Classic of Mountains and Seas

Overview

The Classic of Mountains and Seas (山海经) is an ancient Chinese text that blends geography, mythology, and folklore. Composed over several centuries from the Warring States period to the Han Dynasty, this unique work presents a comprehensive catalog of mountains, rivers, deities, mythical creatures, and foreign lands. Spanning eighteen chapters and approximately 31,000 characters, the text has been studied for centuries as both a geographical reference and a repository of Chinese mythology.

History

The earliest known reference to the Classic of Mountains and Seas appears in Sima Qian's "Records of the Grand Historian" (史记·大宛传). The first explicit attribution of authorship came during the Western Han Dynasty in Liu Xin's (刘秀, also known as Liu歆) "Memorial on the Classic of Mountains and Seas" (上山海经表), in which Liu attributed the work to Yu the Great (大禹) and his minister Boyi (伯益) from ancient times.

According to the "Wu Yue Chun" (吴越春秋), "Yu traveled through the four great rivers, discussed plans with Yi and Kui, and when he reached famous mountains and great lakes, he summoned their spirits and asked them about: the veins and patterns of mountains and rivers, the gold and jade they contained, the birds, beasts, insects, and all kinds of creatures, as well as the peoples of all directions, their different countries, strange territories, and the distances of their lands. He had Yi record this systematically, naming it the 'Classic of Mountains and Seas'."

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, scholars Wang Chong (王充) and Zhao Ye (赵晔) also attributed the work to Boyi, though they acknowledged that it had been modified and expanded by later generations. The Ming Dynasty scholar Hu Yinglin (胡应麟) suggested in his "Shao Shi Shan Fang Bi Cong" (少室山房笔丛) that "men of curious tastes from the Warring States period, based on the text and events of the 'Mu Tianzi Zhuan', extravagantly expanded upon it, mixing in strange accounts from the 'Jizhong' and 'Jinian', peculiar creatures from the 'Zhou Shu' and 'Wang Hui', profound meanings from the 'Li Sao' and 'Tian Wen', and allegories from the 'Nanhua' and 'Zheng Hua Pu', to create this book."

In the Qing Dynasty, Bi Yuan (毕沅) proposed that the Classic of Mountains and Seas was originally created by Yu the Great and Boyi, with the "Classic of Foreign Seas" (海外经) and "Classic of Domestic Seas" (海内经) composed by people of the Qin state, and the "Classic of the Great Wilderness" (大荒经) added during Liu Xin's revision.

In the twentieth century, some scholars suggested that the author was Zou Yan (邹衍) of the Warring States period. This theory, initiated by Liu Shipei (刘师培), was based on his observation in "On the Many Adoptions of Zou Yan's Theories in Western Han's New Text Confucianism" that "the words of the immortality seekers were also most abundant in the state of Qi" and his speculation that the "Yu Ben Ji" (禹本纪), mentioned alongside the Classic of Mountains and Seas in Sima Qian's work, "might also be a book by Zou Yan."

Other scholars have attributed the work to Suichaozi (随巢子), a disciple of Mozi.

Modern scholarly discussions often focus on whether the work originated from northern or southern China. Proponents of the northern theory include those who suggest it was created by people of the Qin state or by people from the central plains around Luoyang. Gu Jiegang (顾颉刚) noted in his "Commentary on the Yu Gong" that "the native place of the 'Yu Gong' author is the same as that of the 'Shan Jing' author, possibly from the state of Qin." Zheng Dekun (郑德坤) and Japanese scholar Takaji Ogawa (小川琢治) argued that the numerous descriptions of central plains' geography and minerals in the Shan Jing indicate it was created by people from the central plains around Luoyang.

Proponents of the southern theory include those who attribute it to the Ba and Shu regions or to the state of Chu. Lü Zifang (吕子方) and Meng Wentong (蒙文通) are representatives of the Ba-Shu theory. Lü Zifang presented evidence from the many accounts of Ba and Shu lands in the "Great Wilderness" and "Domestic Seas" sections to support this theory. Meng Wentong proposed that the four chapters of the "Domestic Seas" were works of ancient Shu, the "Great Wilderness" chapters were works of Ba, and the "Five Mountains Classics" and "Foreign Seas" chapters were works of Chu people who had absorbed Ba-Shu culture.

