
to both the
First
and
Second World Wars
than any other part of the empire, including Britain.
45
The
1930 Land Apportionment Act
restricted black land ownership to certain segments of the country, setting aside large areas solely for the purchase of the white minority. This act, which led to rapidly rising inequality, became the subject of frequent calls for subsequent land reform.
46
In 1953, in the face of African opposition,
47
Britain consolidated the two Rhodesias with
Nyasaland
(Malawi) in the ill-fated
Central African Federation
, which Southern Rhodesia essentially dominated. Growing
African nationalism
and general dissent, particularly in Nyasaland, persuaded Britain to dissolve the union in 1963, forming three separate divisions. While
multiracial democracy
was finally introduced to Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Southern Rhodesians of European ancestry continued to enjoy
minority rule
39
British
decolonisation
in Africa.
Following
Zambian independence
(effective from October 1964),
Ian Smith
's
Rhodesian Front
government in Salisbury dropped the designation "Southern" in 1964 (once
Northern Rhodesia
had changed its name to
Zambia
, having the word
Southern
before the name
Rhodesia
became unnecessary and the country simply became known as
Rhodesia
afterwards). Intent on effectively repudiating the recently adopted British policy of "
no independence before majority rule
", Smith issued a
Unilateral Declaration of Independence
(UDI) from the United Kingdom on 11 November 1965. This marked the first such course taken by a rebel British colony since the
American declaration
of 1776, which Smith and others indeed claimed provided a suitable precedent to their own actions.
45
Declaration of independence and civil war (1965–1980)
edit
Main articles:
Rhodesia
Rhodesian Bush War
Zimbabwe Rhodesia
, and
Lancaster House Agreement
Ian Smith
signing the
Unilateral Declaration of Independence
on 11 November 1965 with his cabinet in audience
The United Kingdom deemed the Rhodesian declaration an act of rebellion but did not re-establish control by force. The British government petitioned the United Nations for
sanctions
against Rhodesia pending unsuccessful talks with Smith's administration in 1966 and 1968. In December 1966, the organisation complied, imposing the first mandatory trade embargo on an autonomous state.
48
These sanctions were expanded again in 1968.
48
A civil war ensued when
Joshua Nkomo
's
Zimbabwe African People's Union
(ZAPU) and Robert Mugabe's
Zimbabwe African National Union
(ZANU), supported actively by communist powers and neighbouring African nations, initiated
guerrilla operations
against Rhodesia's predominantly white government. ZAPU was supported by the
Soviet Union
, the
Warsaw Pact
and associated nations such as Cuba, and adopted a
Marxist–Leninist
ideology; ZANU meanwhile aligned itself with
Maoism
and the bloc headed by the People's Republic of China. Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970, following the results of a
referendum the previous year
, but this went unrecognised internationally. Meanwhile, Rhodesia's internal conflict intensified, eventually forcing him to open negotiations with the militant communists.
Bishop
Abel Muzorewa
signs the Lancaster House Agreement seated next to
British Foreign Secretary
Lord Carrington
In March 1978, Smith reached an accord with three African leaders, led by Bishop
Abel Muzorewa
, who offered to leave the white population comfortably entrenched in exchange for the establishment of a biracial democracy. As a result of the
Internal Settlement
elections were held in April 1979
, concluding with the
United African National Council
(UANC) carrying a majority of parliamentary seats. On 1 June 1979, Muzorewa, the UANC head, became prime minister and the country's name was changed to Zimbabwe Rhodesia. The Internal Settlement left control of the
Rhodesian Security Forces
, civil service, judiciary, and a third of parliament seats to whites.
49
On 12 June, the
United States Senate
voted to lift economic pressure on the former Rhodesia.
Following the
fifth Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting
, held in
Lusaka
, Zambia, from 1 to 7 August in 1979, the British government invited Muzorewa, Mugabe, and Nkomo to participate in a constitutional conference at
Lancaster House
. The purpose of the conference was to discuss and reach an agreement on the terms of an independence constitution, and provide for elections supervised under British authority allowing Zimbabwe Rhodesia to proceed to legal independence.
50
With Lord Carrington, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom, in the chair, these discussions were mounted from 10 September to 15 December in 1979, producing a total of 47
plenary sessions
50
On 21 December 1979, delegations from every major interest represented reached the
Lancaster House Agreement
, effectively ending the guerrilla war. Under the terms of the agreement, the country would temporarily revert to British rule until an election could be conducted, after which it would be granted independence under black majority rule.
51
52
On 11 December 1979, the Rhodesian House of Assembly voted 90 to nil to revert to British colonial status. With the arrival of
Christopher Soames
, the new governor on 12 December 1979, Britain formally took control of Zimbabwe Rhodesia as the Colony of Southern Rhodesia. Britain lifted sanctions on 12 December and the United Nations on 16 December.
53
54
During the
1980 Southern Rhodesian general election
, Mugabe and the ZANU party secured a landslide victory.
55
On 11 April 1980, Southern Rhodesia became the independent nation of Zimbabwe.
Prince Charles
, as the representative of Britain, formally granted independence to Zimbabwe in a ceremony.
56
Independence era (1980–present)
edit
Trends in Zimbabwe's
Multidimensional Poverty Index
1970–2010
Zimbabwe's first president
after its independence was
Canaan Banana
in what was originally a mainly ceremonial role as
head of state
. Mugabe was the country's first prime minister and head of government.
57
In 1980,
Samora Machel
told Mugabe that Zimbabwe was the "Jewel of Africa" but added: "Don't tarnish it!".
58
59
60
New names for 32 places were gazetted on 18 April 1982
61
and by February 1984, there had been 42 changes, which included three rivers (Umniati/
Munyati
; Lundi/
Runde
; Nuanetsi/
Mwenezi
), and several changes from colonial names (such as Salisbury/Harare; Enkeldoorn/
Chivhu
; Essexvale/
Esigodini
; Fort Victoria/
Masvingo
62
Opposition to what was perceived as a Shona takeover immediately erupted around Matabeleland. The Matabele unrest led to what has become known as
Gukurahundi
(Shona: 'the early rain which washes away the
chaff
before the spring rains').
63
The
Fifth Brigade
, a North Korean-trained elite unit that reported directly to Mugabe,
64
entered Matabeleland and massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting "dissidents".
64
65
Estimates for the number of deaths during the five-year
Gukurahundi
campaign ranged from 3,750
66
to 80,000.
65
67
Thousands of others were tortured in military internment camps.
68
69
The campaign officially ended in 1987 after Nkomo and Mugabe reached a unity agreement that merged their respective parties, creating the Zimbabwe African National Union – Patriotic Front (
ZANU–PF
).
64
70
71
Elections in March 1990
resulted in another victory for Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party, which claimed 117 of the 120 contested seats.
72
73
During the 1990s, students, trade unionists, and other workers often demonstrated to express their growing discontent with Mugabe and ZANU–PF party policies. In 1996, civil servants, nurses, and junior doctors went on strike over salary issues.
74
75
The general health of the population also began to significantly decline; by 1997 an estimated 25% of the population had been infected by HIV in a pandemic that was affecting most of southern Africa.
76
77
Land redistribution re-emerged as the main issue for the ZANU–PF government around 1997. Despite the existence of a "willing-buyer-willing-seller" land reform programme since the 1980s, the minority white Zimbabwean population continued to hold the majority of the country's most fertile agricultural land.
78
In 2000, the government pressed ahead with its
Fast Track Land Reform
programme, a policy involving compulsory land acquisition aimed at redistributing land from the minority white population to the majority black population.
79
Confiscations of white farmland, continuous droughts, and a serious drop in external finance and other support led to a sharp decline in agricultural exports, which were traditionally the country's leading export-producing sector.
79
Some 58,000 independent black farmers have since experienced limited success in reviving the gutted cash crop sectors through efforts on a smaller scale.
80
President Mugabe and the ZANU–PF party leadership found themselves beset by a wide range of international sanctions.
81
In 2002, the nation was suspended from the
Commonwealth of Nations
due to the reckless farm seizures and blatant
election tampering
82
The following year, Zimbabwean officials voluntarily terminated its Commonwealth membership.
83
In 2001, the United States enacted the
Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act
(ZDERA). It came into effect in 2002 and froze credit to the Zimbabwean government.
84
By 2003, the country's economy had collapsed. It is estimated that up to a quarter of Zimbabwe's 11 million people had fled the country. Three-quarters of the remaining Zimbabweans were living on less than one U.S. dollar a day.
85
Following
elections in 2005
, the government initiated "
Operation Murambatsvina
", an effort to crack down on illegal markets and slums emerging in towns and cities, leaving a substantial section of urban poor homeless.
86
87
The Zimbabwean government has described the operation as an attempt to provide decent housing to the population, although according to critics such as
Amnesty International
, authorities have yet to properly substantiate their claims.
88
Map showing the food insecurity in Zimbabwe in June 2008
On 29 March 2008, Zimbabwe held a
presidential election
along with a
parliamentary election
. The results of this election were withheld for two weeks, after which it was generally acknowledged that the
Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai
(MDC-T) had achieved a majority of one seat in the lower house of parliament.
