Zhang Qian's Embassy to the Western Regions

Overview

Zhang Qian's Embassy to the Western Regions refers to the diplomatic missions undertaken by the Chinese explorer and diplomat Zhang Qian during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Western Han Dynasty (206 BCE-9 CE). These missions, particularly the two major expeditions in 138 BCE and 119 BCE, opened up formal relations between Han China and the various states of Central Asia, laying the foundation for what would later be known as the Silk Road. Despite failing in their primary objective of forming an alliance with the Yuezhi against the Xiongnu, Zhang Qian's journeys had far-reaching consequences, facilitating cultural exchange, trade, and the expansion of Chinese political and economic influence across Eurasia.

History

Historical Background

Location of the Western Regions

The term "Western Regions" (Xiyu) first appeared in the "Treatise on the Western Regions" chapter of the Book of Han. During the Western Han Dynasty, the narrow definition of the Western Regions referred to the area west of the Yumen and Yangguan passes (west of modern Dunhuang in Gansu), east of the Congling Mountains (Pamir Plateau), north of the Kunlun Mountains, and south of Lake Balkhash—essentially the territory of the Western Regions Protectorate, corresponding to modern Xinjiang. The broader definition included Central Asia west of the Congling Mountains, as well as West Asia, India, the Caucasus, and the Black Sea coast, encompassing present-day Afghanistan, Iran, Uzbekistan, the Mediterranean coast, and even extending to Eastern and Southern Europe.

The Western Regions were divided into northern and southern parts by the Tianshan Mountains, with most people living around the Tarim Basin. In the early Western Han period, there were "Thirty-Six States": along the southern edge were Loulan (Shanshan, near Lop Nur), Ruoqiang, Qiemo, Yutian (modern Hotan), Shache, and others, collectively known as the "Southern Route States"; along the northern edge were Gushi (later divided into Former and Later Jushi, in modern Turpan), Yuli, Yanqi, Qiuci (modern Kuqa), Wensu, Gumuo (modern Aksu), Shule (modern Kashgar), and others, collectively known as the "Northern Route States." Additionally, there were states such as Former and Later Pule and East and West Qimi north of the Tianshan Mountains. These states were small, mostly desert oases, with some valleys or basins.

The population was small, generally 20,000-30,000 people, with Qiuci being the largest at 80,000 and some states having only 1,000-2,000 people. The residents engaged in agriculture and animal husbandry. In addition to producing grains, some places like Qiemo were abundant in fruits such as grapes and the best forage crop, alfalfa. Animal husbandry included donkeys, horses, and camels. Additionally, there were jade, copper, iron, and other mineral resources, with some residents already skilled in casting weapons from copper and iron. Although the states north and south of the Tianshan Mountains were small, most had cities and towns. Below the kings, they had official positions and large armies relative to their population. Before the second century BCE, before Zhang Qian's embassy, the Xiongnu nobility extended their influence to the Western Regions, establishing positions like the "Tongpu Duwei" in states like Yanqi and imposing heavy taxes on these small states, "taxing the various states, taking livestock and provisions" [2], enslaving and exploiting them.

Early Han Situation

Emperor Wu of Han was a remarkable figure in Chinese history known for his grand vision and strategic capabilities. When he ascended the throne in the first year of Jianyuan (140 BCE), the Han Dynasty had already been established for over sixty years. Through the policies of several early emperors, particularly during the "Reigns of Wen and Jing," which emphasized light corvée taxes and "resting with the people," political unity and centralization were strengthened, the social economy recovered and developed, entering a prosperous era with considerable national strength. According to historical records, the government's granaries were full, and treasuries had surplus wealth. In the private sector, "except in times of flood or drought, the people were self-sufficient," to the extent that "horses filled the streets and alleys, forming herds on the paths; those riding mares were excluded from gatherings, and gatekeepers ate fine grain and meat." Emperor Wu,凭借 this material and financial strength, promptly made countering Xiongnu incursions and fundamentally eliminating the threat from the north a historical priority. It was precisely these historical conditions that enabled talented individuals like Zhang Qian to realize their grand ambitions and achieve great deeds.

