Xia Dynasty

Overview

The Xia Dynasty is traditionally regarded as China's first dynasty, marking the transition from prehistoric to ancient Chinese civilization. According to traditional historiography, it succeeded the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors period and preceded the Shang Dynasty. While its existence was long debated due to limited archaeological evidence, recent discoveries have provided substantial support for its historical reality. The Xia period represents a crucial stage in Chinese political development, characterized by the emergence of hereditary monarchy, the development of early state institutions, and significant cultural achievements.

History

Xia Clan Origins

According to historical records, before the establishment of the Xia clan, frequent wars occurred between the Xia tribe and surrounding tribes for leadership of the alliance. The Xia tribe gradually emerged after the legendary period of Emperor Zhuanxu. Many ancient texts trace the Xia clan back to Zhuanxu. The Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji) and the Record of Rites (Liji) identify Gun as the son of Zhuanxu, creating a lineage: Huang Di's second son was Changyi, who fathered Zhuanxu, whose son was Gun, whose son was Yu (Yu the Great), father of Qi (the first ruler of Xia). However, the Book of Han presents a different genealogy, stating that Gun was the fifth-generation descendant of Zhuanxu.

Regardless of the exact lineage, these accounts suggest that the Xia tribe was likely a branch of the Zhuanxu tribe, formed through intermarriage between the Zhuanxu Gaoyang clan (descendants of the Yellow Emperor) and a branch of the Gonggong clan (descendants of the Flame Emperor). The Xia tribe initially inhabited the middle and lower reaches of the Wei River before migrating east to the Jinan and Yiluo river valleys in western Henan. The Xia territory roughly corresponded to present-day central and western Henan to southern Shanxi. They revered Gun and Yu as ancestral deities.

Gun and Yu's Flood Control

The earliest documented member of the Xia clan was Gun. According to the Discourses of the States, Gun, as leader of the Xia tribe, was enfeoffed at Chong, hence known as "Marquis of Chong Gun." Gun was the leader of the Youchong tribe in the Song Mountains south of the Yellow River. The Youchong tribe, along with the Gonggong tribe north of the Yellow River, were tribes rich in flood control experience.

During the reigns of Emperors Yao and Shun, to compete for power, Gun and Gonggong successively launched fierce struggles against Yao and Shun but both failed. Yu then succeeded Gun as "Marquis of Chong Yu." This indicates that the Xia people were active in the Song Mountains area, making the Central Plains the birthplace of the Xia tribe. At that time, the Yellow River flooded, and many tribes formed alliances to resist the floods. Gun was selected by the Four Mountains to lead flood control efforts, which lasted nine years and ultimately failed. The failure may have been due to his inability to unite his own tribes and others. The Book of Documents records that Yao initially opposed Gun's leadership because he "violated orders and destroyed the clans," indicating that many tribes were dissatisfied with Gun's approach.

The Book of Documents and the Discourses of the States mention that Gun "dammed the floods." According to mythological records in ancient texts like the Classic of Mountains and Seas, Gun's flood control method mainly involved using earth and wood to block the waters, which may have been one reason for his nine-year failure. After his failure, Gun was executed at Yushan on the shores of the Yellow Sea.

Yu was Gun's son. After Gun's death, Yu was commissioned to lead flood control efforts, uniting the Gonggong tribe and numerous other tribes in the Yi, Luo, Yellow, and Ji river areas. Learning from Gun's failure, Yu adopted a dredging approach: "following the high and low points, dredging rivers and guiding stagnation, channeling water to enrich resources, establishing the Nine Mountains, opening the Nine Rivers, damming the Nine Marshes, enriching the Nine Marshlands, crossing the Nine Plains, settling in the Nine Valleys, and connecting to the Four Seas." Yu's flood control not only solved the flood disaster but also laid a solid foundation for ancient agricultural development. By providing fertile land, promoting farmland water conservancy projects, improving agricultural tools and techniques, and optimizing crop cultivation, Yu's flood control had a profound impact on later agricultural development and farming civilization.