89
In September 2008, a
power-sharing agreement
was reached between
Morgan Tsvangirai
and President Mugabe, permitting the former to hold the office of prime minister. Due to ministerial differences between their respective political parties, the agreement was not fully implemented until 13 February 2009. By December 2010, Mugabe was threatening to completely expropriate remaining privately owned companies in Zimbabwe unless "western sanctions" were lifted.
90
Zimbabwean President
Robert Mugabe
attending the Independence Day celebrations in South Sudan in July 2011.
In late 2008, problems in Zimbabwe reached crisis proportions in the areas of living standards, public health (with a major
cholera outbreak
in December) and various basic affairs.
91
During this period, NGOs took over from government as a primary provider of food during this period of food insecurity in Zimbabwe.
92
A 2011 survey by
Freedom House
suggested that living conditions had improved since the power-sharing agreement.
93
The United Nations
Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
stated in its 2012–2013 planning document that the "humanitarian situation has improved in Zimbabwe since 2009, but conditions remain precarious for many people".
94
A new constitution approved in the
Zimbabwean constitutional referendum, 2013
curtails presidential powers.
95
Mugabe was re-elected president in the July 2013
Zimbabwean general election
which
The Economist
described as "rigged"
96
and the
Daily Telegraph
as "stolen".
97
The Movement for Democratic Change alleged massive fraud and tried to seek relief through the courts.
98
In a surprising moment of candour at the ZANU–PF congress in December 2014, President Robert Mugabe accidentally let slip that the opposition had in fact won the contentious 2008 polls by an astounding 73%.
99
After winning the election, the Mugabe ZANU–PF government re-instituted
one party rule
97
doubled the civil service and, according to
The Economist
, embarked on "misrule and dazzling corruption".
96
A 2017 study conducted by the
Institute for Security Studies
(ISS) concluded that due to the deterioration of government and the economy "the government encourages corruption to make up for its inability to fund its own institutions" with widespread and informal police roadblocks to issue fines to travellers being one manifestation of this.
100
In July 2016,
nationwide protests
took place regarding the economic collapse in the country.
101
102
In November 2017,
the army led a coup d'état
following the dismissal of Vice-president
Emmerson Mnangagwa
, placing Mugabe under house arrest. The army denied that their actions constituted a
coup
103
104
On 19 November 2017, ZANU–PF sacked Robert Mugabe as party leader and appointed former Vice-president Emmerson Mnangagwa in his place.
105
On 21 November 2017, Mugabe tendered his resignation prior to impeachment proceedings being completed.
106
Although under the
Constitution of Zimbabwe
Mugabe should be succeeded by Vice-president
Phelekezela Mphoko
, a supporter of
Grace Mugabe
, ZANU–PF
chief whip
Lovemore Matuke stated to the
Reuters
news agency that Mnangagwa would be appointed as president.
106
On 30 July 2018, Zimbabwe held its
general elections
107
which were won by the ZANU-PF party led by Mnangagwa.
108
Nelson Chamisa
who was leading the main opposition party
MDC Alliance
contested the election results claiming voter fraud,
109
and subsequently filed a petition to the Constitution Court of Zimbabwe.
110
The court confirmed Mnangagwa's victory, making him the newly elected president after Mugabe.
111
112
In December 2017, the website Zimbabwe News, calculating the cost of the Mugabe era using various statistics, said that at the time of independence in 1980, the country was growing economically at about five per cent a year, and had done so for quite a long time. If this rate of growth had been maintained for the next 37 years, Zimbabwe would have, in 2016, a GDP of US$52 billion. Instead it had a formal sector GDP of only US$14 billion, a cost of US$38 billion in lost growth. The population growth in 1980 was among the highest in Africa at about 3.5 per cent per annum, doubling every 21 years. Had this growth been maintained, the population would have been 31 million. Instead, as of 2018, it is about 13 million. The discrepancies were believed to be partly caused by death from starvation and disease, and partly due to decreased fertility. The life expectancy has halved, and deaths from politically motivated violence sponsored by the government exceed 200,000 since 1980. The Mugabe government has directly or indirectly caused the deaths of at least three million Zimbabweans in 37 years.
113
According to the
World Food Programme
, over two million people are facing starvation because of the recent droughts the country is going through.
114
In 2018, President Mnangagwa announced that his government would seek to rejoin
the Commonwealth
, which is as of 2023 conducting a fact-finding mission prior to asking the
Secretary-General
to issue a recommendation.
115
In August 2023, President Emmerson Mnangagwa won a second term in an outcome of the
election
rejected by the opposition and questioned by observers.
116
In September 2023, Zimbabwe signed control over almost 20% of the country's land to the
carbon offset
company
Blue Carbon
117
Geography
edit
Main article:
Geography of Zimbabwe
The
Zambezi River
in the
Mana Pools National Park
Zimbabwe map of Köppen climate classification
Zimbabwe is a landlocked country in southern Africa, lying between latitudes
15°
and
23°S
, and longitudes
25°
and
34°E
. It is bordered by
South Africa
to the south,
Botswana
to the west and southwest,
Zambia
to the northwest, and
Mozambique
to the east and northeast. Its northwest corner is roughly 150 metres (490 ft) from
Namibia
, nearly forming a four-nation
quadripoint
. Most of the country sits on the
Zimbabwean Plateau
, which generally has an elevation of over 1,000 m (3,300 ft). The country's extreme east is mountainous, this area being known as the
Eastern Highlands
, with
Mount Nyangani
as the highest point at 2,592 m (8,504 ft).
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119
: 2
The highlands are known for their natural environment, with tourist destinations such as
Nyanga
, Troutbeck,
Chimanimani
Vumba
and
Chirinda Forest
at
Mount Selinda
. About 20% of the country consists of low-lying areas, (the low veld) under 900m.
Victoria Falls
, one of the world's largest and most spectacular waterfalls, is located in the country's extreme northwest and is part of the
Zambezi
river.
120
121
Geology
edit
Main article:
Geology of Zimbabwe
Over geological time, Zimbabwe has experienced two major post-
Gondwana
erosion cycles (known as African and post-African), and a very subordinate Plio-Pleistocene cycle.
122
Climate
edit
Zimbabwe has a
subtropical climate
with many local variations. The southern areas are known for their heat and aridity, while parts of the central plateau receive frost in winter. The Zambezi valley is known for its extreme heat, and the
Eastern Highlands
usually experience cool temperatures and the highest rainfall in the country. The country's
rainy season
generally runs from late October to March, and the hot climate is moderated by increasing altitude. Zimbabwe is faced with recurring droughts. In 2019, at least 55 elephants died because of drought.
123
Severe storms are rare.
124
Biodiversity
edit
Main article:
Wildlife of Zimbabwe
An elephant at a water hole in
Hwange National Park
Zimbabwe contains seven terrestrial ecoregions:
Kalahari acacia–baikiaea woodlands
, Southern Africa
bushveld
Southern miombo woodlands
Zambezian Baikiaea woodlands
Zambezian and mopane woodlands
Zambezian halophytics
, and Eastern Zimbabwe montane forest-grassland mosaic in the Eastern Highlands.
125
The country is mostly
savanna
, although the moist and mountainous Eastern Highlands support areas of tropical evergreen and hardwood forests. Trees found in the Eastern Highlands include
teak
mahogany
, enormous specimens of
strangler fig
forest Newtonia
, big leaf,
white stinkwood
, chirinda stinkwood,
knobthorn
and many others.
In the low-lying parts of the country
fever trees
mopane
combretum
and
baobabs
abound. Much of the country is covered by
miombo
woodland, dominated by
brachystegia
species and others. Among the numerous flowers and shrubs are
hibiscus
flame lily
snake lily
spider lily
leonotis
cassia
, tree
wisteria
and
dombeya
. There are around 350 species of mammals that can be found in Zimbabwe. There are also many snakes and lizards, over 500 bird species, and 131 fish species.
Large parts of Zimbabwe were once covered by forests with abundant wildlife.
Deforestation
and
poaching
has reduced the amount of wildlife.
Woodland degradation
and deforestation caused by
population growth
urban expansion
and use for fuel are major concerns
126
and have led to erosion which diminishes the amount of fertile soil. Local farmers have been criticised by environmentalists for burning off vegetation to heat their tobacco barns.
127
Government and politics
edit
Main articles:
Politics of Zimbabwe
Elections in Zimbabwe
, and
Foreign relations of Zimbabwe
The
New Zimbabwe Parliament Building
in
Mount Hampden, Harare
Zimbabwe is a republic with a
presidential system
of government under a unitary system of government.
128
The
semi-presidential system
was abolished with the adoption of a new constitution after
a referendum in 2013
. Under the constitutional changes in 2005, an
upper chamber
, the
Senate
, was reinstated.
129
The
House of Assembly
is the
lower chamber
of Parliament.