Han-Xiongnu Relations

When the Western Han Dynasty was established, it faced a threat from a powerful nomadic people to the north. This people was initially known by various names in classical texts such as "Xunyu," "Xianyun," "Yanyun," "Hunyu," and "Gongnu," later collectively called the "Xiongnu." After the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, the Xiongnu crossed the threshold of class society, with various parts forming small slave-owning states, their rulers called "chanyu." During the Chu-Han Contention, the chanyu Modu expanded his power successively, conquering surrounding tribes, defeating the Yuezhi, and controlling vast areas of northeastern, northern, and western China, establishing a unified slave-owning regime and a powerful military machine. The Xiongnu slave-owning aristocracy frequently led fierce cavalry to invade Han territory, harassing and looting residents of the Central Plains. In the seventh year of Emperor Gaozu's reign (200 BCE), Modu Chanyu led cavalry to besiege Jinyang (modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). Liu Bang personally led 320,000 troops to fight, attempting to defeat the Xiongnu main force in one battle. However, Liu Bang was besieged by Modu at Baideng (east of modern Datong, Shanxi) for seven days without food, and had to use Chen Ping's "clever plan," secretly bribing Modu's wife, the Yanzhi, to finally break the siege. From then on, Liu Bang dared not use military force in the north. Subsequent emperors Hui, Lü, and those of the Wen and Jing eras, considering insufficient material and financial resources, had no choice but to adopt policies of "heqin" (marriage alliances), gifts, and passive defense toward the Xiongnu. Nevertheless, the Xiongnu aristocracy continued to raid the borders. During Emperor Wen's time, Xiongnu cavalry even advanced to Ganquan, approaching Chang'an, seriously threatening the security of the Western Han Dynasty.

Zhang Qian's First Expedition

In the third year of Jianyuan (138 BCE) [1], Zhang Qian was ordered to lead a group of over 100 people starting from Longxi (modern Lintao, Gansu). A surrendered "Hu" man and the slave of Tangyi's family, Tangyi Fu, volunteered to serve as Zhang Qian's guide and interpreter. They traveled west into the Hexi Corridor. After the Yuezhi people migrated west, this region had completely fallen under Xiongnu control. Just as Zhang Qian's group hurried through the Hexi Corridor, they unfortunately encountered Xiongnu cavalry and were all captured. The right-wing kings of the Xiongnu immediately escorted Zhang Qian and others to the Xiongnu court (near modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia) to meet the then military chanyu (son of Lao Shang Chanyu).

When Military Chanyu learned that Zhang Qian intended to visit the Yuezhi, he said to Zhang Qian: "The Yuezhi are to my north; how can the Han reach them? If I wanted to send an envoy to Yue, would the Han allow it?" This meant that from the Xiongnu perspective, they would never allow Han envoys to pass through Xiongnu territory to visit the Yuezhi, just as the Han would not allow Xiongnu envoys to pass through Han territory to visit the southern Yue state. Zhang Qian and his group were detained and placed under house arrest.

The Xiongnu chanyu attempted to soften and win over Zhang Qian, offering various threats and induucements to dissuade him from his mission to the Yuezhi. They even gave him a Xiongnu woman as a wife, with whom he had children. However, none of these measures achieved their goal. He "did not disgrace his lord's command," "held the Han credentials without letting them go," never forgetting the sacred mission entrusted to him by Emperor Wu and never wavering in his determination to establish diplomatic relations with the Yuezhi on behalf of the Han. Zhang Qian and his group remained in Xiongnu territory for ten years, but his determination to complete his mission never wavered. He lived in the western part of Xiongnu territory, waiting for an opportunity.

By the sixth year of Guangyuan (129 BCE), the enemy's surveillance gradually relaxed. One day, taking advantage of the Xiongnu's inattention, Zhang Qian decisively left his wife and children, leading his followers and escaping from the Xiongnu court.