Conquest of the Sanmiao

After successfully controlling the floods, Emperor Shun sent Yu to conquer the Sanmiao tribe. Yu repeatedly defeated the Sanmiao, driving them to the Dan River and Han River basins, thereby consolidating his power. The Mozi records that after conquering the Sanmiao, Yu "distinguished between high and low, established great order, and the spirits and people did not disobey; thus the world was peaceful." This indicates that after the victories in flood control and conquering the Sanmiao, the Xia tribe had become the leader of the tribal alliance.

Dynasty Establishment

According to tradition, during the time of Yao, Shun, and Yu, the tribal alliance used the "abdication" system to "select the worthy and capable" for leadership. When Yao grew old, he abdicated the throne to the worthy and capable Shun. Shun then abdicated to Yu. Yu convened a tribal alliance meeting at Tushan to again attack the Sanmiao. The Zuo Zhuan records that "ten thousand states holding jade and silk" attended the Tushan meeting, demonstrating the Xia tribe's influence.

Yu once recommended Gao Tao, a respected leader of the Yan clan in the east, as his successor to show respect for the traditional abdication system. However, Gao Tao died before abdication. Yu then named Boyi, leader of the Eastern Yi, as his successor.

After Yu's death, Boyi (also called Yi, with some scholars believing Boyi and Yi were two different people of the same era) held a three-year mourning ceremony for Yu according to tribal alliance traditions. After the mourning period, Boyi did not gain power, while Qi received the throne with popular support.

Accounts of this history vary: the ancient Bamboo Annals states that "after Yi ascended the throne, Qi killed Yi and seized power." Another account says "after Yi succeeded to the throne, some tribes did not submit to him but supported Qi and launched war against Yi's tribe. Finally, Qi won and seized power. Then Yi led the Eastern Yi alliance to attack Qi. After several years of struggle, Qi established his position as leader of the tribal alliance." The common view is that the "public world" became the "family world," replacing the abdication system with hereditary succession. This marked the replacement of primitive society with a society of private property, which can be considered a historical progress. However, the establishment of a new system inevitably faced opposition. Subsequently, many tribes inclined toward the abdication tradition questioned Qi's authority. Youhuishi, a tribe outside Qi's capital, rose up in support, leading their alliance to attack Qi's capital. They fought a major battle at Gan. Before the battle, Qi claimed his authority was "heaven-mandated," which later became the prototype for the Zhou dynasty's theory of the Mandate of Heaven. With the support of the Central Plains people, Qi had an overwhelming numerical advantage and finally defeated Youhuishi, punishing them by making them herders. This victory indicated that mainstream social concepts in the Central Plains had shifted from the primitive abdication system to the hereditary system.

The Xia clan originally bore the surname Si, but from Qi onward, they used the state name "Xia" as their surname. At the same time, Qi stopped using the title "Bo" and adopted "Hou" (meaning "lord"), becoming "Xia Hou Qi." Qi was skilled in singing and dancing and often held grand feasts. The largest was held at Jun Terrace, known as the "Feast at Jun Terrace." He also performed dances at "Tianmu's Field." The Classic of Mountains and Seas records that during his dances, Qi "held a canopy in his left hand and rings in his right hand, wearing jade pendants." Some legends even claim that Qi went to heaven to obtain music and dance. The ancient Chinese musical documents Nine Arguments, Nine Songs, and Nine Melodies all credit Qi as their original author.

During Qi's reign, his son Wuguan frequently rebelled. The Han Feizi describes him as "harming the state, injuring the people, and undermining the law," and he was eventually executed. In addition to internal disputes within the Xia clan, they often fought with the Eastern Yi for dominance of the tribal alliance.