In 1987, Mugabe revised the constitution, abolishing the
ceremonial presidency
and the prime ministerial posts to form an executive president—a presidential system. His ZANU-PF party has won every election since independence—in the 1990 election, the second-placed party,
Edgar Tekere
's Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM), obtained 20% of the vote.
130
131
Politics
edit
During the 1995 parliamentary elections, most opposition parties, including the ZUM, boycotted the voting, resulting in a near sweep by the ruling party.
132
When the opposition returned to the polls in 2000, they won 57 seats, only five fewer than ZANU-PF.
132
Presidential elections were again held in 2002
amid allegations of vote-rigging, intimidation and fraud.
133
The
2005 Zimbabwe parliamentary elections
were held on 31 March, and multiple claims of vote rigging, election fraud and intimidation were made by the
Movement for Democratic Change
party and
Jonathan Moyo
, calling for investigations into 32 of the 120 constituencies.
134
Moyo participated in the elections despite the allegations and won a seat as an independent member of Parliament.
135
Supporters of the
Movement for Democratic Change
in 2005
In 2005, the MDC split into two factions: the Movement for Democratic Change – Mutambara (
MDC-M
), led by
Arthur Mutambara
which contested the elections to the Senate, and the
Movement for Democratic Change – Tsvangirai
(MDC-T) led by Morgan Tsvangirai which was opposed to contesting the elections, stating that participation in a rigged election is tantamount to endorsing Mugabe's claim that past elections were free and fair. The two MDC camps had their congresses in 2006, with Tsvangirai being elected to lead MDC-T, which became more popular than the other group.
136
In the
2008 general election
, the official results required a run-off between Mugabe and Tsvangirai. The MDC-T challenged these results, claiming widespread election fraud by the Mugabe government.
137
138
The run-off was scheduled for 27 June 2008. On 22 June, citing the continuing unfairness of the process and refusing to participate in a "violent, illegitimate sham of an election process", Tsvangirai pulled out of the presidential run-off, the election commission held the run-off, and President Mugabe received a landslide majority.
139
The MDC-T did not participate in the Senate elections, while the MDC-M won five seats in the Senate. The MDC-M was weakened by defections from members of parliament and individuals who were disillusioned by their manifesto.
136
On 28 April 2008, Tsvangirai and Mutambara announced at a joint news conference in
Johannesburg
that the two MDC formations were co-operating, enabling the MDC to have a clear parliamentary majority.
140
141
Tsvangirai said that Mugabe could not remain president without a parliamentary majority.
141
In mid-September 2008, after protracted negotiations overseen by the leaders of South Africa and Mozambique, Mugabe and Tsvangirai signed a power-sharing deal in which Mugabe retained control over the army. Donor nations adopted a 'wait-and-see' attitude, wanting to see real change being brought about by this merger before committing themselves to funding rebuilding efforts, which were estimated to take at least five years. On 11 February 2009, Tsvangirai was sworn in as prime minister by Mugabe.
142
143
In November 2008, the government of Zimbabwe spent US$7.3 million donated by
The Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria
. A representative of the organisation declined to speculate on how the money was spent, except that it was not for the intended purpose, and the government has failed to honour requests to return the money.
144
The status of Zimbabwe politics has been thrown into question by a coup taking place in November 2017, ending Mugabe's 30-year presidential incumbency. Emmerson Mnangagwa was appointed president following this coup and was officially elected with 50.8% of the vote in the
2018 Zimbabwean general election
, avoiding a run-off and making him the third president of Zimbabwe.
The government has received negative comments among its citizens for always shutting down the internet in the past amid protests such as the one planned on 31 July 2020.
145
In July 2023, Zimbabwean President
Emmerson Mnangagwa
voiced support for Russia in the
Russo-Ukrainian war
146
Armed forces
edit
Main article:
Zimbabwe Defence Forces
The flag of the
Zimbabwe Defence Forces
The Zimbabwe Defence Forces were set up by unifying three armed forces – the
Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army
(ZANLA), the
Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army
(ZIPRA), and the
Rhodesian Security Forces
(RSF) – after the
Second Chimurenga
and Zimbabwean independence in 1980. The integration period saw the formation of the
Zimbabwe National Army
(ZNA) and
Air Force of Zimbabwe
(AFZ) as separate entities under the command of General
Solomon Mujuru
and Air Marshal
Norman Walsh
, who retired in 1982 and was replaced by Air Marshal Azim Daudpota who handed over command to Air Chief Marshal
Josiah Tungamirai
in 1985. In 2003, General
Constantine Chiwenga
, was promoted and appointed Commander of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. Lieutenant General P. V. Sibanda replaced him as Commander of the Army.
147
The ZNA has an active duty strength of 30,000. The Air Force has about 5,139 standing personnel.
148
The
Zimbabwe Republic Police
(includes Police Support Unit, Paramilitary Police) is part of the Zimbabwe Defence Forces and numbers 25,000.
149
Following majority rule in early 1980,
British Army
trainers oversaw the integration of guerrilla fighters into a
battalion
structure overlaid on the existing Rhodesian armed forces. For the first year, a system was followed where the top-performing candidate became battalion commander. If the commander was from ZANLA, then theor second-in-command was the top-performing ZIPRA candidate, and vice versa.
150
This ensured a balance between the two movements in the command structure.
The ZNA was originally formed into four
brigades
, composed of a total of 28 battalions. The brigade support units were composed almost entirely of specialists of the former Rhodesian Army, while unintegrated battalions of the
Rhodesian African Rifles
were assigned to the 1st, 3rd and 4th Brigades. The Fifth Brigade was formed in 1981 and disbanded in 1988 after the demonstration of mass brutality and murder during the brigade's occupation of Matabeleland in what became known as
Gukurahundi
63
151
The brigade had been re-formed by 2006, with its commander, Brigadier General John Mupande praising its "rich history".
152
Human rights
edit
Main article:
Human rights in Zimbabwe
See also:
Child marriage in Zimbabwe
A demonstration in
London
against
Robert Mugabe
. Protests are discouraged by Zimbabwean police in Zimbabwe.
153
There are widespread reports of systematic and escalating violations of human rights in Zimbabwe under the Mugabe administration and the dominant ZANU–PF party.
154
According to human rights organisations such as
Amnesty International
155
and
Human Rights Watch
156
the government of Zimbabwe violates the rights to shelter, food,
freedom of movement
and residence,
freedom of assembly
and the
protection of the law
. In 2009,
Gregory Stanton
, president of the
International Association of Genocide Scholars
, stated there was "clear evidence that Mugabe government was guilty of crimes against humanity and that there was sufficient evidence of crimes against humanity to bring Mugabe to trial in front of the
International Criminal Court
."
157
Male
homosexuality
is
illegal in Zimbabwe
. From 1995, the government
carried out campaigns
against both homosexual men and women.
158
President Mugabe blamed gays for many of Zimbabwe's problems and viewed homosexuality as an "un-African" and immoral culture brought by European colonists and practised by only "a few whites" in his country.
159
Opposition gatherings are frequently the subject of reprisals by the police force, such as the crackdown on an 11 March 2007 MDC rally and several others during the 2008 election campaign.
160
Police actions have been strongly condemned by the
UN Secretary-General
Ban Ki-moon
, the European Union, and the United States.
161
There are also concerns over Fox Southwest media rights and access. The Zimbabwean government is accused of suppressing freedom of the press and freedom of speech.
155
It has been repeatedly accused of using the public broadcaster, the
Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
, as a propaganda tool.
162
Newspapers critical of the government, such as the
Daily News
, closed after bombs exploded at their offices and the government refused to renew their licence.
163
164
BBC News
Sky News
, and
CNN
were banned from filming or reporting from Zimbabwe. In 2009, reporting restrictions on the BBC and CNN were lifted.
165
Sky News continues to report on happenings within Zimbabwe from neighbouring countries like South Africa.
166
167
On 24 July 2020, the
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR) expressed concerns over allegations suggesting that Zimbabwean authorities may have used the
COVID-19
crisis as a pretext to suppress freedom of expression and peaceful assembly on the streets. OHCHR spokesperson Liz Throssell stated that people have a right to protest corruption or anything else. The authorities in Zimbabwe used force to disperse and arrest nurses and health workers, who were peacefully protesting for better salaries and work conditions. The reports suggest that a few members of opposition party and investigative journalists were also arbitrarily arrested and detained for taking part in a protest.
168
On 5 August 2020, the #ZimbabweanLivesMatter campaign on
drew attention of international celebrities and politicians towards human rights abuses in the country, mounting pressure on Emmerson Mnangagwa's government. The campaign was in response to arrests, abductions and torture of political activists and the incarceration of journalist
Hopewell Chin'ono
and the
Booker Prize
shortlisted author
Tsitsi Dangarembga
169
Administrative divisions
edit
Main articles:
Provinces of Zimbabwe
Districts of Zimbabwe
, and
Wards of Zimbabwe
Administrative divisions of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has a
centralised government
and is divided into eight provinces and two cities with provincial status, for administrative purposes. Each province has a provincial capital from where government administration is usually carried out.