This escape was extremely dangerous and difficult. During the ten years of residence among the Xiongnu, Zhang Qian and his group gained detailed knowledge of the routes to the Western Regions and learned the Xiongnu language. By wearing Hu-style clothing, they were difficult for Xiongnu people to identify. Thus, they relatively smoothly passed through Xiongnu-controlled areas.

However, during their stay with the Xiongnu, the situation in the Western Regions had changed. The Wusun, enemies of the Yuezhi, attacked the Yuezhi under Xiongnu support and instigation. The Yuezhi people were forced to migrate further west from the Ili River Valley to the Gui Shui (Amu Darya) region near the Aral Sea, conquering Daxia and establishing a new homeland. Zhang Qian probably learned of this situation. After passing through Jushi, instead of heading northwest to the Ili River Valley, they turned southwest, entering Yanqi, then traveled west along the Tarim River, passing through Kuqa, Shule, and crossing the Congling Mountains to reach Dayuan (Fergana Valley).

This was an extremely arduous march. On the great Gobi Desert, flying sand and rolling stones, scorching waves; the Congling Mountains were as high as a roof's ridge, with snow and ice, piercing cold winds. Along the way, there were few people and scarce water sources. Coupled with hasty escape and inadequate preparation of supplies, Zhang Qian's group endured hardships. When their dry food ran out, they relied on Tangyi Fu, skilled in archery, to shoot birds and beasts to barely survive. Many followers either died of hunger and thirst along the way or perished in the yellow sand and ice caves, sacrificing their lives.

Upon reaching Dayuan, Zhang Qian explained his mission to the King of Dayuan and described his experiences along the way, hoping that Dayuan would send people to escort them and promising that if he could return to the Han Dynasty, he would definitely report to the Han emperor and reward him generously with many treasures. The King of Dayuan had long heard of the wealth of the eastern Han Dynasty and wished to establish diplomatic relations, but was hindered by Xiongnu obstruction. The unexpected arrival of Han envoys made him very happy. Zhang Qian's words further moved him. So he readily agreed to Zhang Qian's request, warmly entertained them, and sent guides and interpreters to escort Zhang Qian and others to Kangju (in modern Uzbekistan and Tajikistan).

Through Dayuan's introduction and via Kangju (southeastern modern Kazakhstan), they reached Daxia, located in the Amu River Valley. From there, they were sent to the Yuezhi.

Zhang Qian finally found the Yuezhi. More than ten years had passed, and this "nomadic state" had undergone significant changes: first, they were attacked by the Wusun on the banks of the Ili River and migrated further west. The Wusun, with a population of 630,000, was also a "nomadic state" that had once pastured near Dunhuang and had been attacked by the Yuezhi. Later, the Xiongnu supported the Wusun in attacking the Yuezhi, who were forced to move to the Amu River Valley, while the Wusun remained in the Ili River region. Since the Yuezhi arrived at the Amu River, they not only conquered Daxia by force, but also, due to the fertility and richness of their new territory and being far from the Xiongnu and Wusun, the danger of foreign invasion had greatly decreased. They changed their attitude, gradually transitioning from nomadic life to agricultural settlement, with no intention of returning east to fight the Xiongnu again. When Zhang Qian proposed an alliance to them, they had no intention of seeking revenge against the Xiongnu. Moreover, they believed that the Han Dynasty was too far from the Yuezhi, and if they jointly attacked the Xiongnu, they might be unable to help in case of danger. Zhang Qian and his group stayed with the Yuezhi for over a year but never succeeded in persuading them to form an alliance with the Han to attack the Xiongnu. During this period, Zhang Qian had crossed the Gui Shui southward to reach the city of Lanse in Daxia (modern Khwaja Siyah Push in Afghanistan).