Tai Kang Losing the Throne

After Qi's death, his son Tai Kang succeeded to the throne. Tai Kang indulged in pleasure and hunting, neglecting state affairs. During his reign, the Xia tribe's authority weakened, and the Eastern Qiong tribe took the opportunity to advance westward. The Eastern Yi tribe had a skilled archer leader named Yi (the same Hou Yi from mythology). Yi led his army from Qiu in Eastern Yi territory to Qiangshi in Xia territory, intermarried with local Xia people, and formed the Qiong tribe. With the support of the Xia people, Yi seized Xia political power. Tai Kang fled to Zhenxun's Zhenxun clan.

After seizing power, Yi did not declare himself king but installed Tai Kang's brother Zhong Kang as king. However, Yi actually governed all state affairs. This action caused dissatisfaction among many tribes. Among them, the He and Xi clans, who observed celestial phenomena, openly opposed Yi. Yi accused them of "wasting time and confusing the calendar" and sent Yin to attack the He and Xi clans, winning the battle after delivering an oath speech known as the "Oath of Yin."

After Zhong Kang's death, his son Xiang succeeded him. Xiang then fled to Zhenxun and Zhen Guan, both clans with the same surname as Xia. From then on, Yi ruled alone. Yi loved hunting and was poor at governance. After gaining power, like Tai Kang, he neglected state affairs for hunting. He dismissed loyal ministers such as Wu Luo, Kun, and Long Yu, and favored Chun, an unfilial son who had been expelled from the Ming clan. Chun had been driven from the state of Bo Ming in his youth for spreading rumors and deceiving the people but was later adopted by Yi, leader of the Qiong tribe, and became a trusted member of the Qiong tribe. Chun's power grew, and later, while Yi was out hunting, he killed Yi and his family, seized his power, and took his wife, fathering two sons, Yi and Jiao. Chun gave the state of Ge to his son Yi and the state of Guo to his other son Jiao. At Yi's command, Jiao led troops to successively destroy the pro-Xia Zhen Guan and Zhenxun clans, killing Xiang who was hiding in Zhenxun. Xiang's wife Min was pregnant at the time and escaped through a hole in the wall to her mother's home at the Youreng clan, where she soon gave birth to her posthumous son Shaokang.

Shaokang's Restoration

After growing up, Shaokang became the herdsman for the Youreng clan. When Jiao heard of this, he sent men to pursue Shaokang at Youreng. Shaokang had no choice but to flee to the Youyu clan (descendants of Emperor Shun), where he became the cook. The leader of the Youyu clan, Yu Si, had no sons but two daughters. He married both daughters to Shaokang, gave him one league of land and one troop of followers, and entrusted the city of Lun to Shaokang's management. Shaokang used Lun as a base to organize remaining Xia clan members, establishing official positions and departments. He sent Nü'ai to spy in Jiao's court, preparing to restore the Xia dynasty. At this time, Mi, a remaining minister of the Xia dynasty who was hiding at the Geli clan, learned of Shaokang's plan to regain power. He personally led the remaining people of the Zhen Guan and Zhenxun clans to join forces with Shaokang, jointly defeating Chun. Shaokang was reinstalled as Xia Hou. Shaokang then destroyed Jiao at Guo, and sent his son Zhu to destroy Yi at Ge. Thus, the Eastern Yi Qiong tribe, which had controlled the Central Plains for three generations, four rulers, and nearly a hundred years, was destroyed, ending the forty-year "kingless" period. This later became known as the "Shaokang Restoration."

Through the narrative from Tai Kang losing the throne to Shaokang's restoration, we can see the process of the Xia dynasty pacifying the Central Plains state tribes (especially the Eastern Yi tribe).