Province
Capital
Bulawayo
Bulawayo
Harare
Harare
Manicaland
Mutare
Mashonaland Central
Bindura
Mashonaland East
Marondera
Mashonaland West
Chinhoyi
Masvingo
Masvingo city
Matabeleland North
Lupane District
Matabeleland South
Gwanda
Midlands
Gweru
The names of most of the provinces were generated from the Mashonaland and Matabeleland divide at the time of colonisation: Mashonaland was the territory occupied first by the British South Africa Company Pioneer Column and Matabeleland the territory conquered during the First Matabele War. This corresponds roughly to the precolonial territory of the Shona people and the Matabele people, although there are significant ethnic minorities in most provinces. Each province is headed by a provincial governor, appointed by the president.
170
The provincial government is run by a provincial administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. Other government functions at provincial level are carried out by provincial offices of national government departments.
171
The provinces are subdivided into 59
districts
and 1,200
wards
(sometimes referred to as municipalities). Each district is headed by a district administrator, appointed by the Public Service Commission. There is also a Rural District Council, which appoints a chief executive officer. The Rural District Council is composed of elected ward councillors, the district administrator, and one representative of the chiefs (traditional leaders appointed under customary law) in the district. Other government functions at district level are carried out by district offices of national government departments.
172
At the ward level, there is a Ward Development Committee, comprising the elected ward councillor, the kraalheads (traditional leaders subordinate to chiefs) and representatives of Village Development Committees. Wards are subdivided into villages, each of which has an elected Village Development Committee and a headman (traditional leader subordinate to the kraalhead).
173
Sanctions
edit
Since the early 2000s, Zimbabwe has been under sanctions imposed by the United States and the European Union that have shaped Zimbabwe's domestic politics as well as the country's relations with the
Western nations
174
In 2002, Zimbabwe held general elections and ahead of that election the EU sent observers, but the election observer team was forced to leave the country. In February 2002, the EU placed targeted or restrictive measures on Zimbabwe. At least 20 government officials were banned from entering Europe, and EU funding was halted. Prior to the elections, there was $128 million that was budgeted for the Zimbabwean government from 2002 to 2007, this was cancelled. Nevertheless, the EU only stopped funding the government directly but it continued sending money only through aid agencies and NGOs.
175
After some years, the EU and Zimbabwe resolved some of their disputes and a lot of the EU sanctions were removed. Only Mugabe and his wife remained on the list while other government officials were removed. However, the EU still did not give Zimbabwe money. The government channels money through NGOs as it was seen on 4 March 2019 – 21 March 2019
Cyclone Idai
176
The United States also imposed sanctions on Zimbabwe. There are two types of U.S. sanctions on Zimbabwe. The first one is
Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act
(ZIDERA) and the second one is the Targeted Sanctions Program. ZIDERA made several demands, the first one was that Zimbabwe must respect human rights, second Zimbabwe must stop its interference in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
, third Zimbabwe must stop the
expropriation
of white farms. If none of these demands were met, the U.S. would block the
IMF
and the
World Bank
from lending money to Zimbabwe.
177
A new ZIDERA came into effect in 2018 with the motto: "Restore Democracy or there won't be any friendship, there must be free elections, free media and human rights, Zimbabwe must enforce the ruling of the
SADC Tribunal
". The Targeted Sanctions Program was implemented in 2003, which lists Zimbabwean companies and people who are not allowed to deal with U.S. companies. The sanctions on Zimbabwe have been in place for more than two decades. In March 2021, the U.S. renewed its sanctions on Zimbabwe.
177
Economy
edit
Main article:
Economy of Zimbabwe
This section needs to be
updated
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
July 2022
Historical GDP per capita development in southern African countries, since 1950
The main foreign exports of Zimbabwe are minerals, gold,
124
and agriculture. Zimbabwe is crossed by two trans-African automobile routes: the
Cairo-Cape Town Highway
and the
Beira-Lobito Highway
. Zimbabwe is the largest trading partner of South Africa on the continent.
178
Taxes and tariffs are high for private enterprises, while state enterprises are strongly subsidised. State regulation is costly to companies; starting or closing a business is slow and expensive.
179
Tourism also plays a key role in the economy
180
but has been failing in recent years. The Zimbabwe Conservation Task Force released a report in June 2007, estimating that 60% of Zimbabwe's wildlife had died since 2000 as a result of poaching and deforestation. The report warns that the loss of life combined with widespread deforestation is potentially disastrous for the tourism industry.
181
The
information and communications technology
sector has been growing at a fast pace. A report by the mobile web browser company Opera in 2011 ranked Zimbabwe as Africa's fastest growing market.
182
183
A market in
Mbare, Harare
Since January 2002, the government has had its lines of credit at international financial institutions frozen, through U.S. legislation called the Zimbabwe Democracy and Economic Recovery Act of 2001 (ZDERA). Section 4C instructs the secretary of the treasury to direct international financial institutions to veto the extension of loans and credit to the Zimbabwean government.
184
According to the United States, these sanctions target only seven specific businesses owned or controlled by government officials and not ordinary citizens.
185
The GDP per capita (current), compared to neighbouring countries (world average = 100)
Zimbabwe maintained positive economic growth throughout the 1980s (5% GDP growth per year) and 1990s (4.3% GDP growth per year). The economy declined from 2000: 5% decline in 2000, 8% in 2001, 12% in 2002 and 18% in 2003.
186
Zimbabwe's involvement from 1998 to 2002 in the war in the Democratic Republic of the Congo drained hundreds of millions of dollars from the economy.
187
From 1999 to 2009, Zimbabwe saw the lowest ever economic growth with an annual GDP decrease of 6.1%.
188
The downward spiral of the economy has been attributed mainly to mismanagement and corruption by the government and the eviction of more than 4,000 white farmers in the controversial land confiscations of 2000.
189
190
191
The Zimbabwean government and its supporters attest that it was Western policies to avenge the expulsion of their kin that sabotaged the economy.
192
By 2005, the purchasing power of the average Zimbabwean had dropped to the same levels in real terms as 1953.
193
In 2005, the government, led by central bank governor
Gideon Gono
, started making overtures that white farmers could come back. There were 400 to 500 still left in the country, but much of the land that had been confiscated was no longer productive.
194
By 2016, there remained about 300 of the original 4,500 farms owned by white farmers. The farms that left were either too remote or their owners had paid for protection or collaborated with the regime.
97
In January 2007, the government issued long-term leases to some white farmers.
195
At the same time, however, the government also continued to demand that all remaining white farmers, who were given eviction notices earlier, vacate the land or risk being arrested.
196
197
Mugabe pointed to foreign governments and alleged "sabotage" as the cause of the fall of the Zimbabwean economy, as well as the country's 80% formal unemployment rate.
198
Inflation rose from an annual rate of 32% in 1998, to an estimated high of 11,200,000% in August 2008 according to the Central Statistical Office.
199
This represented a state of
hyperinflation
, and the central bank introduced a new 100 trillion dollar note.
200
In January 2009, in an effort to counteract runaway inflation, acting Finance Minister
Patrick Chinamasa
announced that Zimbabweans would be permitted to use other, more stable currencies to do business, alongside the
Zimbabwean dollar
201
In an effort to combat inflation and foster economic growth, the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely in April 2009.
202
In 2016, Zimbabwe allowed trade in the
United States dollar
and various other currencies such as the
rand
(South Africa), the
pula
(Botswana), the
euro
, and the
pound sterling
(UK).
203
In February 2019,
Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe
Governor
John Mangudya
introduced a new local currency, the
Real Time Gross Settlement dollar
, in a move to address some of the Zimbabwean economic and financial challenges.
204
After the formation of the Unity Government and the adoption of several currencies instead of the Zimbabwe dollar in 2009, the Zimbabwean economy rebounded. GDP grew by 8–9% per year between 2009 and 2012.
205
In November 2010, the
International Monetary Fund
described the Zimbabwean economy as "completing its second year of buoyant economic growth".
206
207
The pan-African investment bank IMARA released a favourable report in February 2011 on investment prospects in Zimbabwe, citing an improved revenue base and higher tax receipts.
208
In January 2013, the finance ministry reported that they had only $217 in their treasury and would apply for donations to finance the coming elections.
209
By 2014, Zimbabwe had recovered to levels seen in the 1990s
205
but growth faltered between 2012 and 2016.
210
Inflation was 42% in 2018; in June 2019, the inflation rate reached 175%, leading to mass unrest across the country.
211
Minerals
edit
Main article:
Mining industry of Zimbabwe
The mining sector is lucrative, with some of the world's largest
platinum
reserves being mined by
Anglo American plc
, Zimplats, and Impala Platinum.
212
Zimplats, the nation's largest platinum company, has proceeded with US$500 million in expansions, and is also continuing a separate US$2 billion project, despite threats by Mugabe to nationalise the company.
213
The
Marange diamond fields
, discovered in 2006, are considered the biggest diamond find in over a century.