After staying with the Yuezhi for over a year without success, Zhang Qian had to depart for home in the first year of Yuanshuo (128 BCE). On the return journey, to avoid Xiongnu-controlled areas, Zhang Qian changed his route. He planned to pass through the Qiang people's region in Qinghai to avoid Xiongnu interception. After crossing the Congling Mountains again, instead of taking the "Northern Route" along the northern edge of the Tarim Basin as before, they took the "Southern Route" along the northern edge of the Kunlun Mountains. From Shache, through Yutian (modern Hotan), Shanshan (modern Ruoqiang), they entered the Qiang region. Unexpectedly, the Qiang had also become vassals of the Xiongnu, and Zhang Qian and his group were captured again by Xiongnu cavalry and detained for over a year.

In early the third year of Yuanshuo (126 BCE), Military Chanyu died, and his younger brother, the Left Valley Chanyu, seized power and attacked Military Chanyu's son, Yudan. Yudan was defeated and fled to the Han. Zhang Qian took advantage of the Xiongnu internal turmoil and escaped back to Chang'an with his Xiongnu wife and Tangyi Fu. This was Zhang Qian's first embassy to the Western Regions. He departed in the third year of Jianyuan (138 BCE) and returned to Han in the third year of Yuanshuo (126 BCE), spanning twelve years [1].

When Zhang Qian set out, he had over 100 people; thirteen years later, only he, Tangyi Fu, and his Xiongnu wife returned. Although this mission did not achieve its original purpose, it provided detailed information about the geography, products, customs, and habits of the Western Regions, offering valuable materials for the Han Dynasty to open transportation routes to Central Asia.

Emperor Wu was very satisfied with the results of Zhang Qian's embassy, specially appointing him as Grand Master for the Imperial Household and granting Tangyi Fu the title "Envoy" to commend their achievements.

After returning, Zhang Qian reported to Emperor Wu about the Western Regions. This was the original source of materials for the "Treatise on the Western Regions" in the Book of Han. Subsequently, as Zhang Qian accompanied Wei Qing on military expeditions and "knew the locations of water and grass, ensuring the army never lacked supplies," he was appointed by Emperor Wu as "Marquis of Bowang" [2].

Zhang Qian's Second Expedition

In the fourth year of Yuanshou (119 BCE), Zhang Qian was sent on a second embassy to the Western Regions. By this time, the Han Dynasty had already controlled the Hexi Corridor and was actively conducting the largest-scale campaign against the Xiongnu during Emperor Wu's reign. In recent years, Emperor Wu had frequently asked Zhang Qian about the situation in Daxia and other regions. Zhang Qian emphasized the specific situation that the Wusun, after moving to the Ili River, had already developed conflicts with the Xiongnu, suggesting that the Wusun be persuaded to return to the Dunhuang area to jointly resist the Xiongnu with the Han. This was the famous strategy of "cutting off the Xiongnu's right arm." At the same time, Zhang Qian also emphasized the need to strengthen friendly relations with the various peoples of the Western Regions. These suggestions were adopted by Emperor Wu.

Zhang Qian led a mission of 300 people, each with two horses, and brought tens of thousands of cattle and sheep, with gold, silk, and goods worth "tens of thousands of huge sums." When they reached the Wusun, they failed to persuade the Wusun king to return east. Zhang Qian then dispatched deputy envoys with credentials to Dayuan, Kangju, Yuezhi, and Daxia. In the second year of Ding (115 BCE), Zhang Qian returned, and the Wusun sent several dozen envoys to accompany him to Chang'an. Subsequently, Han envoys also visited Anxi (Persia), Shendu (India), Yancai (between the Caspian and Aral Seas), Tiaozhi (a vassal state of Anxi), and Lijian (Alexandria in Egypt, affiliated to Daqin/Rome). Chinese envoys received a grand welcome organized by Anxi with 20,000 people. Envoys from Anxi and other countries also came to Chang'an for visits and trade. From then on, traffic and relations between the Han and the Western Regions were established.