Representative of the Chu theory is Mr. Yuan Ke (袁珂), who believed that the mythological stories in the text are closely related to Qu Yuan's works such as "Li Sao" (离骚), "Tian Wen" (天问), and "Jiu Ge" (九歌), and that the text frequently employs language unique to the Chu region. For example, the term "bo qin" (播琴) in the "Domestic Seas" chapter, which means "to sow seeds," is a Chu expression, and the phrase "fu zhi shi ren bu yan" (服之使人不厌) in the "Third Western Classic" contains "yan" (厌), which in Sichuan dialect refers to nightmares.

Yuan Ke also noted the numerous accounts of Zhuanxu (颛顼) and Huangdi (黄帝) in the text—17 mentions of Zhuanxu and 14 of Huangdi—suggesting these figures, who were worshipped as ancestors by the Chu people, were particularly important.

Some scholars have proposed a compromise view, suggesting that the Classic of Mountains and Seas was shaped by both northern and southern influences during its composition and transmission. Scholar Xiao Bing wrote that the text's structure is ambiguous with loose sections and mixed prose and poetry, lacking the unified thought, mood, structure, and language style found in Qu Yuan's works. He argued that the inclusion of extensive information from both northern and southern regions makes it unlikely that the text could have been created by people from only one region.

Composition Process

Research on the composition of the Classic of Mountains and Seas has evolved over time. During the 1920s-1970s, scholars proposed various theories about its composition. Lu Kanru (陆侃如) suggested that the eight chapters of the Foreign and Domestic Seas were composed between the "Huainanzi" and Liu Xin's time, the five chapters of the Great Wilderness and Domestic Seas were composed between Liu Xin's time and Guo Pu's time, and the Five Mountains Classics was an earlier work.

Mao Dun believed that the Five Mountains Classics was composed in the Eastern Zhou period, the Foreign and Domestic Seas chapters at the transition between the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, and the five Great Wilderness chapters before the unification of Qin. Wen Yiduo later proposed that the Classic of Mountains and Seas was a Han Dynasty text.

Meng Wentong, in his "Brief Discussion on the Writing Time and Place of the Classic of Mountains and Seas," suggested that the five Great Wilderness chapters were the earliest, composed around the early Western Zhou period, the four Domestic Seas chapters in the mid-Western Zhou, and the Five Mountains Classics and Foreign Seas chapters at the transition between the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods.

Yuan Ke, in his "Research on the Time, Place, and Chapters of the Classic of Mountains and Seas," stated that parts of the five Great Wilderness chapters were composed earliest, around the early or mid-Warring States period, followed by the Five Mountains Classics and Foreign Seas chapters after the mid-Warring States period, and the four Domestic Seas chapters in the early Han Dynasty.

From the 1980s to the present, discussions on the composition of the Classic of Mountains and Seas have become more active with diverse research methods. Gu Jiegang and Tan Qixiang, through comparative research between the "Yu Gong" and the Classic of Mountains and Seas, concluded that the "Yu Gong" was composed earlier. Tan Qixiang further specified that "the specific time of composition of the Classic of Mountains and Seas should be after the unification of the six states by Qin, during the military campaign against the Southern Yue that had not yet been completely conquered."

Ren Naiqiang, in "On the Composition Time and Data Sources of the Classic of Mountains and Seas," through supporting evidence from texts like the "Huainanzi," concluded that "the Shan Jing was composed at the same time as the Huainanzi, in the early years of Emperor Wu of Han. By that time, the Classic of Mountains and Seas already existed, but only as a combination of the Shan Jing and Hai Jing. The five Great Wilderness chapters might have been incorporated into the eight Hai Jing chapters during the reigns of Emperors Xuan, Yuan, and Cheng, around the time after Wang Mang's accession to power but before Liu Xin renamed it."

Zhao Pusan concentrated on organizing the medical knowledge in the Classic of Mountains and Seas. Through comprehensive comparison with Shang dynasty oracle bone inscriptions and early Western Han excavated texts, he inferred that the Classic of Mountains and Seas was composed "at the transition between the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, or even earlier, as a work from the late Spring Autumn period." He further concluded that "the Classic of Mountains and Seas may not necessarily have been written by great theoretical masters of the time, but rather by people who were fascinated by various natural phenomena."

Some scholars主张 that the current structure of the Classic of Mountains and Seas reflects the order of composition. Among these, the view that the Classic of Mountains and Seas was composed during the Yu-Xia periods has gained popularity. Xu Xianzhi, in his "Exploration of the Origins of the Classic of Mountains and Seas," believed that it was initially drafted by Yu and Boyi, completed during the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, and subsequently supplemented during the Han, Wei, and Jin dynasties.