214
They have the potential to improve the fiscal situation of the country considerably, but almost all revenues from the field have disappeared into the pockets of army officers and ZANU–PF politicians.
215
In terms of carats produced, the Marange field is one of the largest diamond-producing projects in the world,
216
estimated to have produced 12 million carats in 2014 worth over $350 million.
217
As of October 2014
[update]
Metallon Corporation
was Zimbabwe's largest gold miner.
218
In 2015, Zimbabwe's gold production is 20 metric tonnes.
219
Further information on tin from the:
Kamativi mine
Agriculture
edit
Shona
farms in Zimbabwe
Main article:
Agriculture in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe's commercial farming sector was traditionally a source of exports and foreign exchange and provided 400,000 jobs. However, the government's land reform program badly damaged the sector, turning Zimbabwe into a net importer of food products.
For example, between 2000 and 2016, annual wheat production fell from 250,000 tons to 60,000 tons, maize was reduced from two million tons to 500,000 tons and cattle slaughtered for beef fell from 605,000 head to 244,000 head.
97
Coffee production, once a prized export commodity, came to a virtual halt after seizure or expropriation of white-owned coffee farms in 2000 and has never recovered.
220
For the past ten years, the
International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
has been assisting Zimbabwe's farmers to adopt
conservation agriculture
techniques, a sustainable method of farming that can help increase yields. By applying the three principles of minimum soil disturbance, legume-based cropping and the use of organic mulch, farmers can improve infiltration, reduce evaporation and soil erosion, and build up organic soil content.
221
Between 2005 and 2011, the number of smallholders practicing conservation agriculture in Zimbabwe increased from 5,000 to more than 150,000. Cereal yields rose between 15 and 100 per cent across different regions.
222
The government declared potato a national strategic food security crop in 2012.
223
Tourism
edit
Main article:
Tourism in Zimbabwe
Victoria Falls
, the end of the upper
Zambezi
and the beginning of the middle Zambezi
Since the
land reform programme
in 2000, tourism in Zimbabwe has steadily declined. In 2018, tourism peaked with 2.6 million tourists.
224
In 2016, the total contribution of tourism to Zimbabwe was $1.1 billion (USD), or about 8.1% of Zimbabwe's GDP. Employment in travel and tourism, as well as the industries indirectly supported by travel and tourism, was 5.2% of national employment.
225
Several airlines pulled out of Zimbabwe between 2000 and 2007. Australia's
Qantas
, Germany's
Lufthansa
, and
Austrian Airlines
were among the first to pull out and in 2007
British Airways
suspended all direct flights to Harare.
226
227
The country's flagship airline,
Air Zimbabwe
, which operated flights throughout Africa and a few destinations in Europe and Asia, ceased operations in February 2012.
228
needs update
As of 2017, several major commercial airlines had resumed flights to Zimbabwe.
Zimbabwe has several major tourist attractions. Victoria Falls on the Zambezi, which are shared with Zambia, are located in the north-west of Zimbabwe. Victoria Falls is considered to be the largest waterfall in the world.
229
Before the economic changes, much of the tourism for these locations came to the Zimbabwe side, but now Zambia is the main beneficiary. The
Victoria Falls National Park
is also in this area and is one of the eight main national parks in Zimbabwe,
230
the largest of which is
Hwange National Park
Lake Kariba
, another site for tourism, is the largest reservoir in the world.
229
The Eastern Highlands are a series of mountainous areas near the border with Mozambique. The highest peak in Zimbabwe,
Mount Nyangani
at 2,593 m (8,507 ft) is located there as well as the
Bvumba Mountains
and the
Nyanga National Park
World's View
is in these mountains, and it is from here that places as far away as 60–70 km (37–43 mi) are visible and, on clear days, the town of
Rusape
can be seen.
Zimbabwe is unusual in Africa in that there are a number of ancient and medieval ruined cities built in a unique
dry stone
style. Among the most famous of these are the Great Zimbabwe ruins in Masvingo. Other ruins include
Khami
Dhlo-Dhlo
and
Naletale
. The Matobo Hills are an area of granite
kopjes
and wooded valleys commencing some 35 km (22 mi) south of Bulawayo in southern Zimbabwe. The hills were formed over two billion years ago with granite being forced to the surface, then being eroded to produce smooth "whaleback dwalas" and broken kopjes, strewn with boulders and interspersed with thickets of vegetation. Mzilikazi, founder of the Ndebele nation, gave the area its name, meaning 'Bald Heads'. They have become a tourist attraction because of their ancient shapes and local wildlife. Cecil Rhodes and other early white colonists like
Leander Starr Jameson
are buried in these hills at World's View.
231
Water supply and sanitation
edit
Main article:
Water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe
There are many successful small-scale water supply and sanitation programs, but there is an overall lack of improved water and sanitation systems for the majority of Zimbabwe. According to the
World Health Organization
in 2012, 80% of Zimbabweans had access to improved (i.e. clean) drinking water sources, and only 40% of Zimbabweans had access to improved sanitation facilities.
232
Access to improved water supply and sanitation is noticeably limited in rural areas.
233
There are many factors that continue to determine the nature of water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe for the foreseeable future; three major factors are the severely depressed state of the Zimbabwean economy, the reluctance of foreign aid organisations to build and finance infrastructure projects, and the political instability of the state.
233
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Science and technology
edit
Main article:
Science and technology in Zimbabwe
Scientific research output in terms of publications in Southern Africa, cumulative totals by field, 2008–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), figure 20.6.
Zimbabwe has relatively well-developed national infrastructure and a long-standing tradition of promoting research and development, as evidenced by the levy imposed on tobacco-growers since the 1930s to promote market research.
235
236
The country has a well-developed education system, with one in 11 adults holding a tertiary degree. Given the country's solid knowledge base and abundant natural resources, Zimbabwe has great growth potential.
235
236
Zimbabwe was ranked 129th in the
Global Innovation Index
in 2025
237
238
To achieve its growth potential, Zimbabwe will need to correct several structural weaknesses. For instance, it lacks the critical mass of researchers needed to trigger innovation. Although the infrastructure is in place to harness research and development to Zimbabwe's socio-economic development, universities and research institutions lack the financial and human resources to conduct research and the regulatory environment hampers the transfer of new technologies to the business sector. The economic crisis has precipitated an exodus of university students and professionals in key areas of expertise (medicine, engineering, etc.) that is of growing concern. More than 22% of Zimbabwean tertiary students were completing their degrees abroad in 2012, compared to a 4% average for sub-Saharan Africa as a whole. In 2012, there were 200 researchers (head count) employed in the public sector, one-quarter of whom were women. This is double the continental average (91 in 2013) but only one-quarter the researcher density of South Africa (818 per million inhabitants). The government has created the Zimbabwe Human Capital Website to provide information for the diaspora on job and investment opportunities in Zimbabwe.
235
236
Scientific publication trends in the most productive SADC countries, 2005–2014. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), data from Thomson Reuters' Web of Science, Science Citation Index Expanded.
The country's
Second Science and Technology Policy
was launched in June 2012, after being elaborated with UNESCO assistance. It replaces the earlier policy dating from 2002. The 2012 policy prioritizes biotechnology, information and communication technologies (ICTs), space sciences, nanotechnology, indigenous knowledge systems, technologies yet to emerge and scientific solutions to emergent environmental challenges. The
Second Science and Technology Policy
also asserts the government's commitment to allocating at least 1% of GDP to research and development, focusing at least 60% of university education on developing skills in science and technology and ensuring that school pupils devote at least 30% of their time to studying science subjects.
235
236
In 2014, Zimbabwe counted 21 publications per million inhabitants in internationally cataloged journals, according to Thomson Reuters' Web of Science (Science Citation Index Expanded). This placed Zimbabwe sixth out of the 15 SADC countries, behind Namibia (59), Mauritius (71), Botswana (103) and, above all, South Africa (175) and the Seychelles (364). The average for sub-Saharan Africa was 20 scientific publications per million inhabitants, compared to a global average of 176 per million.
236
Transportation
edit
Main article:
Transport in Zimbabwe
National Railways of Zimbabwe
Robert Gabriel Mugabe International Airport
Demographics
edit
Main article:
Demographics of Zimbabwe
Population
edit
Expanding from a population of 2,746,396 in 1950, Zimbabwe's population has rapidly increased. Based on the 2022 revision of the
World Population Prospects
239
240
, the population of Zimbabwe was estimated by the
United Nations
at 15,993,524 in 2021.
Ethnic groups
edit
A Tonga woman pleating a basket
According to the 2022 census report, 99.6% of the population is of African origin.
The majority people, the Shona, comprise 82%, while Ndebele make up 14% of the population.
241
The Ndebele descended from Zulu migrations in the 19th century and the other tribes with which they intermarried. Up to one million Ndebele may have left the country over the last five years,
when?
mainly for South Africa.
citation needed
Other ethnic groups include
Venda
Tonga
Tsonga
Kalanga
Sotho
Ndau
Nambya
Tswana
Xhosa
and
Lozi
Minority ethnic groups include
white Zimbabweans
, who make up less than 1% of the total population. White Zimbabweans are mostly of British origin, but there are also
Afrikaner
Greek
Portuguese
French
and Dutch communities. The white population dropped from a peak of around 278,000, or 4.3% of the population, in 1975.
