The Book of History (Shang Shu)

Overview

The Book of History (Shang Shu), also known as The Book of Documents or simply The Book (Shu), is one of the Five Classics of ancient Chinese literature. It is considered China's earliest collection of royal documents and a compilation of historical records and accounts of ancient affairs, particularly preserving important historical materials from the Shang and Zhou dynasties, especially the early Western Zhou period.

The work traditionally attributes its compilation to Confucius, though this attribution has been questioned by modern scholars. The text has experienced a complex transmission history, with multiple versions, forgeries, and recoveries. The current version contains both authentic and spurious sections, making it one of the most challenging texts in the Chinese classical canon.

History

Origins and Early Transmission

The Book of History originated as a collection of documents from the royal archives of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. According to tradition, Confucius (551-479 BCE) compiled and edited these documents, selecting 100 chapters that came to be known as the "Hundred Chapters of the Book of History." However, modern scholarship suggests that the "hundred chapters" concept emerged later and that the original compilation was likely smaller.

During Qin Dynasty's "Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars" campaign (213-210 BCE), most copies of the Book of History were destroyed. This catastrophic event nearly resulted in the complete loss of this important text.

Recovery and Versions

Following the establishment of the Han Dynasty, efforts were made to recover lost texts. The most significant recovery came from Fu Sheng (伏生), a former Qin scholar who had hidden a copy of the Book of History in the wall of his home. Fu Sheng was able to transmit 28 chapters, which became known as the "Old Text" (今文) version because it was written in the clerical script (隶书) of the Han period.

In the early Western Han period, when Prince Gong of Lu (鲁恭王) was expanding his palace, he accidentally discovered additional chapters hidden in the walls of Confucius's former residence. This version, written in the ancient script of the pre-Qin period, contained 16 more chapters than Fu Sheng's version and became known as the "Ancient Text" (古文). However, this version was not widely circulated and was eventually lost during the disturbances of the late Western Han and early Eastern Han periods.

During the Eastern Jin Dynasty, Mei Ze (梅赜) presented a version of the Book of History claiming to be the Ancient Text with additional chapters and commentary by Kong Anguo (孔安国), a descendant of Confucius. This version, known as the "Forged Ancient Text" (伪古文), contained 58 chapters and became the standard version for over a thousand years. It wasn't until the Qing Dynasty that scholars like Yan Ruoqu (阎若璩) and Hui Dong (惠栋) definitively exposed the forgery.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

The Book of History holds a paramount position in Chinese intellectual and political tradition. As one of the Confucian Five Classics, it has profoundly influenced Chinese political thought and governance practices for over two millennia.

Political Philosophy

The text established several key political concepts that became central to Chinese governance:

1. Mandate of Heaven (天命): The concept that rulers derive their authority from heaven and must govern with virtue to maintain this mandate. The text records how virtuous rulers like King Wen of Zhou received the mandate, while tyrannical rulers like Jie of Xia and Zhou of Shang lost it.

2. Virtuous Governance: The Book emphasizes that rulers must govern with virtue, exemplified in the statement "The ruler must be like the North Star, which remains in its place while all other stars revolve around it" (from the "Hong Fan" chapter).

3. Legal Thought: The text contains early discussions of law and punishment, particularly in the "Yu Gong" and "Lü Xing" chapters, advocating for balanced and just application of punishments.

Educational Influence

The Book of History has been a core text in Chinese education for centuries. It was used to train officials in the imperial examination system, emphasizing moral cultivation, historical awareness, and understanding of proper governance.

"The Book of History teaches the ways of ancient kings. By studying it, one understands the principles of governance and the importance of virtue in rulership." — Han Dynasty scholar Dong Zhongshu

Literary Value

Despite its historical and philosophical importance, the Book of History is also significant for its literary style. The text features diverse forms of ancient Chinese prose, including:

• Dian (典): Records of important historical events or specialized topics
• Mo (谟): Records of deliberations between rulers and ministers
• Xun (训): Instructions from ministers to rulers
• Gao (诰): Proclamations and admonitions
• Shi (誓): Oaths and military declarations
• Ming (命): Royal decrees and commands

The text is known for its archaic and difficult language, with some passages being particularly obscure, as noted in the traditional description "The Zhou proclamations and Shang inscriptions are so convoluted and difficult to read" (周诰殷盘，诘屈聱牙).

Modern Status

Scholarship and Textual Criticism

Modern scholarship on the Book of History has focused on:

1. Textual Criticism: Distinguishing between authentic and spurious sections, particularly identifying the 25 forged chapters in the Forged Ancient Text.

2. Historical Research: Evaluating the historical reliability of the text's accounts of early Chinese history.

3. Philological Studies: Analyzing the text's language, grammar, and relationship to other classical texts.

Recent archaeological discoveries, particularly bamboo and silk manuscripts from tombs like those at Mawangdui and Guodian, have provided additional versions and fragments that help scholars better understand the text's evolution.

Contemporary Relevance

The Book of History continues to be studied in China and internationally for its insights into:

• Early Chinese political thought
• The development of Chinese historiography
• Confucian political philosophy
• Ancient Chinese administrative practices

The text's emphasis on good governance, moral leadership, and the relationship between rulers and ruled remains relevant in contemporary political discourse.

Academic Editions and Translations

Several scholarly editions and translations of the Book of History are available in various languages:

• James Legge's translation (The Chinese Classics, Vol. III, 1865)
• Karlgren's translation (1950)
• Modern Chinese critical editions by scholars like Yu Ningyong
• Recent English translations by scholars like Edward L. Shaughnessy

References

1. Shaughnessy, Edward L. Before Confucius: The Ancient Genesis of the Chinese Classics. University of Minnesota Press, 1997.

2. Puett, Michael J. To Become a God: Cosmology, Sacrifice, and Self-Divinization in Early China. Harvard University Asia Center, 2002.

3. Kern, Martin. The Stele Inscriptions of Ch'in Shih-huang: Text and Ritual in Early Chinese Imperial Representation. Yale University Press, 2000.

4. Nylan, Michael. The Five Confucian Classics. Yale University Press, 2001.

5. Poo, Mu-chou. In Search of Personal Welfare: A View of Ancient Chinese Religion. State University of New York Press, 1998.