In the second year of Ding (115 BCE), after returning to the Han Dynasty, Zhang Qian was appointed as Minister of Protocol and died the following year. After his death, relations between the Han and the Western Regions further developed. In the sixth year of Feng (105 BCE), the Wusun king offered a thousand fine horses as betrothal gifts to seek a marriage alliance with the Han. Emperor Wu married Princess Jiangdu (Xijun) to the Wusun king. After Xijun's death, the Han married Princess Jieyou (granddaughter of King Wu of Chu) to the Wusun king. Jieyou's attendant Feng Li, who was knowledgeable in poetry and affairs, often traveled with the princess's credentials to distribute rewards among the states and was highly respected and trusted, known as Lady Feng. Through her activities, the relationship between the Han and the Wusun was consolidated and developed. In the third year of Shenjue (60 BCE), the Xiongnu internally split, and the Chanyu Rixian Xianzhan surrendered with his people to the Han. The Xiongnu's control over the Western Regions collapsed. Emperor Xuan of Han appointed Zheng Ji as Protector-General of the Western Regions, stationed at Wulei City (east of modern Luntai, Xinjiang). This marked the beginning of the Han Dynasty formally establishing administrative institutions in the vast region east of the Congling Mountains and south of Lake Balkhash.

The exploitation and oppression of the peoples of the Western Regions by Xiongnu slave owners were extremely cruel. The feudal system of the Western Han was much more advanced than the slave system of the Xiongnu. Therefore, the peoples in Xinjiang hoped to escape the oppression of the Xiongnu aristocracy and accept the rule of the Western Han. The Han government stationed permanent officials there, sent soldiers to cultivate land, and established colonels to lead and protect the cultivation areas, making the interaction between the Han people and the various peoples of Xinjiang closer.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

Although initially motivated by military objectives, the opening of the Western Regions had far-reaching impacts beyond the military sphere. From Dunhuang in the Western Han, passing through the Yumen Pass, entering Xinjiang, and then connecting Central and West Asia, an east-west passage reopened without obstruction. This route would later become world-renowned as the "Silk Road." The "Silk Road" connected the Western Han with many Central Asian countries, promoting political, economic, military, and cultural exchange between them. Since the feudal central governments of China historically referred to ethnic minorities in border regions as "Yi," Zhang Qian's embassy to the Western Regions promoted the first cultural integration between Han and Yi peoples.

Western walnuts, grapes, pomegranates, horse beans, alfalfa, and more than ten other plants gradually became cultivated in the Central Plains. The music of Qiuci and instruments like the huqin enriched the cultural life of the Han people. When the Han army cultivated fields in Shanshan and Jushi, they used the underground connected well-digging technique, commonly known as "kariz" (坎儿井), which gradually spread locally. Additionally, the "heavenly horses" from Dayuan were very famous in the Han Dynasty, with "envoys constantly traveling on the roads to seek them." At that time, from Dayuan west to Anxi, silk was not produced, and iron casting techniques were unknown. Later, Han envoys and scattered soldiers brought these technologies there. The westward spread of Chinese silk and iron-smelting techniques greatly contributed to the development of human civilization.

Modern Status

Today, Zhang Qian is remembered as one of China's greatest explorers and diplomats. His journeys represent early examples of intercultural exchange and diplomatic initiative. The Silk Road he helped establish has become a symbol of East-West cultural and economic exchange. Modern Chinese historiography continues to study Zhang Qian's missions as pivotal moments in Chinese history that expanded China's geopolitical influence and facilitated the flow of goods, ideas, and technologies between East and West.

The story of Zhang Qian has become part of Chinese cultural consciousness, inspiring countless poems, paintings, and literary works. His name is associated with courage, perseverance, and diplomatic skill. In modern times, China has invoked Zhang Qian's legacy in its Belt and Initiative, framing contemporary infrastructure projects as a continuation of the ancient Silk Road's legacy of international exchange and cooperation.

References

[1] Sima Qian. Records of the Grand Historian (Shiji). "Biography of the Marquis of Bowang".

[2] Ban Gu. Book of Han (Hanshu). "Treatise on the Western Regions".

[3] Yu, Taishan. (2004). A History of the Relationships between the Western and Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties and the Western Regions. Sichuan People's Publishing House.

[4] Whitfield, Susan. (1999). The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. British Library Publishing.

[5] Hansen, Valerie. (2012). The Silk Road: A New History. Oxford University Press.