242
The 2022 census lists the total white population at 24,888 (roughly 0.16% of the population), one-eleventh of its peak.
Emigrants went to the United Kingdom (between
200,000 and 500,000
resident Britons were of Rhodesian or Zimbabwean origin in 2006), South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Hong Kong, the United States,
Zambia
and Mozambique.
243
244
245
246
After Mugabe was replaced by
Emmerson Mnangagwa
as president, there was an influx of white Zimbabweans returning to the country.
247
248
Coloureds
form 0.1% of the population, and various
Asian
ethnic groups, mostly of
Indian
and Chinese origin, are 0.04%.
Largest cities
edit
Largest cities or towns in Zimbabwe
Source:
249
Rank
Name
Province
Pop.
Harare
Harare
2,123,132
Bulawayo
Bulawayo
1,200,337
Chitungwiza
Harare
371,244
Mutare
Manicaland
224,802
Gweru
Midlands
158,200
Kwekwe
Midlands
119,863
Kadoma
Mashonaland West
116,300
Ruwa
Mashonaland East
94,083
Chinhoyi
Mashonaland West
90,800
10
Masvingo
Masvingo
90,286
Languages
edit
Main article:
Languages of Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has 16 official languages and under the constitution, an Act of Parliament may prescribe other languages as officially recognised languages.
English is the main language used in the education and judicial systems. The
Bantu languages
Shona
and
Ndebele
are the principal indigenous languages of Zimbabwe. Shona is spoken by 78% of the population, Ndebele by 20%. Other minority Bantu languages include Venda,
Tsonga
, Shangaan, Kalanga, Sotho, Ndau and Nambya. Less than 2.5%, mainly the white and "coloured" (mixed race) minorities, consider English their native language.
250
Shona has a rich oral tradition, which was incorporated into the first Shona novel,
Feso
by
Solomon Mutswairo
, published in 1956.
251
English is primarily spoken in the cities but less so in rural areas. Radio and television news are broadcast in Shona, Sindebele and English.
citation needed
There is a large community of Portuguese speakers in Zimbabwe, mainly in the border areas with Mozambique and in major cities.
252
Beginning in 2017, teaching Portuguese was included in secondary education of Zimbabwe.
253
254
Religion
edit
Main article:
Religion in Zimbabwe
Catholic
church in
Harare
According to the 2017 Inter Censal Demography Survey by the
Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency
, 84% of Zimbabweans are Christian, 10% do not belong to any religion, and 0.7% are
Muslim
255
256
An estimated 62% of the population attend religious services regularly.
257
Approximately 69% of Zimbabweans belong to
Protestant
Christianity, while 8% are Roman Catholic.
Pentecostal-charismatic forms of Christianity, in particular, have grown rapidly in recent years and are playing a prominent role in public, social and political life.
258
The largest Christian churches are
Anglican
Roman Catholic
Seventh-day Adventist
259
and
Methodist
As in other African countries, Christianity may be mixed with enduring traditional beliefs.
Indigenous religion
, which predates colonialism, has become relatively marginal but continues to be an important part of the Zimbabwean religious field.
260
261
Ancestral worship
is the most practised non-Christian religion, involving spiritual intercession. Central to many ceremonial proceedings is the
mbira dzavadzimu
, meaning "voice of the ancestors", which is an instrument related to many
lamellophones
ubiquitous throughout Africa.
Health
edit
Main article:
Health in Zimbabwe
See also:
HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe
and
Zimbabwean cholera outbreak
Life expectancy in select Southern African countries, 1950–2019.
HIV/AIDS
has caused a fall in life expectancy.
Mother of Peace AIDS orphanage,
Mutoko
(2005)
At independence, the policies of racial inequality were reflected in the disease patterns of the black majority. The first five years after independence saw rapid gains in areas such as immunisation coverage, access to health care, and contraceptive prevalence rate.
262
Zimbabwe was thus considered internationally to have achieved a good record of health development.
263
Zimbabwe suffered occasional outbreaks of acute diseases. The gains on the national health were eroded by structural adjustment in the 1990s,
264
the impact of the HIV/AIDS pandemic
212
and the economic crisis since 2000. In 2006, Zimbabwe had one of the lowest life expectancies in the world according to UN figure—44 for men and 43 for women, down from 60 in 1990, but recovered to 60 in 2015.
265
266
The rapid drop was ascribed mainly to the HIV/AIDS pandemic.
Infant mortality
rose from 6% in the late 1990s to 12.3% by 2004.
212
Official fertility rates over the last decade were 3.6 (2002),
267
3.8 (2006)
268
and 3.8 (2012).
269
The 2014 maternal mortality rate per 100,000 births for Zimbabwe was 614
205
compared to 960 in 2010–11
205
and 232 in 1990. The under five mortality rate, per 1,000 births was 75 in 2014 (94 in 2009).
205
The number of midwives per 1,000 live births was unavailable in 2016 and the lifetime risk of death for pregnant women 1 in 42.
270
In 2006 an association of doctors in Zimbabwe made calls for Mugabe to make moves to assist the ailing health service.
271
The
HIV infection rate in Zimbabwe
was estimated to be 14% for people aged 15–49 in 2009.
272
UNESCO
reported a decline in HIV prevalence among pregnant women from 26% in 2002 to 21% in 2004.
273
By 2016 HIV/AIDS prevalence had been reduced to 13.5%
265
compared to 40% in 1998.
205
At the end of November 2008, some operations at three of Zimbabwe's four major referral hospitals had shut down, along with the Zimbabwe Medical School, and the fourth major hospital had two wards and no operating theatres working.
274
Those hospitals still open were not able to obtain basic drugs and medicines.
275
The situation changed drastically after the Unity Government and the introduction of the multi-currency system in February 2009 although the political and economic crisis also contributed to the emigration of the doctors and people with medical knowledge.
276
Map showing the spread of
cholera
in and around Zimbabwe put together from several sources
In August 2008 large areas of Zimbabwe were struck by the ongoing cholera epidemic. By December 2008 more than 10,000 people had been infected in all but one of Zimbabwe's provinces, and the outbreak had spread to Botswana, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.
277
278
On 4 December 2008 the Zimbabwe government declared the outbreak to be a national emergency and asked for international aid.
279
280
By 9 March 2009 The World Health Organization estimated that 4,011 people had succumbed to the waterborne disease since the outbreak began, and the total number of cases recorded had reached 89,018.
281
In Harare, the city council offered free graves to cholera victims.
282
Education
edit
Main article:
Education in Zimbabwe
St. George's College, Harare
was established in 1896 by a French
Jesuit
Large investments in education since independence has resulted in the highest adult literacy rate in Africa which in 2013 was 90.70%.
283
This is lower than the 92% recorded in 2010 by the
United Nations Development Programme
284
285
and the 97.0% recorded in the 2002 census, while still substantially higher than 80.4% recorded in the 1992 census.
286
The wealthier portion of the population usually send their children to independent schools as opposed to the government-run schools which are attended by the majority as these are subsidised by the government. School education was made free in 1980, but since 1988, the government has steadily increased the charges attached to school enrolment until they now greatly exceed the real value of fees in 1980. The Ministry of Education of Zimbabwe maintains and operates the government schools, but the fees charged by independent schools are regulated by the cabinet of Zimbabwe. The education department has stated that 20,000 teachers have left Zimbabwe since 2007 and that half of Zimbabwe's children have not progressed beyond primary school.
287
Education came under threat since the economic changes in 2000, with teachers going on strike because of low pay, students unable to concentrate because of hunger, and the price of uniforms soaring making this standard a luxury. Teachers were also one of the main targets of Mugabe's attacks because he thought they were not strong supporters.
288
Zimbabwe's education system consists of two years of pre-school, seven years of primary and six years of secondary schooling before students can enter university in the country or abroad. The academic year in Zimbabwe runs from January to December, with three terms, separated by one-month breaks, with a total of 40 weeks of school per year. National examinations are written during the third term in November, with
"O" level
and
"A" level
subjects also offered in June.
289
There are seven public (government) universities as well as four church-related universities in Zimbabwe that are internationally accredited.
289
The
University of Zimbabwe
, the first and largest, was built in 1952 and is located in the Harare suburb of
Mount Pleasant
. Notable alumni from Zimbabwean universities include Welshman Ncube,
Peter Moyo
Tendai Biti
Chenjerai Hove
and Arthur Mutambara. Many of the politicians in the government of Zimbabwe have obtained degrees from universities in the United States or other universities abroad.
National University of Science and Technology
is the second largest public research university in Zimbabwe located in Bulawayo. It was established in 1991. The National University of Science and Technology strives to become a flourishing and reputable institution not only in Zimbabwe and in Southern Africa but also among the international fraternity of universities.
Africa University
is a United Methodist university in Manicaland which attracts students from at least 36 African countries.