Contemporary scholars generally believe that due to the both unity and diversity within the Classic of Mountains and Seas, it can be inferred that the text originated from oral folk literature that had been passed down from ancient times. People transmitted it orally from generation to generation, with continuous evolution and expansion before finally being committed to writing. The text was composed around the Warring States period but continued to be modified and supplemented by later generations.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

The Classic of Mountains and Seas has been interpreted in various ways throughout Chinese history. From the "Book of Han" to the "New Book of Tang," it was regarded as a practical geographical work. Liu Xin of the Han Dynasty, in his "Memorial on the Classic of Mountains and Seas," stated that "the Classic of Mountains and Seas distinguishes the mountains of the five directions within, and the seas of the eight directions without, recording their precious treasures and strange creatures, what is born in foreign lands, the water, soil, grasses, trees, birds, beasts, insects, qilin, and phoenixes that inhabit them, the auspicious signs hidden within, and beyond the four seas, the countries of extreme territories, and the different kinds of people. Yu divided the nine provinces and assigned tribute according to the land; Boyi classified things as good or evil and wrote the Classic of Mountains and Seas."

The "Bibliographic Treatise of the Book of Han" (汉书·艺文志) classified it under the "Techniques" section as the first work of the Legalists, grouping it with divination and fortune-telling books like "Face Reading" (相人) and "Livestock Reading" (相六畜). The "Bibliographic Treatise of the History of Song" (宋史·艺文志) placed it in the "Five Elements" category.

During the Ming and Qing periods, the Classic of Mountains and Seas received evaluations such as "the ancestor of all strange tales" and "the most ancient novel." Ming scholar Hu Yinglin called it a book specializing in gods and monsters, "the ancient ancestor of strange tales." Qing scholar Ji Yun (纪昀) in the "General Catalog of the Complete Library in Four Sections" (四库全书总目提要) called it "the most ancient novel," stating: "Examining its original purpose, it is not actually a work of Huang-Lao (Daoist) philosophy... Although some consider it the crown of geographical books, this is also inappropriate. To verify and name it properly, it is merely the most ancient of novels."

In the late Qing period, Zhang Zhidong (张之洞) viewed it as a historical work, classifying it under "Ancient History" in his "Bibliographic Answers" (书目答问). Lu Xun, in his "Brief History of Chinese Fiction" (中国小说史略), described the Classic of Mountains and Seas as "recording mountains, rivers, deities, strange creatures, and appropriate sacrifices at home and abroad... The sacrificial objects mentioned mostly use 'xu' (糈), which aligns with shamanic practices, thus it is likely an ancient shamanic book." He also noted that "China's myths and legends have not yet been collected into a specialized book; they are scattered in ancient texts, but the Classic of Mountains and Seas contains particularly many."

In modern and contemporary times, the Classic of Mountains and Seas is viewed differently depending on the researcher's focus and theoretical approach. Its most representative characterization is as an "encyclopedia of the ancient period."

Modern Status

Today, the Classic of Mountains and Seas is studied from multiple academic perspectives. Historians examine it as a source for understanding ancient Chinese geographical knowledge and cosmology. Mythologists analyze its rich collection of myths and legends about deities, mythical creatures, and cultural heroes. Anthropologists and ethnographers study its descriptions of foreign lands, strange peoples, and their customs, providing insights into early Chinese perceptions of the world beyond their borders.

The text has also inspired numerous artistic works, including paintings, novels, films, and video games. Its vivid descriptions of mythical creatures and strange lands continue to capture the imagination of artists and audiences worldwide.

In academic circles, debates continue about the text's origins, composition process, and classification. Some scholars view it primarily as a geographical text, others as a mythological compendium, and still others as a work of early fiction or proto-science. This diversity of interpretations reflects the text's complexity and richness as a cultural artifact.

The Classic of Mountains and Seas remains a valuable resource for understanding ancient Chinese worldview, their relationship with the natural environment, and the development of Chinese mythology and folklore. Its influence extends beyond academic circles into popular culture, where it continues to inspire creative works and shape contemporary understandings of Chinese mythology.

References

1. Birrell, A. (1993). Chinese Mythology: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

2. Lesley, C. (2006). A Chinese Bestiary: Strange Creatures from the Guideways Through Mountains and Seas. Berkeley: University of California Press.

3. Major, J. S., Cook, S., & Goldin, P. R. (2010). Hanzi de shijie: Shanhaijing (The World of the Hanzi: Classic of Mountains and Seas). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuju.

4. Yuan, K. (1985). Myths and Legends of China. Beijing: Foreign Languages Press.

5. Schaberg, D. (2001). A Pattern of Pastimes: The Art and Literature of Leisure in Early China. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.