Yama-raja

Overview

Yama-raja (阎罗王), commonly known as King Yama or simply Yan Wang (阎王), is the ruler of the underworld in Buddhist and Taoist cosmology. Originally derived from the Hindu deity Yama, the figure evolved significantly within Chinese religious traditions, becoming a central figure in the Chinese underworld bureaucracy. Yama-raja presides over judgment of the dead, determining their fate based on their actions during their mortal life. The concept of Yama-raja represents the Chinese understanding of death, judgment, and the afterlife, incorporating elements from Buddhism, Taoism, and indigenous Chinese beliefs.

History

The origins of Yama-raja can be traced to the Hindu deity Yama, who was incorporated into Buddhist cosmology as the king of hell. In Buddhist texts, the Long Āgama Sutra (《长阿含经》) describes a cosmic structure where "a thousand Yama kings" exist within the Buddhist universe:

"Like one sun and moon circling the four continents, illuminating all they encounter, thus a thousand worlds have a thousand suns and moons, a thousand Mount Sumeru kings, four thousand continents, four thousand great continents, four thousand seas, four thousand great seas, four thousand dragons, four thousand great dragons, four thousand Garudas, four thousand great Garudas, four thousand evil paths, four thousand great evil paths, four thousand kings, four thousand great kings, seven thousand great trees, eight thousand great hells, ten thousand great mountains, a thousand Yama kings, a thousand Four Heavenly Kings, a thousand Trayatrimsha heavens, a thousand Yama heavens, a thousand Tushita heavens, a thousand Nirmanakaya heavens, a thousand ParanirmitaVaśavartin heavens, and a thousand Brahma heavens. This is called a small thousand worlds. As many small thousand thousands of worlds as this is called a medium thousand worlds. As many medium thousand thousands of worlds as this is called the great thousand worlds. Thus worlds successively arise and perish, and the dwelling places of living beings are called one Buddha-land."

As Buddhism spread to China, Yama underwent significant syncretism with native Chinese beliefs. The Fayuan Zhulin (《法苑珠林》) cites the Questions on Hell Sutra (《问地狱经》) and the Pure Samadhi Sutra (《净度三昧经") to explain the origin of Yama-raja:

"The King Yama was formerly the King of Vaisali. He fought with King Vidarbha and, being unable to match his forces, vowed to become the lord of hell. His eighteen ministers, leading a million followers with horns on their heads, all resentfully vowed together: 'We shall assist in governing these sinners.' The King of Vaisali is now King Yama. The eighteen ministers are now the various lesser kings. The million followers are the various Yama officials."

Over time, Yama-raja became increasingly humanized in Chinese tradition, with historical figures often being identified with or replacing the original deity. The most notable example is Bao Zheng (包拯), the famous Song dynasty judge, who was posthumously deified as Yama-raja due to his reputation for justice.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

Yama-raja holds significant cultural importance in Chinese folk religion, literature, and art. The figure represents the Chinese understanding of divine justice and the consequences of one's actions after death. Several historical accounts and literary works reference encounters with Yama-raja:

The Book of Sui (《隋书") contains an account of Han Qinhu (韩擒虎), a Sui dynasty general:

"Han Qinhu, courtesy name Zitong, was from Yutuan in Henan and later moved to Xin'an. He was appointed as the governor of Liangzhou. Soon after, he was recalled to the capital, where the emperor hosted a banquet for him in the inner palace, showing exceptional favor. Not long after, his neighbor's mother saw a grand procession with the dignity of kings before Qinhu's gate. She asked in astonishment, and one of the attendants said: 'I am here to welcome the king.' Suddenly, he disappeared. Another person who was gravely ill suddenly ran to Qinhu's house and said: 'I wish to pay my respects to the king.' When asked what king he meant, he replied: 'King Yama.' Qinhu's sons wanted to beat him, but Qinhu stopped them, saying: 'To be a Grand Pillar of the State in life and King Yama in death is sufficient.' He then fell ill for several days and died."

Similarly, the Zhong Wu Ji Wen (《中吴纪闻") records a dream about the famous Song dynasty official Fan Zhongyan (范仲淹):

"My grandfather passed away, and on the thirty-fifth day after his death, my grandmother dreamed that he returned home. She urgently ordered that his official robes be taken from the chest and that he put on new ones. When asked why, he replied: 'Tomorrow I shall meet with Mr. Fan Wenzhong, and my attire must be proper.' When asked why Mr. Fan was still in the underworld, he said: 'Mr. Fan was originally a heavenly being, now holding the power over life and death.' Upon waking, she recalled Buddhist texts saying that on the thirty-fifth day after death, one meets King Yama. Could it be that Mr. Fan, being so intelligent and upright, serves in this capacity?"

Modern Status

In contemporary Chinese culture, Yama-raja remains a prominent figure in folk religion, literature, and popular media. The deity is particularly associated with justice and is often conflated with the historical figure Bao Zheng, whose image as a just judge has been immortalized in countless operas, television shows, and films.

The worship of Yama-raja is most evident in temples dedicated to the Ten Kings of Hell (十王殿), found throughout China. These temples typically feature statues or paintings of Yama-raja and his subordinate judges, often depicting scenes of judgment and various hells. The New City God Temple in Chengdu, Sichuan, is particularly notable for its Ten Kings Hall, which houses statues of the ten kings along with scenes from operas like Mu Lian Rescues His Mother (目连救母) and Thunder Punishes Zhang Jibao (雷打张继宝).

Yama-raja also appears in various cultural expressions, including:

• Opera: The Beijing opera Exploring the Underworld (《探阴山》) features Bao Zheng traveling to the underworld to investigate a case, encountering King Yama and his judges.
• Literature: References to Yama appear in classical and modern Chinese literature, often in the context of death and judgment. A famous proverb from Dream of the Red Chamber states: "If King Yama decrees your death at the third watch, he will not let you live until the fifth watch" (阎王要你三更死，不会留你到五更), emphasizing the inevitability of death.
• Visual Arts: Depictions of Yama-raja appear in temple murals, such as those in Zhangzhonggou Cave Temple in Gansu province, which shows Yama wearing a square crown, with a fierce expression, holding scrolls.

References

1. Buswell, Jr., Robert E. The Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference USA, 2004.
2. Cohen, Paul A. Discovering History in China: American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past. Columbia University Press, 2010.
3. Kleeman, Terry F. Great Perfection: Religion and Ethnicity in a Chinese Millennial Kingdom. University of Hawaii Press, 1998.
4. Overmyer, Daniel L. Folk Buddhist Religion: Dissenting Sects in Late Traditional China. Harvard University Asia Center, 2003.
5. Teiser, Stephen F. The Ghost Festival in Medieval China. Princeton University Press, 1994.