Gender equality
edit
Further information:
Child marriage in Zimbabwe
Polygamy in Zimbabwe
Human trafficking in Zimbabwe
, and
Abortion in Zimbabwe
Women in Zimbabwe are disadvantaged in many facets including economic, political, and social spheres, and experience sex and gender based violence.
290
A 2014 UN report found that deep rooted cultural issues, patriarchal attitudes, and religious practices negatively impacted women's rights and freedoms in the country.
290
These negative views toward women as well as societal norms impact the incentive for women to participate in the economy and hinder their economic production.
290
Zimbabwe's constitution has provisions in it that provide incentive to achieve greater gender equality, but the data shows that enforcement has been lax and adoption slow.
290
In December 2016 the
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
conducted a case study to determine how to best implement effective policy to address issues such as gender violence and implementation of equality laws.
291
It was found that sex and gender based violence against women and girls was increasing in areas that had experienced disasters (floods, drought, disease) but could not quantify the extent of the increase.
291
Some of the obstacles in combating these issues are that there are economic barriers to declaring sex and gender based violence to be unacceptable as well as social barriers.
291
Additionally, governmental services which were installed to help educate the populace about these issues as well as provide services to victims are underfunded and unable to carry out their duties.
291
The UN also provided economic incentive to adopt policies which would discourage these practices which negatively impacted women in Zimbabwe.
292
Women are often seen as inferior, treated as objects, and viewed in subordinate roles in history and philosophy.
293
Ubuntu
, an African philosophy's spiritual aspect, instills the belief that boys should be more valued than girls as boys pass on lineage, and the belief system places high value in respecting one's ancestors.
293
A common expression used in court, "
vakadzi ngavanyarare
", translates to "
women should keep quiet,
" and as a result women are not consulted in decision-making; they must implement the men's wishes.
293
The subordination of women in Zimbabwe, and the cultural forces which dictate what they must be, have led to deaths and the sacrifice of professional advancement in order for them to fulfill their roles as wives, mothers, and subordinates.
293
294
Women are taught that they must never refuse their husband's sexual advances, even if they know they are infected with HIV from being unfaithful.
293
As a result of this practice, Zimbabwean women aged 15–49 have an HIV prevalence rate of 16.1% and make up 62% of the total population infected with HIV in that age group.
295
Culture
edit
Main article:
Culture of Zimbabwe
Cultural event in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe has many different cultures, with Shona beliefs and ceremonies being prominent. The Shona people have many types of sculptures and carvings.
296
Zimbabwe first celebrated its independence on 18 April 1980.
297
Celebrations are held at either the
National Sports Stadium
or
Rufaro Stadium
in Harare. The first independence celebrations were held in 1980 at the Zimbabwe Grounds. At these celebrations, doves are released to symbolise peace, fighter jets fly over, and the
national anthem
is sung. The flame of independence is lit by the president after parades by the presidential family and members of the armed forces of Zimbabwe. The president also gives a speech to the people of Zimbabwe which is televised for those unable to attend the stadium.
298
Zimbabwe also has a national beauty pageant, the
Miss Heritage Zimbabwe
contest, which has been held annually since 2012.
Arts
edit
Main article:
Zimbabwean art
See also:
Music of Zimbabwe
"Reconciliation", a
stone sculpture
by
Amos Supuni
Traditional arts in Zimbabwe include
pottery
basketry
, textiles, jewellery and carving. Among the distinctive qualities are symmetrically patterned woven baskets and stools carved out of a single piece of wood. Shona sculpture, which has a long cultural history, began evolving into its modern form in the mid-20th century and gained increasing international popularity.
299
Most subjects of carved figures of stylised birds and human figures among others are made with sedimentary rock such as
soapstone
, as well as harder igneous rocks such as
serpentine
and the rare stone
verdite
. Zimbabwean artefacts can be found in countries like Singapore, China and Canada—for example,
Dominic Benhura
's statue in the
Singapore Botanic Gardens
Shona sculpture has survived through the ages, and the modern style is a fusion of African folklore with European influences. World-renowned Zimbabwean sculptors include Nicholas Nesbert and Anderson Mukomberanwa, Tapfuma Gutsa, Henry Munyaradzi and Locardia Ndandarika.
Several authors are well known within Zimbabwe and abroad.
Charles Mungoshi
is renowned in Zimbabwe for writing traditional stories in English and in Shona, and his poems and books have sold well with both the black and white communities.
300
Catherine Buckle
has achieved international recognition with her two books
African Tears
and
Beyond Tears
which tell of the ordeal she went through under the
2000 Land Reform
301
The first
Prime Minister of Rhodesia
, Ian Smith, wrote two books –
The Great Betrayal
and
Bitter Harvest
The book
The House of Hunger
by
Dambudzo Marechera
won the
Guardian Fiction Prize
in the UK in 1979.
302
The Nobel Prize-winning author
Doris Lessing
's first novel
The Grass Is Singing
is set in Rhodesia, as are the first four volumes of her
Children of Violence
sequence and her collection of short stories entitled
African Stories
. In 2013
NoViolet Bulawayo
's novel
We Need New Names
was shortlisted for the
Booker Prize
. The novel was inspired by a photograph of a child who lost their home in
Operation Murambatsvina
, Mugabe's slum clearance programme which began in 2005.
303
Bulawayo's second novel,
Glory
, a satire based on the
2017 coup
against
Robert Mugabe
304
was also shortlisted for the Booker Prize. Zimbabwean author
Tsitsi Dangarembga
's novels have received widespread critical acclaim and her third,
This Mournable Body
, was shortlisted for the Booker Prize in 2020.
Notable Zimbabwean artists include Henry Mudzengerere and Nicolas Mukomberanwa. A recurring theme in Zimbabwean art is the metamorphosis of man into beast.
305
Zimbabwean musicians like
Thomas Mapfumo
Oliver Mtukudzi
, the
Bhundu Boys
Stella Chiweshe
Alick Macheso
and
Audius Mtawarira
have achieved international recognition. Among members of the white minority community, Theatre has a large following, with numerous theatrical companies performing in Zimbabwe's urban areas.
306
Cuisine
edit
A meal of
sadza
(right)
, greens, and goat
offal
. The goat's small intestines are wrapped around small pieces of large intestines before cooking.
Like in many African countries, the majority of Zimbabweans depend on a few staple foods. "Mealie meal", also known as
cornmeal
, is used to prepare
sadza
or
isitshwala
, as well as
porridge
known as
bota
or
ilambazi
Sadza
is made by mixing the cornmeal with water to produce a thick paste/porridge. After the paste has been cooking for several minutes, more cornmeal is added to thicken the paste. This is usually eaten as lunch or dinner, usually with sides such as gravy, vegetables (spinach,
chomolia
, or
spring greens
/collard greens), beans, and meat (stewed, grilled, roasted, or sundried).
Sadza
is also commonly eaten with curdled milk (
sour milk
), commonly known as "lacto" (
mukaka wakakora
), or dried
Tanganyika sardine
, known locally as
kapenta
or
matemba
Bota
is a thinner porridge, cooked without the additional cornmeal and usually flavoured with peanut butter, milk, butter, or jam.
307
Bota
is usually eaten for breakfast.
Graduations, weddings, and any other family gatherings will usually be celebrated with the killing of a goat or cow, which will be barbecued or roasted by the family.
Raw
boerewors
Even though the Afrikaners are a small group (10%) within the white minority group, Afrikaner recipes are popular.
Biltong
, a type of jerky, is a popular snack, prepared by hanging bits of spiced raw meat to dry in the shade.
308
Boerewors
is served with
sadza
. It is a long sausage, often well-spiced, composed of beef and any other meat like pork, and barbecued.
309
As Zimbabwe was a British colony, some people there have adopted some colonial-era English eating habits. For example, most people will have porridge in the morning, as well as 10 o'clock tea (midday tea). They will have lunch, often leftovers from the night before, freshly cooked
sadza
, or sandwiches (which is more common in the cities). After lunch, there is usually 4 o'clock tea (afternoon tea), which is served before dinner. It is not uncommon for tea to be had after dinner.
310
Rice, pasta, and
potato-based foods
(French fries and mashed potato) also make up part of Zimbabwean cuisine. A local favourite is rice cooked with peanut butter, which is taken with thick gravy, mixed vegetables and meat.
311
A potpourri of peanuts known as
nzungu
, boiled and sundried maize, black-eyed peas known as
nyemba
, and
Bambara groundnuts
known as
nyimo
makes a traditional dish called
mutakura
Sports
edit
Main article:
Sport in Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe women's national football team
at the
2016 Olympic Games
Football is the most popular sport in Zimbabwe.
312
The Warriors
have qualified for the
Africa Cup of Nations
five times (2004, 2006, 2017, 2019, 2021), and won the
Southern Africa championship
on six occasions (2000, 2003, 2005, 2009, 2017, 2018) and the
Eastern Africa cup
once (1985). The team is ranked 68th in 2022.