Shaokang's son Zhu (also written as "Yu") succeeded him. Understanding the Eastern Yi's dissatisfaction with the Xia court, to strengthen his position in the east, he moved the capital from the original eastern location to Laoliu. He emphasized developing weapons and manufacturing armor. The literature often mentions "Zhu made armor" and "Zhu made spears." He also led troops to attack the Eastern Yi in the eastern regions (southern Shandong, northern Anhui, northern Jiangsu). Legend claims he obtained the auspicious nine-tailed fox. Under Zhu's rule, the Xia dynasty's territory expanded to the shores of the East China Sea (Yellow Sea). During Zhu's reign was the most prosperous period of the Xia dynasty. The Xia people particularly respected Zhu and held a "Report Sacrifice" for him. The Discourses of the States states that "Zhu was one who could follow Yu's path; the Xia Hou clan reported to him," believing that Zhu had fully inherited Yu's cause.

During the reign of Zhu's son Huai, the Eastern Yi tribe and the Xia dynasty began to coexist peacefully. Among them, the nine tribes of Quanyi, Yuyi, Fangyi, Huangyi, Baiyi, Chiyi, Xuanyi, Fengyi, and Yangyi, living in the Huai and Si river basins, usually paid tribute and congratulated the Xia Hou. After Huai's death, his son Mang succeeded him. After Mang's death, his son Xie succeeded him. During this period, the Eastern Yi and Xia people gradually assimilated. During Xie's reign, he began to expand westward. At the same time, he began to grant titles and land to state tribes that submitted to the Xia court. This was the beginning of the feudal system that would develop over centuries. After Xie's death, his son Jiang succeeded him. He frequently led troops to attack the nine western gardens.

Tyrannical Jie and the Dynasty's Fall

After Jiang's death, his brother Jian inherited the throne. Jian died, and his son Jin succeeded him. Jin soon died, and his cousin Jia (son of Jiang) succeeded him. Jia changed the traditional Xia rituals of ancestral worship, beginning to focus on revering the Heavenly Emperor. The Records of the Grand Historian describes Jia as "fond of spirits and ghosts, and given to debauchery." Many state tribes began to grow dissatisfied with the Xia court, but the relationship between the Xia dynasty and the Eastern Yi remained friendly, possibly due to the high degree of assimilation between the Eastern Yi and Xia people.

After Jia's death, his son Gao succeeded him. After Gao's death, his son Fa succeeded him. During this period, the relationship between state tribes and the Xia court deteriorated, and internal clan disputes intensified. From Jia through Gao and Fa, to Jie (also known as Zhui), internal chaos continued.

After Jia's misrule, the Xia dynasty's governance increasingly declined. After Fa's death, his son Zhui (Xia Jie) succeeded him. Jie was skilled in martial arts, "able to fight leopards and wolves with his bare hands and chase four horses on foot." During Jie's reign, the relationship between the Xia court and state tribes had already broken down. Tribes paying tribute to Xia continuously decreased. Consequently, Jie often attacked those disobedient tribes.

Ancient texts describe Jie as greedy for beauty. After defeating a tribe, he would select favored women from that tribe to bring back to the palace as concubines. The state of Youshi (descendants of Emperor Shun) was destroyed because it did not submit to Jie. The Zi surname Shang tribe, active in present-day eastern Henan and southwestern Shandong, was flourishing during this period of Xia chaos. Jie used the Shang tribe's disobedience as a pretext to attack its leader Tang but was defeated. Tang was imprisoned at Xia Tai (also called Jun Tai) but was later released. In addition to the deterioration of external relations, historical texts also mention Jie's improper use of officials within the court.

Jie only cared about his own pleasure and ignored the suffering of the people. Around 1600 BCE, Tang, leader of the Shang tribe, led state tribes to attack Jie. After destroying the pro-Xia tribes Wei, Gu, and Kunwu, Tang confronted Jie hastily. Tang's forces were strong, and Jie could not resist, fleeing while fighting. Eventually, he was defeated at the former site of the Yougong clan. Jie fled to Mingtiao (present-day Anyi, Shanxi), where Tang pursued him and fought another major battle. Jie was defeated again, exiled to Lishan (also called Geshan), where he lived with his concubine Moxi. Finally, he fled to Nanchao Mountain (present-day Chaohu City, Anhui) and died there.