313
Rugby union
is a significant sport in Zimbabwe.
The national side
have represented the country at 2
Rugby World Cup
tournaments in 1987 and 1991 and have qualified for 2027.
314
Cricket
is also a very popular sport in Zimbabwe. It used to have a following mostly among the white minority, but it has recently grown to become a widely popular sport among most Zimbabweans.
315
Media
edit
The
media of Zimbabwe
is now once again diverse, having come under tight restriction between 2002 and 2008 by the government during the economic and political crisis. The Zimbabwean constitution promises freedom of the media and expression. Since the appointment of a new media and information minister in 2013 the media is facing less political interference, and the supreme court has ruled some sections of the strict media laws as unconstitutional.
316
In July 2009 the BBC and CNN were able to resume operations and report legally and openly from Zimbabwe. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Media, Information and Publicity stated that, "the Zimbabwe government never banned the BBC from carrying out lawful activities inside Zimbabwe".
165
317
In 2010 the Zimbabwe Media Commission was established by the inclusive, power-sharing government. In May 2010 the commission licensed three privately owned newspapers, including the previously banned
Daily News
, for publication.
318
Reporters Without Borders
described the decisions as a "major advance".
319
In June 2010
NewsDay
became the first independent daily newspaper to be published in Zimbabwe in seven years.
320
The
Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation
's monopoly in the broadcasting sector was ended with the licensing of two private radio stations in 2012.
321
The main published newspapers are
The Herald
and
The Chronicle
which are printed in Harare and Bulawayo respectively.
Since the
2002 Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act
was passed, a number of privately owned news outlets were shut down by the government, including
Daily News
whose managing director Wilf Mbanga went on to form the influential
The Zimbabwean
322
323
As a result, many press organisations have been set up in both neighbouring and Western countries by exiled Zimbabweans. Because the internet is unrestricted, many Zimbabweans are allowed to access online news sites set up by exiled journalists.
324
Reporters Without Borders claims the media environment in Zimbabwe involves "surveillance, threats, imprisonment, censorship, blackmail, abuse of power and denial of justice are all brought to bear to keep firm control over the news."
322
In its 2021 report, Reporters Without Borders ranked the Zimbabwean media as 130th out of 180, noting that "access to information has improved and self-censorship has declined, but journalists are still often attacked or arrested".
322
The government also bans many foreign broadcasting stations from Zimbabwe, including the
CBC
, Sky News,
Channel 4
American Broadcasting Company
Australian Broadcasting Corporation
, and
Fox News
. News agencies and newspapers from other Western countries and South Africa have also been banned from the country.
citation needed
National symbols
edit
Traditional Zimbabwe Bird design
The stone-carved
Zimbabwe Bird
appears on the national flags and the coats of arms of both Zimbabwe and Rhodesia, as well as on
banknotes
and coins (first on
Rhodesian pound
and then
Rhodesian dollar
). It probably represents the
bateleur eagle
or the
African fish eagle
325
326
The famous soapstone bird carvings stood on walls and monoliths of the ancient city of Great Zimbabwe.
327
Balancing rocks
are geological formations all over Zimbabwe. The rocks are perfectly balanced without other supports. They are created when ancient granite intrusions are exposed to weathering, as softer rocks surrounding them erode away. They have been depicted on both the
banknotes of Zimbabwe
and the Rhodesian dollar banknotes. The ones found on the current notes of Zimbabwe, named the Banknote Rocks, are located in
Epworth
, approximately 14 km (9 mi) southeast of Harare.
328
There are many different formations of the rocks, incorporating single and paired columns of three or more rocks. These formations are a feature of south and east tropical Africa from northern South Africa northwards to Sudan. The most notable formations in Zimbabwe are located in the Matobo National Park in Matabeleland.
329
The
national anthem of Zimbabwe
is "Raise the Flag of Zimbabwe" (
Shona
Simudzai Mureza wedu WeZimbabwe
Northern Ndebele
Kalibusiswe Ilizwe leZimbabwe
). It was introduced in March 1994 after a nationwide competition to replace
Ishe Komborera Africa
as a distinctly Zimbabwean song. The winning entry was a song written by Professor
Solomon Mutswairo
and composed by Fred Changundega. It has been translated into all three of the main languages of Zimbabwe.
329
See also
edit
Outline of Zimbabwe
Notes
edit
Mainly
Ndebele
and
Shona
Includes those of Asian descent
ɑː
eɪ
Shona
pronunciation:
[zi.ᵐba.ɓwe]
References
edit
Notes
edit
After the Zimbabwean dollar was suspended indefinitely from 12 April 2009, the
euro
United States dollar
pound sterling
South African rand
Botswana pula
Australian dollar
Chinese yuan
Indian rupee
and
Japanese yen
have been used as legal tenders.
Citations
edit
"Zimbabwe"
The Beaver County Times
. 13 September 1981
. Retrieved
2 November
2011
"The World Factbook – Zimbabwe"
. Central Intelligence Agency. 2 December 2021. Archived from
the original
on 12 January 2026.
"Constitution of Zimbabwe (final draft)"
(PDF)
. Government of Zimbabwe. January 2013. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 2 October 2013 – via Kubatana.net.
"Zimbabwe 2022 Population and Housing Census Report, vol. 1"
(PDF)
ZimStat
. Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. p. 122. Archived from
the original
(PDF)
on 1 October 2024.
"Inter Censal Demography Survey 2017 Report"
(PDF)
. Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency. 2017.
"Developments in English"
International Association of University Professors of English Conference
. Cambridge University Press. 31 October 2014.
ISBN
9781107038509
– via Google Books.
"Zimbabwe Population Live"
"2022 Population and Housing Census - Preliminary Report - Zimbabwe Data Portal"
zimbabwe.opendataforafrica.org
. Retrieved
9 August
2023
"World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025"
Archived
from the original on 28 April 2025
. Retrieved
25 July
2025
Cite error: The named reference
was invoked but never defined (see the
help page
).
"GINI Index"
"Human Development Report 2025"
(PDF)
United Nations Development Programme
. 6 May 2025.
Archived
(PDF)
from the original on 6 May 2025
. Retrieved
6 May
2025
"Zimbabwe introduces new currency as depreciation and rising inflation stoke economic turmoil"
Associated Press News
. 5 April 2024.
"Zimbabwe adopts new inflation rate based on U.S. dollar, local currency"
Reuters
. Harare. 3 March 2023
. Retrieved
25 March
2023
"Zimbabwe Time"
Greenwich Mean Time
. Greenwich 2000. Archived from
the original
on 19 July 2011
. Retrieved
17 November
2017
"Zimbabwe Population (2025)"
Worldometer
. Retrieved
10 January
2026
Pikirayi, Innocent (2020),
"Great Zimbabwe, 1100–1600 AD, Rise, Development, and Demise of"
, in Smith, Claire (ed.),
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This article incorporates text from a
free content
work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO. Text taken from
UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030
, UNESCO.
Further reading
edit
Burke, Jason (10 August 2019).
'Hungry kids collapse as looters take millions': life in today's Zimbabwe"
The Guardian
Barclay, Philip (2010),
Zimbabwe: Years of Hope and Despair
Bourne, Richard.
Catastrophe: What Went Wrong in Zimbabwe?
(2011); 302 pages.
McGregor, JoAnn; Primorac, Ranka, eds. (2010),
Zimbabwe's New Diaspora: Displacement and the Cultural Politics of Survival
Berghahn Books
, 286 pages. Scholarly essays on displacement as a result of Zimbabwe's continuing crisis, with a focus on diasporic communities in Britain and South Africa; also explores such topics as the revival of Rhodesian discourse.
Meredith, Martin
Mugabe: Power, Plunder, and the Struggle for Zimbabwe's Future
(2007)
excerpt and text search
Orner, Peter
; Holmes, Annie (2011),
Hope Deferred: Narratives of Zimbabwean Lives
, Voice of witness
Smith, Ian Douglas.
Bitter Harvest: Zimbabwe and the Aftermath of its Independence
(2008)
excerpt and text search
David Coltart. The struggle continues: 50 Years of Tyranny in Zimbabwe. Jacana Media (Pty) Ltd: South Africa, 2016.
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13
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15
1924–1964
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12
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1923–1965 and 1979–1980
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1922–1961
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12
Now
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13
League of Nations mandate
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14
Self-governing
Southern Rhodesia
unilaterally declared independence
in 1965 (as
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state until the 1979
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. After recognised independence in 1980, Zimbabwe was a member of the Commonwealth until it withdrew in 2003.
15
Now
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26
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19
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18
Now
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26
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1888–1901
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1889–1948
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22
1892–1979
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20
1900–1974
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20
Now part of the
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21
Now
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22
Now
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23
since 1658
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23
since 1815
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23
since 1816
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24
since 1908
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25
since 1908
Occupied by Argentina during the
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of April–June 1982.
23
Since 2009 part of
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24
Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1962; overlaps portions of Argentine and Chilean claims, borders not enforced but claim not renounced under the
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25
Claimed in 1908; territory formed 1985
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