At the Battle of Mingtiao, the Xia court was destroyed. With the support of state tribes, Tang proclaimed himself "King" at Bo. Thus, China's first hereditary regime, the Xia Dynasty, perished after fourteen generations and seventeen rulers, lasting approximately four hundred years. The dynasty fell around 1600 BCE.

Descendants of the Xia People

After the Xia's destruction, the remaining forces mainly stayed in the Central Plains. Jie led some people to migrate south from Lishan to Nanchao. King Tang of Shang, because of the former capital of Emperor Ning, enfeoffed a branch of the Si surname Xia nobility in the state of Qi to continue ancestral worship. The Records of the Grand Historian states that during the Shang dynasty, Xia descendants were "either enfeoffed or extinguished." After King Wu of Zhou destroyed Shang and became king, he enfeoffed Dong Lougong, a descendant of Yu, in Qi, continuing the state of Qi. In the late Spring and Autumn period, Confucius, admiring Xia rituals,特意 visited Qi to investigate. In Yuxing Village, Kuaiji Mountain, Zhejiang Province, descendants of Yu's Si surname have generationally guarded Yu's tomb.

Guo Moruo, Hu Huxuan, and Cheng Jing believed that the Tufang in oracle bone inscriptions was the defeated Xia. According to oracle bone inscriptions, Tufang was a powerful state located northwest of Yin, a long-term target of conquest by King Wu Ding and previous Shang kings. After conquering Tufang, Wu Ding built a large city called "Tang" in its heartland "Tangtu" to suppress and control the Tufang people. After that, there were no more records of Tufang rebellions. In the early Zhou dynasty, King Cheng enfeoffed Tang Shuyu, the first ruler of the state of Jin, in this area.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

The Xia Dynasty holds immense cultural significance in Chinese historiography and national identity. Despite limited direct archaeological evidence, it represents the transition from prehistoric tribal societies to organized states with hereditary rule. The story of Yu the Great controlling the floods has become a foundational myth in Chinese culture, symbolizing human triumph over nature and the virtues of perseverance and self-sacrifice.

The Xia period witnessed significant cultural developments, including the emergence of early bronze technology, the development of complex social organization, and possibly the precursors of Chinese writing. The dynasty's political structure, particularly the transition from abdication to hereditary succession, established a model that would influence Chinese political thought for millennia.

In Chinese historiography, the Xia represents the beginning of "civilized" Chinese society, contrasting with the "primitive" era before it. This narrative has been central to Chinese conceptions of their own history and cultural development. The story of the virtuous founders (Yu, Qi) and the corrupt final ruler (Jie) established a pattern of historical interpretation that would influence later dynastic histories.

Modern Status

The historical existence of the Xia Dynasty has been debated among scholars for decades. Traditional Chinese historiography, based on later texts like the Records of the Grand Historian, accepted the Xia as China's first dynasty. However, in the early 20th century, Western and Chinese scholars began questioning this due to a lack of contemporary evidence.

Archaeological discoveries since the mid-20th century have provided substantial support for the Xia's historical reality. The Erlitou site in Henan, dating to the early Bronze Age, has been proposed by many Chinese archaeologists as the capital of the Xia Dynasty. The site features large palaces, bronze workshops, and early bronze casting technology, consistent with descriptions of Xia culture in later texts.

However, some scholars remain cautious about definitively identifying Erlitou as Xia, arguing that the archaeological evidence alone cannot confirm the connection to the dynasty described in later texts. This debate continues, with many Chinese scholars accepting the Xia as historical while some Western scholars remain skeptical.

Recent archaeological discoveries, including the discovery of possible early writing at Erlitou and other sites, have added new dimensions to the discussion. The Xia Dynasty continues to be a subject of active research, bridging the gap between legend and history in early China.

References

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3. Bagley, Robert W., ed. Ancient Sichuan: Treasures from a Lost Civilization. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.
4. Liu, Li and Xingcan Chen. The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
5. Chang, Kwang-chih. Ancient China. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1983.